Analysis and Design of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge

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ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FOUR LANES STEEL TRUSS HIGHWAY BRIDGE
Thesis · May 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20900.58246
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Al-Mansour University College
Civil Engineering Department
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF

FOUR LANES STEEL TRUSS
HIGHWAY BRIDGE
A Final Year Project Submitted to the Department of Civil
Engineering at Al-Mansour University College in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of BS.C in Civil
Engineering.
By
1. Mays Rabeaa Abdalghani
2. Sama Sabah SalahAldeen
3.Aymen Faiz
4.Ahmed Mohammed
Supervised by
Dr. Ola Adel Qasim
A.D 2016 A.H 1437
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Steel truss bridges are modern Design Bridge. The primary forces in its
members are axial forces.
 There are many types of steel truss bridges such as sub divided truss, cantilever
truss bridge; continuous bridge truss, arch bridge, etc…
 Trusses are further classified as deck, through or half through trusses where:
 Deck trusses: locate the deck near the top chord so those vehicles are carried
above the chord.
 Through trusses, place the deck near the bottom chord so that vehicle passes
between the trusses.
 Half through trusses carry the deck so high above the bottom chord that lateral
and sway bracing cannot be placed between the bottom chords.
 Various types of trusses are used in bridge building. Most of these trusses are
either Pratt or Warren trusses with some modifications.
 Although trusses are usually used in highway bridges only for long span and
(in the case of through bridges) safety with high- speed traffic and not critical.
 Generally, truss bridges are economical for spans greater than 100 ft and are
suitable for the span range of 130 to 1230 ft.
 The depth of a simple- span bridge trusses usually ranges from about one fifth
to one eighth the span, shorter spans being relatively deeper (AASHTO
specifications set a minimum of one tenths for this ratio).
 The depth span ratio is also somewhat dependent upon the life loads.
 Trusses of economical proportion usually result if the angle between diagonals
and vertical ranges from 45o to 60o.
This research specifies the design of through steel truss bridge using AASHTO
specifications. This project has four lanes through truss bridge and designed of span
Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge I

Abstract
210 ft, 62 ft, width and 40 ft truss high. A comparisons were made by staad pro
program which show very close design section results compare to our design section.
Methods and requirements for determining the magnitude and application of

individual loads are presented first, followed by discussions on loading combinations
and group loads. Additional information on load application and distribution related
to specific bridge types is given in succeeding chapters on design.
This study is divided into four chapters:-
 The first chapter presents the introduction of steel truss bridge.
 The second chapter contains and discusses the loads and its distribution on
bridge according to AASHTO specifications.
 The third chapter presents and contains the design calculations of slab, stringer
and floor beam.
 The fourth chapters present the design of truss result of the bridge analysis.
 The fifth chapters present Comparison of Sections Selected with STAAD Pro
Program.
 The six chapters present the conclusions and recommendations of this study.
Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge II

Supervisor Certification
I certify that this project entitled (ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FOUR

LANES STEEL TRUSS HIGHWAY BRIDGE) was prepared under my
supervision in Al-Mansour University College as partial fulfillment of
requirement for the degree of B.Sc in Civil Engineering.
Signature:
Supervisor Name: Dr. Ola Adel Qasim
Date: / /2016
Committe Certification
We certify that we have read this project entitled (ANALYSIS AND

DESIGN OF FOUR LANES STEEL TRUSS HIGHWAY BRIDGE) and,
we as the examming committee examined the students in its content and they
did all the change we required and in our opinion it meets the standard of
project for the degree of B.Sc in Civil Engineering.
Signature: Signature:
Name: Name:
Date: / /2016 Date: / /2016
(Chairman) (Member)
Signature:
Name: Dr.
Date: / /2016
(Supervisor)
List of Contents
PAGE
SUBJECT NO.
Acknowledgment.
Abstract. I
List of Contents. III
List of Symbols V
List of Tables. VI
List of Figures. VII
Chapter One: Introduction.
1-1 Introduction. 1
1-2 General. 2
1-3 Bridge Classification. 3
1-4 Truss Bridges. 5
1-5 Pratt Truss. 7
1-6 Truss Bridge Components. 8
1-7 Bridge Designing. 9
1-8 Data Needed For Designing A Bridge. 9
1-9 Rough Sketch of Bridge Design. 10
1-10 Finalizing the Bridge Design. 11
1-11 Causes of Bridge Failures. 11
1-12 AASHTO LRFD Specification and Limitations. 12
Chapter Two: Loads on bridges.
2-1 Introduction. 13
2-2 AASHTO Specifications. 13
2-3 Uses of Influence Line. 14
2-4 AASHTO Design Vehicle Loading Are Two Classes Of Trucks. 14
2-5 The Loading Consist Of Five Weight Classes. 14
2-6 Design. 15
2-7 Bridge Design. 15
2-8 Dead Loads. 16
2-9 Live Load. 17
2-10 Lane lading. 20
2-11 Impact Loading (Dynamic Effect of Vehicle). 21
2-12 Longitudinal Force. 22
2-13 Wind Loads. 23
Chapter Three: Design of Slab, Stringer and Floor beam.
3-1 Design of Bridge. 24
3-2 Design of Concrete Slab. 24
3-3Design of Stringer. 27
3-4 Design of Floor Beam. 32
Chapter Four: Design of Truss.
4-1 Introduction. 36
4-2 Component Parts. 36
4-3 Foundations. 38
Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge III
4-4 Types of Truss Bridges. 38
4-5 How a Structure Carries Load. 39
4-5-1 Forces. 39
4-5-2 Loads. 40
4-5-3 Internal Member Forces. 40
4-6 Design of Truss. 41
4-6-1 Dead load on truss. 41
4-6-2 Live load distribution on truss. 41
4-6-3 Lane in truss. 42
4-7 Analysis of Bridges (Influence lines for truss). 42
4-8 Instructional Objectives. 43
4-8-1 Forces in truss due to lane loading and Dead Load. 50
4-9 Selection of truss member. 53
4-9-1 Design of tension member. 53
4-9-2 Design of compression member. 54
4-10 Wind Load on Truss. 56
4-11Design of Bracing. 58
4-11-1 Design of lower bracing (bottom chord lateral system). 58
4-11-1-1 Design of Tension Member. 60
4-11-1-2 Design of compression member. 62
4-11-2 Design of upper bracing (upper chord lateral system). 63
4-11-2-1 Design of tension member. 65
4-11-2-2 Design of compression member. 66
4-12 Design of Portal. 68
4-12-1 Design of tension member. 69
4-12-2 Design of compression member. 70
Chapter Five: Comparison of Sections Selected With STAAD Pro Program.
5-1 Design Operations. 72
5-2 Code Checking. 73
5-3 Design Parameters. 74
5-4 purpose of comparison. 75
5-5 Design of tension member by AISC manual by (LRFD method) and STAAD PRO program
75
(Check the adequacy of members based on specifications of the desired code).
5-6 Design of Compression member by AISC manual by (LRFD method) and STAAD PRO
76
program (Check the adequacy of members based on specifications of the desired code).
5-7 Design of tension member by STAAD PRO program (Select Least weight section size based
on specifications of the desired code. The selection is done using the results from the most
78
recent analysis and iterating on section sizes until a least weight size is obtained optimum
section).
5-8Design of compression member by STAAD PRO program (Select Least weight section size
based on specifications of the desired code. The selection is done using the results from the most
78
recent analysis and iterating on section sizes until a least weight size is obtained and optimum
section).
Chapter Six: Conclusions.
6-1 Conclusions. 81
6-2 Future work. 81
References.
Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge IV

List of Symbols
Symbol Definition
A Cross Section area.
E Modulus of elasticity of steel.
L Span length.
Fb Allowable bending stress.
Fy Specified minimum yield point of steel.
Ultimate compressive strength of concrete as
fc’
Determined by cylinder rat age of 28 days.
fs Tensile stress in reinforcement of service loads.
Fv Actual shear stress.
I Moment of inertia.
S Section modulus.
I Impact factor.
R Concentrated force or reaction.
S Distance in feet between stringers.
Fa Allowable axial stress.
fc Actual compressive strength.
Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge V

List of Tables
Table PAGE
Subject
No. NO.
(2-1) Material dead load unit weight. 17
Chapter Three: Design of Slab, Stringer and Floor beam .
(3-1) Section properties (W30). 30
(3-2) Section properties (W36*848). 35
(4-1) I.L of the selected truss is of (Pratt type) by Staad Pro Program. 47
(4-2) Force in truss due to lane load, Impact and dead load. 51
(4-3) Total Forces in truss. 52
(4-4a) Tension member forces. 53
(4-4b) Design of tension member. 53
(4-5a) Compression Member forces. 54
(4-5b) Design of Compression Member 55
(4-6) Wind Load calculation. 57
(4-7) Staad pro Results. 59
(4-8a) Tension Member forces. 60
(4-8b) Design of Tension Member. 60
(4-9b) Design of Compression Member. 62
(4-11a) Tension member forces. 65
(4-11b) Design of tension member. 65
(4-12b) Design of Compression Member. 67
(4-14a) Tension Member forces. 69
(4-14b) Tension Member Design results. 69
(4-15b) Compression Member Design results. 70
(4-16) Section properties. 71
(5-1) Comparison of Design results with ASCE manual by (LRFD method) and
75
STAAD PRO in Tension Member.
76
STAAD PRO in Compression Member.
78
STAAD PRO in Tension Member.
78
STAAD PRO in Compression Member.
Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge VI

List of Figures
Figure PAGE
Subject
No. NO.
Chapter One: Introduction.
(1-1) Truss bridge. 1
(1-2) Truss bridge components. 2
(1-3) Types of bridges. 5
(1-4) Thru, pony and deck Truss bridge. 7
(1-5) Component of Through Truss bridge. 9
(2-1) Bridge Plan system. 13
(2-2) The most important system of a typical through truss bridge. 14
(2-3) Through Truss Bridge. 15
(2-4) Typical diagram and term for describing vehicle live loads used for bridge design. 18
(2-5) AASHTO HS20 Truck and H20 Design Truck 20
(2-6) Standard AASHTO lane Loads. 21
Chapter Three: Design of Slab, Stringer and Floor beam.
(3-1) Bridge cross section. 24
(3-2) Bridge cross section. 25
(3-3) Maximum reaction calculated by MD Solid Program. 27
(3-4) Maximum Moment calculated by MD Solid Program. 28
(3-5) Design of floor beam. 32
(3-6) Moment diagram for dead load. 33
(3-7) Distribution of wheel lands to gives the maximum moment. 34
(4-1) Typical truss bridge. 36
(4-2) Type of steel truss members. 37
(4-3) Typical Truss connections. 38
(4-4) Type of Bridge Foundation. 38
(4-5) Common Truss Types. 39
(4-6) Component of a through- truss bridge 41
(4-7) Live load distribution on truss. 42
(4-8) Procedure for Solving Influence line for Trusses. 44
(4-9) Pratt Truss Dimension. 44
(4-10) Staad Pro Axial Force for Truss. 45
(4-11) Influence line for each member. 50
(4-12) Final Load for live & dead load combination. 53
(4-13) Wind load on truss. 57
(4-14) Wind brace and portal action. 58
(4-15) Lower Bracing. 59
(4-16) Final Results. 59
(4-17) Upper Bracing. 64
(4-18) Portal Design. 68
Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge VII
(5-1) Portal Design. 75
(5-2) Staad Pro results based on Check the adequacy of members. 77
(5-3) Staad Pro results based on Select Least weight section and optimum section. 79
(5-4) Selected section from Staad Pro results based on select least weight section and 80
optimum section.
Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge VIII
Chapter one Introduction
Chapter One
INTRODUCTION
1-1 Introduction:
A structure built to span and provide passage over a river, chasm, road, or any other
physical hurdle. The function required from the bridge and the area where it is
constructed decides the design of the bridge. The first bridges were made by nature as
simple as a log fallen across a stream. The first bridges made by humans were probably
spans of wooden logs or planks and eventually stones, using a simple support and
crossbeam arrangement. Most of these early bridges could not support heavy weights or
withstand strong currents. It was these inadequacies which led to the development of
better bridges.
From the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of steel wrought
iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron did not have the tensile strength to
support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength, much
larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel. Bridges are classified
on the basis that how the four forces namely shear, compression, tension, and moment are
distributed in the bridge structure.
Fig. (1-1) Truss bridge.

In recent years, AASHTO has created the document titled “LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications.” The current 3rd edition was published in 2004 with a 2005 interim. The
purpose of the LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) document is not to make all
existing bridges obsolete, but to provide a design of new bridges that includes benefits
from statistics, research and new materials. Load and resistance coefficients are slightly
Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 1

different, but the results are similar. The Federal Highway Administration has endorsed
the new LRFD method and encouraged its adoption for new bridge designs after 2007.
1-2 General:
A bridge is a means by which a road, railway or other service is carried over an
obstacle such as a river, valley, and other road or railway line, either with no intermediate
support or with only a limited number of supports at convenient locations. Bridges range
in size from very modest short spans over, say, a small river to the extreme examples of
suspension bridges crossing wide estuaries. Appearance is naturally less crucial for the
smaller bridges, but in all cases the designer will consider the appearance of the basic
elements, which make up his bridge, the superstructure and the substructure, and choose
proportions which are appropriate to the particular circumstances considered. The use of
steel often helps the designer to select proportions that are aesthetically pleasing. Bridges
are an essential part of the transport infrastructure. For example, there are many highway
bridges in the world; many of these new bridges use steel as the principal structural
elements because it is an economic and speedy form of construction.
Fig. (1-2) Truss bridge components.

A bridge structure can be divided into two main parts. First the upper part called
superstructure, which consists of the deck, the floor system such as stringers and floor
beams and the main trusses or girders, second the lower part called the substructure,
which are columns, piers, towers, footings, piles and abutments. The superstructure
provides horizontal spans such as deck and girders and carries the traffic loads and other
permanent loads directly. The function of substructure is to support the superstructure of
the bridge. Truss as a structure that acts like a beam but with many components or
members, subjected primarily to axial stresses, and arranged in triangular patterns.
1-3 Bridge Classification:
Bridges can be classified in several ways depending on the objective of
classification. Few of these Classifications are listed below:
 Classification by materials:
 Steel Bridges: such as, decks, arches, trusses, stayed and suspension cables are
used.
 Wooden bridges: Bridges using wood and having relatively short spans.
 Concrete bridges: Bridges using reinforced and prestressed concrete.
 Classification by function:
 Highway bridges: Bridge carrying vehicle traffic.
 Railway bridges: Bridges carrying trains.
 Combined bridges: Bridges carrying both trains and vehicles.
 Pedestrian bridges: Bridges carrying pedestrians.
 Classification by relative position of floor:
This classification is based on the location of flooring deck with respect to the supporting
structures.
 Deck Bridge: the deck is supported at the top of supporting structure.
 Semi-through bridge: The semi-through bridge has its deck midway and the deck
load is transmitted to the girder through the web of the girder. The main girders are
on either side of deck.
 Through bridge: The decking is supported by the bottom flange of the main
supporting girders provided on either side.
 Classification by structural system:

 I-Girder or Beam Bridges: The main girder consists of either plate girders or rolled
I-shapes.
 Box-girder Bridges: The main girder consists of a single or mostly multiple box
beams fabricated from steel plates.
 T-beam Bridges: Multiple reinforced concrete T-beams are placed side by side to
support live loads.
 Orthotropic deck Bridges: Bridge deck consists of a steel deck plate and rib
stiffeners.
 Truss Bridges: Truss Members resists axial forces, either in compression or
tension. These members are arranged in a continuous pattern based on structural
rigidity of triangles.
 Arch Bridges: The structure is vertically curved and resists loads mainly in axial
compression. Curved arch transfers compression loads in to abutments.
 Cable-stayed Bridges: Main girders are supported by high strength cables directly
from one or more towers. These types of bridges are suited for long span distances.
 Suspension Bridges: Vertical hangers support the main girders, which are
supported by main suspension cable extending over tower anchorage to anchorage.
Design is suitable for large span and long bridges.
 Classification by support condition:
 Simply supported bridges: The main girders or trusses are simply supported by a
movable hinge at one end and fix hinge at the other end. They can be analyzed
using conditions of equilibrium.
 Continuously supported bridges: Girders or trusses are continuously supported,
resulting in a structurally indeterminate system. These tend to be more economical
since fewer expansion joints will have less service and maintenance problem.
Settlements at supported in this system is neglected.
 Cantilever bridge: a continuous bridge is made determinate by placing intermediate
hinges between the supports.

 Rigid frame bridges: The girders are rigidly connected to the substructure.
 Classification depending on the life of the bridge:
 Temporary bridge: A bridge that is used for short time and is then demolished and
used in other areas whenever the need arises as in military bridges.
 Permanent bridges: Bridge that is used throughout its lifetime. Life time of bridges
depends on their design, sometimes it is as long as 200 years.
 Classification depending on span length:
 Short span bridges: bridges with span length less than 50 meters.
 Medium span bridges: bridges with span length between 50 and 200 meters.
 Long span bridges: bridges with span length more than 200 meters.
Fig. (1-3) Types of bridges.

1-4 Truss Bridges:
Truss types and designs vary according to the configuration of the members. There
are three truss types. In the thru truss bridge the road passes between the truss lines and is

carried on the deck and floor system connected to the bottom chords at the panel points.
There is lateral bracing connecting the top chords of the trusses. This type is generally
used for spans more than 100’ long. A pony truss bridge is the same as a thru truss, but it
does not have lateral bracing between the top chords. This type is generally used for
shorter spans 45’ to 100’ long. In a deck truss bridge the road is above the trusses, and the
deck system is on the top chords. There are a variety of truss designs, and all have
different ways of accommodating the tensile and compressive forces. They are frequently
named for the engineer that patented the design such as the Pratt truss patented by
Thomas C. Pratt. Thus, for the most part, all beams in a truss bridge are straight. Trusses
are comprised of many small beams that together can support a large amount of weight
and span great distances. In most cases the design, fabrication, and erection of trusses is
relatively simple. However, once assembled trusses take up a greater amount of space
and, in more complex structures, can serve as a distraction to drivers. Like the girder
bridges, there are both simple and continuous trusses.
The small size of individual parts of a truss make it the ideal bridge for places where
large parts or sections cannot be shipped or where large cranes and heavy equipment
cannot be used during erection. Because the truss is a hollow skeletal structure, the
roadway may pass over or even through the structure allowing for clearance below the
bridge often not possible with other bridge types. Trusses are also classified by the basic
design used. The most representative trusses are the Warren truss, the Pratt truss, and the
Howe truss. The Warren truss is perhaps the most common truss for both simple and
continuous trusses. For smaller spans, no vertical members are used lending the structure
a simple look. For longer spans vertical members are added providing extra strength.
Warren trusses are typically used in spans of between 50-100m. The Pratt truss is
identified by its diagonal members which, except for the very end ones, all slant down
and in toward the center of the span. Except for those diagonal members near the center,
all the diagonal members are subject to tension forces only while the shorter vertical
members handle the compressive forces. This allows for thinner diagonal members
resulting in a more economic design. The Howe truss is the opposite of the Pratt truss.
The diagonal members face in the opposite direction and handle compressive forces. This
makes it very uneconomic design for steel bridges and its use is rarely seen.
Fig. (1-4) Thru, pony and deck Truss bridge.

1-5 Pratt Truss:
History and Description: Thomas Pratt (1875), an engineer who studied at
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, and worked for the U. S. Army and
several New England railroads, designed the first Pratt truss in 1842. The great advantage
of the Pratt truss over many earlier designs was the relative ease of calculating the
distribution of stress throughout the structure. Because this design demanded a greater
use of the more expensive metal than the Howe truss, it initially was not popular;
however, as the nation’s railroads gradually began to favor all iron bridges, the Pratt truss
became widely adopted, not only was the design simple, relatively economical, and easily
erected in the field, it was also more trustworthy than the Howe.
A truss is a triangulated framework of individual elements or members. A truss is
sometimes referred to as an ‘open web girder’, because its overall structural action is still
as a member resisting bending but the open nature of the framework results in its
elements (‘chords’ in place of flanges and ‘posts’ and diagonals’ in place of webs) being
primarily in tension or compression. Bending of the individual elements is a secondary
effect, except where loads are applied away from the node positions, such as loads from
closelyspaced crossbeams that span between a pair of trusses. Trusses were common in
the earlier periods of steel construction, since welding had not been developed and the

sizes of rolled section and plate were limited; every piece had to be joined by riveting.
Although very labour intensive, both in the shop and on site, this form offered great
flexibility in the shapes, sizes, and capacity of bridges. As well as being used as beams,
trusses were also used as arches, as cantilevers and as stiffening girders to suspension
bridges. A typical configuration of a truss bridge is a ‘through truss’ configuration. There
is a pair of truss girders connected at bottom chord level by a deck that also carries the
traffic, spanning between the two trusses. At top chord level the girders are braced
together, again with a triangulated framework of members, creating an ‘open box’
through which the traffic runs. Where clearance below the truss is not a problem, the deck
structure is often supported on top of the truss; sometimes a slab is made to act
compositely with the top chords, in a similar way to an ordinary beam and slab bridge.
1-6 Truss Bridge Components:
A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss,
a structure of connected elements forming triangular units. The connected elements
(typically straight) may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in
response to dynamic loads. Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern bridges.
The basic types of truss bridges shown in this article have simple designs which could be
easily analyzed by 19th- and early 20th-century engineers. A truss bridge is economical
to construct because it uses materials efficiently. Principal parts of a highway through-
truss bridge are illustrated in Figure. Chords are top and bottom members that act like the
flanges of a beam. They resist the tensile and compressive forces induced by bending. In
a constant-depth truss, chords are essentially parallel. Web members consist of diagonal
and vertical members, where the chords are essentially parallel, diagonals provide the
required shear capacity, and verticals carry shear, provide additional panel points for
introduction of loads and reduce the span of the chords under dead-load bending. Usually,
deck loads are transmitted to the trusses through end connections of floor beams to the
verticals. End posts are compression members at supports of simple-span trusses. For
practical reasons, trusses should have inclined end posts. Sway frame or sway bracings
should be placed between truss verticals to provide lateral resistance in vertical planes.
Where the deck is located near the bottom chords, such bracing, placed between truss
tops, must be kept shallow enough to provide adequate clearance for the passage of traffic
below it. Portal bracing is sway frame placed in the plane of end posts. In addition to
serving the normal function of sway bracing, portal bracing also transmits loads from the
top lateral bracing to the end posts.
Fig. (1-5) Component of Through Truss bridge.

1-7 Bridge Designing:
The designer should have first seen and studied many bridges in the course of a long
learning process. He should know what type of beam may be suitable in the available
conditions, either a beam bridge an arch bridge or a suspended one. He should also know
the influence of foundation conditions on the choice of spans and structural systems etc.
hence, the designer of the bridge should not only be a learned person but also an
experienced one. At auspicious moments an intuitive flash may provide a new solution,
which fulfills the task better than known conventional solutions (intuition, creativity
leading to innovations).
1-8 Data Needed For Designing A Bridge:
1. A plan of the site showing all obstacles to be bridged such as rivers, streets, roads
or railroads, the contour lines of valleys and the desired alignment of the new
traffic route.
2. Longitudinal section of the ground along the axis of the planned bridge with the
conditions for clearances or required flood widths.
3. Required width of the bridge, width of lanes, median, walkways, safety rails etc.
4. Soil conditions for foundations, results of borings with a report on the geological
situation and soil mechanics data. The degree of difficulty of foundation work has
a considerable influence on the choice of the structural system and on the
economical span length.
5. Local conditions like accessibility for the transport of equipment, materials and
structural elements.
6. Weather and environmental conditions, floods, high and low tide levels, periods of
drought, range of temperatures, and length of frost periods.
7. Topography of the environment-open land, flat or mountainous land, scenic
country.
8. Environmental requirements regarding aesthetic quality. Bridges in towns that
affect the urban environment and that are frequently seen at close range-especially
pedestrian bridges-need more delicate shaping and treatment than bridges in open
country.
1-9 Rough Sketch Of Bridge Design:
When the engineer is sure that a design idea has emerged in his mind, he should pick
up a pencil and a scale and by the help of sketching, he should start from sketching the
probable road direction, beam depth (For beam bridge) the piers, the abutments and the
bottom edge of the beam is drawn. For a heavily funded project, high slenderness ratio is
preferable otherwise if the decisive factor is the cost then slenderness ratio can be
reduced. Analyze the sketch critically for the proportion between the spans, the clearance
under the beam, soil conditions around the piers and the abutments, the adaptiveness of
the piers to the surroundings, no. of piers and for the curvature of the vertical alignment.
More than one sketches may follow after the critical analysis with changes in the design
and supporting conditions. Work out the alternatives, discuss with colleagues, architects
advisors and the client to draw out a final sketch.
Only now should calculations begin, and in the first place with simple and rough
approximations to check whether the assumed dimensions will be sufficient and whether
the necessary sectional areas of reinforcing steel or of pre-stressing tendons will leave
sufficient space, to allow the concrete to be placed and compacted without difficulty.
Then some runs with computer programs can be made, using different depths or other
variables in order to find the most economical dimensions; these should, however, only
be chosen if no other essential requirements, such as aesthetics, length of approaches,
grades etc. are affected. Once the designer or the design team has made its choice, then
the principle design drawings with all dimensions and explanations can be drawn up for
approval of the authorities. As the map alone is not sufficient to clearly show the locality
and impact on the environment and appearance so a model or some well shot photos can
help the citizens, client and critics to realize the existence of bridge.
1-10 Finalizing The Bridge Design:
After the approval of the design, the final design work can begin with rigorous
calculations of forces, stresses etc. for all kinds of loads or attacks and then the structural
detailing has to be done. The scaffolding and equipment, which will be needed for the
construction of the particular type of bridge, also has to be worked out. Numerous
drawings and tables with thousands of numbers and figures for all dimensions, sizes and
levels must be made with specifications for the required type and quality of the building
materials. This phase entails the greatest amount of work for the bridge engineer, and
calls for considerable knowledge and skill. The phase of conceptual and aesthetic design
needs a comparatively small amount of time, but is decisive for the expressive quality of
the work.
1-11 Causes of Bridge Failures:
In practice, failures occur in different forms in a material and are likely to be
different for steel, concrete, and timber bridges. Common types of failure that occur in
steel bridges are yielding (crushing, tearing or formation of ductile or brittle plastic
hinges), buckling, fracture and fatigue (reduced material resistance, reversal of stress in
welds and connections, vibrations), shearing and corrosion. Large deformations due to
impact, sway, violent shaking during seismic events, erosion of soil in floods or
settlement due to expansive soils may induce failure in both steel and concrete bridges.
The most common causes of bridge failure include: overstress of structural elements due
to section loss, design defects and deficiencies, long-term fatigue and fracture, failures
during construction, accidental impacts from ships, trains and aberrant vehicles, fire
damage, earthquakes, lack of inspection and unforeseen events. Any one of the above
causes may contribute to bridge failure or may trigger a collapse, but failures actually
occur due to a critical combination of loads. Causes of failures should be identified in any
case to find ways to fix the problem and to avoid them in the future.
1-12 AASHTO LRFD Specification and Limitations:
Most highway bridges were designed according to the provision of the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The AASHTO
bridge specifications provide traffic-related loadings to be used in the development and
testing of bridge designs, as well as other detailed requirements for bridge design and
construction. A key task of the bridge designer is the selection of bridge members that are
sufficiently sized to support the various loading combinations the structure may carry
during its service life. These include dead load (the weight of the bridge itself), live load
(the weights of vehicles using the bridge), wind, seismic, and thermal forces. The bridge
design standards prescribed by the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) have followed a design philosophy called Allowable
Stress Design (ASD), in 1931. The first generation of AASHTO code to use a limit state
method for design of steel structures is called Load Factor Design (LFD). It was
introduced in the 1970s as an alternative to the ASD specifications. Researchers began
developing the new design specifications by using the probabilistic concepts that have
been the subject of intensive research since around 1969. In 1986, AASHTO started to
look into ways of incorporating Load Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) philosophies into
the standard specifications.

Chapter Two Loads on Bridges
Chapter Two
LOADS ON BRIDGES
2-1 Introduction:
The design of bridge is very important to civil engineer. Such structures are
composed of interconnected members and are supported is such a manner that they are
capable of holding applied external force in static equilibrium. Through truss highway
bridge is structure of three dimensional but it can be divided into six component
structure the two main vertical truss the top chord lateral system the bottom chord lateral
system and the two end portals.
Fig. (2-1): Bridge Plan system.

The through truss is a simple truss and easy in the calculations of the design. The
design of such bridge requires the design of concrete slab, stringers, floor beam and the
truss girder. Different kinds of loads have to be considered in the design such as dead
loads, live loads, wind loading, impact loading, lane loading and other kinds of loading.
2-2 AASHTO Specifications:
Some code and design specifications commonly encountered by civil engineers:-
AASHTO: standard specifications for highway bridge American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C, 1989.
Steel bridge may be classified in a number of ways. The important of these are:-
1- Span type: -simple span truss.
2- Cross section: -through type.
3- Functional: -vehicle, pedestrian.

4- Span length: -intermediate.
5- Degree of redundancy: -indeterminate.
2-3 Uses of Influence Line:
1. To determine the position of the live load that will give the maximum value of
sum particular function for which the influence lines have been constructed.
2. To obtain the maximum values of that particular functions with the live load or
determine the value of the section for any one.
According to these specifications live loading consist of standard trucks loading, or
of the corresponding lane loads (which are equivalent to truck trains).
2-4 AASHTO Design Vehicle Loading Are Two Classes Of Trucks:
 H – Truck: - consist of two-axle truck, or of the corresponding lane loading H20,
H15, and H10.
 HS – Truck: - consist of a two-axle truck, or of the corresponding lane loading
HS20, HS15.
2-5 The Loading Consist Of Five Weight Classes:
 H10, H15 they are the lighter loads and they used for the design of lightly traveled
state roads.
 H20, HS15 they are used for national highway.
 HS20 used for the design of bridge on the.
Diagonal of bottom chord lateral Stringer

system
Floor
beam
A
A
Diagonal of top chord lateral system
Portal
Fig. (2-2): The most important system of a typical through truss bridge.

2-6 Design:
The nature of a truss allows the analysis of the structure using a few assumptions
and the application of Newton's laws of motion according to the branch of physics
known as statics. For purposes of analysis, trusses are assumed to be pin jointed where
the straight components meet. This assumption means that members of the truss (chords,
verticals and diagonals) will act only in tension or compression. In the bridge, at the top,
vertical members are in tension, lower horizontal members in tension, shear, and
bending, outer diagonal and top members are in compression, while the inner diagonals
are in tension. The central vertical member stabilizes the upper compression member,
preventing it from buckling. The ability to distribute the forces in various ways has led
to a large variety of truss bridge types.
Fig. (2-3): Through Truss Bridge.

2-7 Bridge Design:
A bridge is designed to carry or resist design loadings in a safe and economical
manner. Loads may be concentrated or distributed depending on the way in which they
are applied to the structure. Vehicle truck loads are normally considered concentrated
loads. A distributed load is applied to all or part of the member. Secondary loads, such
as wind, stream flow, earth cover and ice, are also usually distributed loads. Highway
bridge design loads are established by the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO). For many decades, the primary bridge design code
in the United States was the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
(Specifications). During the 1990’s AASHTO developed and approved a new bridge
design code, entitled AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. It is based upon the

principles of Load and Resistance. Bridge design loadings can be divided into two
principal categories:
 Permanent loads
 Transient loads
 Permanent Loads Permanent loads are loads and forces that are constant for the
life of the structure. They consist of the weight of the materials used to build the
bridge. Permanent load includes both the self-weight of structural members and
other permanent external loads. They do not move and do not change unless the
bridge is modified. Permanent loads can be broken down into two groups, dead
loads and earth loads. Dead loads are a static load due to the weight of the
structure itself. They include both the self-weight of the structural members and
other permanent loads. Any feature may or may not contribute to the strength of
the structure. Those features that may contribute to the strength of the structure
include girders, floor beams, trusses, and decks. Features that may not contribute
to the strength of the bridge include median barriers, parapets, railings and
utilities. Earth loads are permanent loads and are considered in the design of
structures such as retaining walls and abutments. Earth pressure is a horizontal
load which can be very large and it tends to cause abutments to slide and/or tilt
forward. Earth surcharge is a vertical load that can increase the amount of
horizontal load and is caused by the weight of the earth.
2-8 Dead Loads:
The dead load represent the weight of structure it self and any other immovable
loads (equipment) that are constant in magnitude and permanently attached to the
structure. It consists of the weight of the main supporting trusses or girder the floor
beams and stringer of the floor system. Structural design is that the true dead load of the
structure that can not be determined until the bridge is designed and a final design can
not be accomplished unless the true dead load is known. The dead load acting on a
member must be assumed before the member is designed; one should design the

member of a structure in such a sequence that to as great an extent as practicable the
weight of each member being designed is a portion of the dead load carried by the next
member to be designed. Thus for a highway bridge, on would first design the road slab,
then the stringer that carry the slab loads to the floor beams, the floor beams that carry
the stringer loads to the main girders or trusses and finally main girder or truss. It is
therefore necessary to make preliminary estimate of the structure and then can be
calculated and compared with the previously estimated weight. The dead load assumed
to be uniformly distributed along the length of the structure elements, such as slab beam
or truss.
Table (2-1) Material dead load unit weight.
2-9 Live Load:

The live load for highway bridges consists of weight of the applied moving load of
vehicles and pedestrians. Highway bridges should be designed to safely support all
vehicles that might pass over them during the life of the structure actually; the traffic
over Highway Bridge will consist of multitude of different types of vehicle. It’s not
possible for the designer to know what vehicles will be use the structure or what the
required life of the bridge will be to ensure the safety of the structure. Some form of the
control must be maintained so that the designer has to provide sufficient strength in the
structure to carry present and future predicated loads. The regulation of vehicle using the
bridge has to be such that excessive weight vehicle are prohibited from crossing the
structure. Design control is provided in the United States by (AASHTO). State laws
regulating the weight of motor vehicles provide which specifies the design live load and
traffic regulation. Vehicle live load is the weight of the vehicles that cross the bridge.

Each of these vehicles consists of a series of moving concentrated loads that vary in
magnitude and spacing. As the loads move, they generate changing moments, shears,
and reactions in the structural members. The extent of these forces depends on the
number, weight, spacing, and position of the loads on the span. The designer must
position vehicle live loads to produce the maximum effect for each stress. Once the
locations for maximum stress are found, other positions result in lower stress and are no
longer considered. Vehicle live loads are generally depicted in diagrams that resemble
trucks or other specialized vehicles.
 Gross vehicle weight (GVW) is the maximum total weight of a vehicle.
 Axle load is the total weight transferred through one axle.
 Axle spacing is the center-to-center distance between vehicle axles. Axle spacing
may be fixed or variable.
Fig. (2-4): Typical diagram and term for describing vehicle live loads used for bridge design.
 Wheel load is one-half the axle load. Wheel loads for dual wheels are given
as the combined weight of both wheels.
 Wheel line is the series of wheel loads measured along the vehicle length. The
total weight of one wheel line is equal to one-half the GVW.
 Track width is the center-to-center distance between wheel lines. AASHTO
specifications provide two systems of standard vehicle loads, H loads and HS
loads. Each system consists of individual truck loads and lane loads. Lane loads
are intended to be equivalent in weight to a series of vehicles (discussed in the
following paragraphs). The type of loading used for design, whether truck load or

lane load, is that producing the highest stress. It should be noted that bridges are
designed for the stresses and deflection produced by a standard highway loading,
not necessarily the individual vehicles. The design loads are hypothetical and are
intended to resemble a type of loading rather than a specific vehicle. Actual
stresses produced by vehicles crossing the structure should not exceed those
produced by the hypothetical design vehicles.
 Truck Loads: There are currently two classes of truck loads for each standard
loading system. The H system consists of loading H 15-44 and loading H 20-44.
These loads represent a two-axle truck and are designated by the letter H followed
by a number indicating the GVW in tons. The load designations also include a “-
44” suffix to indicate the year that the load was adopted by AASHTO (1944). The
weight of an H truck is assumed to be distributed two-tenths to the front axle and
eight-tenths to the rear axle. Axle spacing is fixed at 14 feet and track width at 6
feet. Truck loads for the HS system consist of loadings HS 15-44 and HS 20-44.
These loads represent a two-axle tractor truck with a one-axle semitrailer and are
designated by the letters HS, followed by a number indicating the gross weight in
tons of the tractor truck. The configuration and weight of the HS tractor truck is
identical to the corresponding H load. The additional semitrailer axle is equal in
weight to the rear tractor truck axle and is spaced at a variable distance of 14 to 30
feet. The axle spacing used for design is that producing the maximum stress.

W = combined weight on the first two axle which is the same as for the corresponding H truck.
V = variable spacing – 14 feet to 30 feet inclusive spacing to be used is that which produces
maximum stresses.
W = total weight of truck and load.
Fig. (2-5): AASHTO HS20 Truck and H20 Design Truck

2-10 Lane lading:
Lane loads were adopted by AASHTO in 1944 to provide a simpler method of
calculating moments and shears. These loads are intended to represent a line of medium-
weight traffic with a heavy truck positioned somewhere in the line. Lane loads consist of
a uniform load per linear foot of lane combined with a single moving concentrated load,
positioned to produce the maximum stress (for continuous spans, two concentrated loads
one placed in each of two adjoining spans are used to determine maximum negative
moment). Both the uniform load and the concentrated loads are assumed to be

transversely distributed over a 10-foot width. AASHTO specifications currently include
two classes of lane loads: one for H 20-44 and HS 20-44 loadings and one for H 15-44
and HS 15-44 loadings. The lane loading may be used with two reasons:
1. Stringers will usually be of such length that it can support only one or two axles of
a truck, and since the effect of one or two concentrated loads on a beam is quit
different from the effect of an equal amount of load distributed uniformly.
2. On the other hand, the force on chord member of simple truss span will be largest
when the full length of the bridge is loaded.
A Relatively small error results from the substitution of a uniform load for a large
member of concentrated loads.
Fig. (2-6) Standard AASHTO lane Loads.

2-11 Impact Loading (Dynamic Effect of Vehicle):
AASHTO specifications require that an allowance for impact be included in the
design of some structures. This allowance is expressed as an impact factor and is
computed as a percentage increase in vehicle live load stress. The live load applied
gradually by vehicle moving across the bridge at normal rate of speed produced the
deformation of the structure. The live load produces greater stresses than if they were
considered as a static position on the structure. Since the deformation is greater the
stress in the structure is higher this increment in stress can be called the (dynamic

effect). The terminology for dynamic effect among bridge designers and bridge design
specifications is impact. In addition to the true impact effect and the sudden loading
effect there is also third effect, which is caused by the vehicle, vibrating on its springs.
Uneven roadway surfaces contribute to this effect. The vibrating of the vehicle on its
springs induces vibration of structure. The magnitude of stresses is dependent on the
relative masses of the vehicle and the bridge, the natural frequency of the structure and
the damping characteristic of the bridge.
Impacts stresses are usually obtain by multiplying the live load stresses by fraction
called the (impact fraction) and depend on: -
 Time function, which the live load, is applied.
 The portion of the structure over which the live load is applied.
 Elastic and inertia properties of the structure itself.
For highway bridge, the impact fraction (I) is given in specifications of (AASHTO)
by this equation:- 50
I 
125  L
I = impact stresses.
L = loaded length of the structure and the value of this equation not exceed the
maximum value of impact factor suggest by (AASHTO) specification is equal (0.300).
2-12 Longitudinal Force:
When the vehicle crossing the structure increase or decreases (accelerate) their
speed a longitudinal force (F) are transmitted from the wheels of the vehicle to the deck
(Horizontal force acting in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the structure). Since
they are inertia forces resulting from the acceleration on deceleration of vehicle, they act
through the centers of gravity of the vehicles. The magnitude of longitudinal force is
depending on the:
 Amount of acceleration or deceleration.

 Frictional forces that can be developed between the contacts surfaces of
the wheels of the vehicle applying these force to the roadway or track and the
surface of truck or roadway.
 Weight of the vehicle.
 The velocity of the vehicle at the instant of braking.
 Time interval to come to complete stop
w v
F  ( )
W = weight of vehicle (k). g t
g = acceleration of gravity = 32.2 ft / sec.
∆V = change in velocity (ft /sec) in the time interval (∆ t) (sec).
The (AASHTO) specification provides for a longitudinal force of (5 %) of the live load
in all lanes carrying traffic headed in the same direction.
2-13 Wind Loads:
Wind loads are caused by the pressure of wind acting on the bridge members. They
are dynamic loads that depend on such factors as the size and shape of the structure, the
velocity and angle of the wind. For design purposes, AASHTO specifications give wind
loads as uniformly distributed static loads. This simplified loading is intended for rigid
structures that are not dynamically sensitive to wind; that is, structural design is not
controlled by wind loads. It applied as horizontal loads acting on the superstructure and
substructure and as vertical loads acting upward on the deck underside. The magnitude
of the loads depends on the component of the structure and the base wind velocity used
for design.

Chapter Three Loads on Bridges
Chapter Three
Design of Slabs-Stringer and Floor beam
3-1 Design of Bridge:
The major components of a typical truss bridge are illustrated in the two diagrams
below. The elevation view shows the bridge from the side. The isometric view is a three-
dimensional representation of the structure. Note that certain members are only visible in
the isometric view. The typical member of a simple single span through truss is
identified in figure (3-1).
Fig. (3-1) Bridge cross section.
3-2 Design of Concrete Slab:

Span center two center of bearing = 35 ft
Load center two lanes of HS 20
f c`= 3000 Psi
f c = 1200 Psi
n = 10
f S = 20 000 Psi

Fig. (3-2) Bridge cross section.
Width of flange = 0.8 ft

0.8
Slab span ( S eff )  7.25 
 6.85 ft
2
Case (A) [AASHTO specification]
Live load-bending moment
0.8( S  2)
M LL  P20
32
0.8(6.85  2)
 *16  3.54k . ft
32
Dead load bending moment
7 150
[ *1 *1 *
2 ] * (6.85) 2
WD.L * L
MD.L   12 1000 = 0.2566 k. ft
16 16
Impact
50 50
I  = 37.92 % > 30 % Then Use (30 %) [AASHTO specification].
L  125 6.85  125

Impact bending moment

MI = I * ML.L == 0.3 * 3.54 = 1.062 k. ft
Total bending moment

M total = MD.L + ML.L + MI = 0.2566 + 3.54 + 1.062 = 4.9 k. ft
For reinforcement
1 1 1
d 7  6 1
2 2 ( 2 Cover , 2 wearing)
fC 1200
k   0.375
fc 1200  2000
fC 
n
k 0.375
j 1 1  0.875
3 3
2m 2 * 4.9 *12 *1000
d   5.01' '  6' ' (o.k)
fC * b * j* k 1200 *12 * 0.875 * 0.375
Total depth = d + cover + wearing = 5.01 + 0.5 + 0.5 = 6.01’’
Area of Steel
M 4.9 *12000
As    0.56 in 2 / ft
fS * j * d 20000 * 0.875 * 6
The Longitudinal or Distribution Reinforcing Steels
220 220
p   84.05%
S 6.85 Max 67 % (Then Use 67 %)
AS = 0.67 * 0.56 = 0.375 in2 /ft

3-3Design of Stringer:
Stringer CL
Axle load
35’
Floor Beam
8k 32 k 32 k
Max reaction (By)= 52.8 k
Fig. (3-3) Maximum reaction calculated by MD Solid Program.

8k 32 k 32 k
Abs. Max. Moment =361.2 k. ft
Fig. (3-4) Maximum Moment calculated by MD Solid Program.
Lane moment = 361.2 k. ft

Lane shear = 52.8 k
Fraction of wheel loads to stringer

S
Wheel loads / stringer  (S < 14)
4.5
6.85
  1.522
4.5

1.522Wheels
= 0.761 lane / stringer
2Wheels / axle
50 50
   31.25
Impact I  125 35  125 % > 30 %
D.L (slab level) =(7/12)* 7.25 * 1’ * 150 = 634.37 Ib/ ft length
Assume stringer weight = 145 Ib/ ft

Total D. L = stringer weight + D.L = 145 + 634.37 = 779.4 Ib/ ft
2 2
D.L moment  W * l  0.7794(35)  119.34k. ft
8 8
L.L moment = 0761 (361.2) = 275 k. ft
Impact moment = 0.3 (275) = 82.5 k. ft
Total moment = D.L moment +impact moment + L.L moment
= 119.34 + 82.5 + 275 = 476.84 k. ft
467.78(12000)
S required   286.104in 3
20000
Choose W 30*124 , S x = 355 in3 > 286.104 in3

Table (3-1) section properties (W30).

Check deflection
5 * W * L4 W * L2
max  but ML.L 
384 EI 8
5M L. L * 8 L2 *12 2 15M L. L L2
  max  
384 EI EI
L EI
   800
 15 L * M L. L
L 30000 (5360)
  856.7  800
 15(357.5)(35)
Check shear
0.7794 * (35)
VD.L   13.65k
2
VL.L = 0.761 * (52.8) = 40.2 k
V impact = 0.3 (40.2) = 12.06 k
V total = VD.L + V L.L + V impact
=13.65 + 40.2 + 12.06 = 65.91 k
65.91
fv  < Fv = (0.33) Fy
d * tW
65.91
  3.73ksi  12ksi(o.k )
30.17 * 0.585

3-4 Design of Floor Beam:
4k 16 k 16 k
14’ 14 ‘
35‘ 35’
Fig. (3-5) Design of floor beam.
Reaction FB  16  16 (16  4)  25.14K

35
Assume floor beam weight W F.B = 0.85 k/ ft
WD.L  779.4  35  3.76 k / ft
1000 7.25
W total = 0.85 + 3.76 = 4.61 k/ ft
4.61* (62) 2
M D.L   2215.105 k. ft
8

Fig. (3-6) Moment diagram for dead load.

Fig. (3-7) Distribution of wheel lands to gives the maximum moment.
ML.L = 100.56 (31) – 25.14 (2 + 8 + 12 + 18)= 2112 k. ft

50
Impact   0.267 < 0.3
62  125
M impact = 0.267 * 2112 = 564 k. ft
M total = 564 + 2112 + 2215.105 = 4891.105 k. ft

4891.105 *12000
S required   2934.66in 3
20000
Use W 36 * 848
Use plate 1* 4 on the flange of W shape

S = 3170 in3 I = 67400 + 4*1* (21.72)2 = 69288 in4

d = 42.45 in t w = 2.52 in
L EI 30000 * 69288
  = 835.23 > 800
 15M L. L * L 15 (2676) (62)
Table (3-2) section properties (W36*848).
Check shear
4.61* 62
VD.L   142.92k
2
VL.L = 0.761 (100.56) = 76.52 k
V impact = 0.267 (76.52) = 20.4 k
V total = 142.92 + 76.52 +20.4 = 239.86 k
239.86
FV   2.24ksi < 12 ksi
42.45 * 2.52

Chapter Four Design of Truss
Chapter Four
Design of Truss
4-1 Introduction:
A truss is a structure composed of members connected together to form a rigid
framework. Members are the load-carrying components of a structure. In most trusses,
members are arranged in interconnected triangles, as shown below. Because of this
configuration, truss members carry load primarily in tension and compression. Because
trusses are very strong for their weight, they are often used to span long distances. They
have been used extensively in bridges since the early 19 th century; however, truss
bridges have become somewhat less common in recent years. Today trusses are often
used in the roofs of buildings and stadiums, in towers, construction cranes, and many
similar structures and machines. Trusses, like all structures, are designed by civil
engineers with special expertise in structural analysis and design. These men and women
are called structural engineers.
Fig. (4-1) Typical truss bridge.

4-2 Component Parts:
The three-dimensional bridge structure has two main load-carrying trusses. Each
truss is composed of a top chord, a bottom chord, and several verticals and diagonals.
The two trusses are connected together by a series of transverse member's struts, lateral
bracing, and floor beams. In early truss bridges, all of these members would have been
made of wood or iron. Today they are usually made of steel. Modern steel truss
members are manufactured in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. A few common
examples are shown on the following page. The model truss we will be building uses
both solid bars and hollow tubes.
Fig. (4-2) Type of steel truss members.

One major component of a truss bridge that is usually not made of steel is the deck
the flat surface between the two main trusses. Bridge decks are usually made of
concrete, but might also be built from wooden planks or steel grating. When vehicles or
pedestrians cross a bridge, their weight is directly supported by the deck. The deck, in
turn, is supported on the floor beams. The floor beams transmit the weight of the
vehicles and pedestrians (and the weight of the deck) to the main trusses.
The truss drawings above do not show the connections that are used to join the
structural members together. Even though the connections are not shown, they are
important. They have a big influence on the ability of a structure to carry load.
There are two common types of structural connections used in trusses-pinned
connections and gusset plate connections. As the name suggests, the pinned connection
uses a single large metal pin to connect two or more members together, much like the
pin in a door hinge. In a gusset plate connection, members are joined together by one or
two heavy metal gusset plates, which are attached to the individual members with rivets,
bolts, or welds. Pinned connections were used extensively throughout the 19th century.
Most modern bridges-including the model bridge we will be building here-use gusset
plate connections.

Fig. (4-3) Typical Truss connections.

Each of the bridge components described above has a specific purpose. All of the
components work together to ensure that the bridge carries load safely and efficiently.
4-3 Foundations:
Every structure must be supported on a firm foundation, which distributes the
weight of the structure to the soil or rock below it. Bridges use two different types of
foundations. The ends of a bridge usually rest on abutments, which serve two functions
simultaneously, they support the bridge and also hold back the soil that is filled in
behind them. If the bridge requires additional support in the middle of the gap, one or
more piers are used, as shown below. Abutments and piers are normally made of
concrete. All structural foundations are designed by civil engineers with special
expertise in soils and foundations. These men and women are called geotechnical
engineers.
Fig. (4-4) Type of Bridge Foundation.

4-4 Types of Truss Bridges:
Truss bridges are grouped into three general categories, based on their deck
location. If the deck is located at the level of the bottom chord, the bridge is called a
through truss. A pony truss looks just like a through truss, except it is not as high and
has no lateral bracing between the top chords. If the deck is located at the level of the
top chord, the bridge is called a deck truss. Trusses are also classified according to the

geometric arrangement of their chords, verticals, and diagonals. The diagrams on the
following page show 15 of the most common truss configurations, many of which were
named for the 19th century engineers who developed them. On each diagram, the solid
lines represent the main structural members in the truss. The dotted lines shown on some
trusses represent supplemental members that may or may not be present on a particular
bridge of this type. Designers sometimes use these lightweight diagonal members to
more efficiently carry the weight of moving vehicles. The classification of a bridge is
not affected by the presence or absence of these supplemental members.
Fig. (4-5) Common Truss Types.

4-5 How a Structure Carries Load:
One of the most important learning objectives of this project is to understand how a
truss bridge carries load. But what exactly is a “load,” and what does it mean for a
structure to “carry a load?” To answer these questions, we will need to introduce (or
perhaps review) some basic concepts from physics.
4-5-1 Forces:
Much of structural engineering deals, in some way, with the concept of force. A
force is simply a push or a pull applied to an object. A force always has both magnitude
and direction. When a truck crosses a bridge, it exerts a force on the bridge. The
magnitude of the force is the weight of the truck, and the direction of the force is
downward. Mathematically, we represent a force as a vector. By definition, a vector is a

quantity that has both magnitude and direction. To show a force on a picture or diagram,
we normally represent it as an arrow (which shows the direction) and a magnitude (in
units of force), like this: In structural engineering, it is useful to distinguish between
three different kinds of forces, loads, reactions, and internal member forces.
4-5-2 Loads:
A load is simply a force applied to a structure. Actual bridges are subjected to
many different kinds of loads, including the following:
 Weight of the vehicles and pedestrians crossing the bridge
 Weight of the bridge itself
 Weight of the asphalt or concrete road surface
 Wind pushing sideways on the structure
 Weight of snow, ice, or rainwater
 Forces caused by earthquakes
In designing a bridge, the structural engineer must consider the effects of all these
loads, including cases where two or more different kinds of loads might occur at the
same time.
4-5-3 Internal Member Forces:
When you apply external loads to a structure, external reactions occur at the
supports. But internal forces are also developed within each structural member. In a
truss, these internal member forces will always be either tension or compression.
Tension force tends to make a member longer. A member in compression is being
squashed, like the block of foam in the picture below. Compression force makes a
member shorter. In our nutcracker truss example, the two handles are in compression,
while the string is in tension. Like loads and reactions, internal member forces must
obey the laws of physics. Internal forces must be in equilibrium with each other and
with the loads and reactions. By applying the concept of equilibrium and some relatively
simple math, we can actually calculate the internal force in every member of a truss.

This example is inspired by a classic bridge type called a Pratt truss bridge. You
can identify a Pratt truss by its diagonal members. All the diagonal members are subject
to tension forces only, while the shorter vertical members handle the compressive forces.
Since the tension removes the buckling risk, this allows for thinner diagonal members
resulting in a more economic design.
4-6 Design of Truss:
Fig. (4-6) Component of a through- truss bridge

4-6-1 Dead load on truss:
Slab D.L = 7 * 150 * 31  2.71 k / ft

12 1000
7 150
Curb  *6*  0.525 k / ft
12 1000
Railing estimate = 0.01 k /ft
Stringer
Stringer  4.5 * 0.145  0.652 k / ft
truss
3.76 k / ft *12
Floor beam  35'
 1.289 k / ft
Super imposed dead load = 5.2 k / ft
4-6-2 Live load distribution on truss:
The maximum reaction on truss may be obtained according to (figure 4-7) as follows:
L.L truss Lane (14  26  39  51) Lanes
  2.1
62 truss

6’ 10 2’ 10 3’ 10 2’ 10 3’ 6
'
14
26
39
51
Fig. (4-7) Live load distribution on truss.

4-6-3 Lane in truss:
Uniform lane load = 2.1 * 0.64 = 1.344 k/ft

Concentrated lane load = 2.1 (18) = 37.8 k
50
Impact for 210 ft   0.145  0.3
210  125
37.8 37.8
Super imposed live load  1.344   0.149 [1.344  ] = 2.785 k/ft
35' 35
Total superimposed load = 2.785 + 5.2 = 7.985 k / ft
Estimate truss weight
W 7.985
W L  210  * 1000
d 9
1.0972
Bottom panel  5.2   5.75 k / ft
2
1.0972
Top panel   0.548k / ft
2
4-7 Analysis of Bridges (Influence lines for truss):
As discussed above, bridges are required to support both static and
moving loads. Each element of a bridge must be designed for the most severe
conditions that can possibly be developed in that member. Live loads should
be placed in such a way that they will produce the most severe conditions.
The critical positions of live loads will not condition of loading is by using

“influence lines”. An influence line represents some internal force such as
shear force, bending moment etc. at a particular section or in a given member
of girder, as a unit load moves over the span.
The ordinate of influence line represents the value of that function when the unit
load is at that particular point on the structure. Influence lines provide a systematic
procedure for determining how the force (or a moment or shear) in a given part of a
structure varies as the applied load moves about on the structure. Influence lines of
responses of statically determinate structures consist only of straight lines whereas this is
not true of indeterminate structures. It may be noted that a shear or bending moment
diagram shows the variation of shear or moment across an entire structure for loads
fixed in one position. On the other hand an influence line for shear or moment shows the
variation of that response at one particular section in the structure caused by the
movement of a unit load from one end of the structure to the other. In the following
section, influence lines only for statically determinate structures are discussed.
A unit force is placed at various locations and the force is obtained for each
position of the unit load. These values give the ordinates of influence line with which the
influence line diagram for force can be constructed. Note that the slope of the influence
line for shear on the left of the section is equal to the slope of the influence line on the
right of the section. This information is useful in drawing force influence line in all
cases. The detailed calculation of ordinates of influence lines is illustrated for members
of the truss girder in the following section. Influence lines are useful to determine the
maximum force that may act on the truss members. The truss shown in Fig. 13 is
considered for illustrating the construction of influence lines for trusses. The influence
line for a reaction at a support is found by independently applying a unit load at several
points on the structure and determining, through statics, what the resulting reaction at
the support will be for each case.
4-8 Instructional Objectives:
The objectives of this lesson are as follows.

• Understand the bridge truss floor system and load transfer mechanism
• Draw the influence line for the truss reactions
• Draw the influence line for the truss member forces
A typical bridge floor system is shown in Figure ().The load path is easy to trace
loading on bridge deck is transferred to longitudinal stringers. These stringers in turn
transfer the load to floor beams and then to the joints along the bottom chord of the
truss. It should be noted that for any load position; the truss is always loaded at the joint.
Figure shows the various members that comprise a typical truss bridge, in this case a
common Pratt truss. Method of sections, a more streamlined procedure that investigates
the equilibrium of selected sections of the truss.
Fig. (4-8) Procedure for Solving Influence line for Trusses.

The following I.L of the selected truss is of (Pratt type).
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 (-) Comp.
(+) Tens.
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
Fig. (4-9) Pratt Truss Dimension.

By using Staad Pro Program to find the Axial Force:

Fig. (4-10) Staad Pro Axial Force for Truss.
Axial Load at Joint Lo
Axial Load at Joint L1


Table (4-1) I.L of the selected truss is of (Pratt type) by Staad Pro Program.
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
Beam Beam Node 0 ft 35 ft 70 ft 105 ft 140 ft 175 ft 210 ft
Fx kip Fx kip Fx kip Fx kip Fx kip Fx kip Fx kip
LoU1 1 1 0 1.106 0.886 0.664 0.443 0.221 0
8 0 0
U1U2 2 8 0 0.584 1.166 0.875 0.583 0.292 0
9 0 0
U2U3 3 9 0 0.437 0.875 1.311 0.875 0.437 0
10 0 0
U3U4 4 10 0 0.437 0.875 1.311 0.875 0.437 0
11 0 0
U4U5 5 11 0 0.292 0.583 0.875 1.166 0.584 0
12 0 0
U5L6 6 12 0 0.221 0.443 0.664 0.886 1.106 0
7 0 0
L5L6 7 7 0 0
6 0 -0.146 -0.292 -0.437 -0.583 -0.729 0
L4L5 8 6 0 0
5 0 -0.146 -0.292 -0.438 -0.584 -0.729 0
L3L4 9 5 0 0
4 0 -0.292 -0.583 -0.875 -1.166 -0.583 0
L2L3 10 4 0 0
3 0 -0.583 -1.166 -0.875 -0.583 -0.292 0
L1L2 11 3 0 0
2 0 -0.729 -0.584 -0.438 -0.292 -0.146 0
L0L1 12 2 0 0
1 0 -0.729 -0.583 -0.437 -0.292 -0.146 0
L4U4 13 11 0 0.166 0.333 0.498 0
5 0 -0.333 -0.166 0
L5U5 14 12 0 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 -0.998 0
L3U3 15 10 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 -0.001 0
L2U2 16 9 0 0.498 0.333 0.166 0
3 0 -0.166 -0.333 0
L1U1 17 8 0 0 0
2 0 -0.998 0 0 0 0
L2U1 18 8 0 0.22 0
3 0 -0.884 -0.663 -0.442 -0.221 0
L3U2 19 9 0 0.221 0.441 0
4 0 -0.663 -0.442 -0.221 0
L3U4 20 11 0 0.441 0.221 0

4 0 -0.221 -0.442 -0.663 0
21 12 0 0.22 0
L4U5
5 0 -0.221 -0.442 -0.663 -0.884 0
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 (-) Comp.
(+) Tens.
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6


Fig. (4-11) Influence line for each members.
4-8-1 Forces in truss due to lane loading and Dead Load:

Uniform lane load = 1.344 k / ft
Concentrated lane load = 37.8 k
Impact load percentage = 0.149
WD.L = 5.75 k/ ft
L.L= Uniform lane load*Area+Max Axial Force of Truss Member* Concentrated
lane load
I= Impact load percentage*L.L
D.L= WD.L*Area

Table (4-2) Force in truss due to lane load, Impact and dead load.
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
Impact load 0 35 70 105 140 175 0 Area
percentage=0.149 Fx Fx Fx Fx Fx Fx Fx =
L.L I D.L
kip kip kip kip kip kip kip
1 1 0 1.106 0.886 0.664 0.443 0.221 0 116.2 197.5148 29.42971 668.15
LoU1
8 0 0
2 8 0 0.584 1.166 0.875 0.583 0.292 0 122.5 208.2248 31.0255 704.375
U1U2
9 0 0
137.72
3 9 0 0.437 0.875 1.311 0.875 0.437 0 234.1073 34.88199 791.9188
U2U3 5
10 0 0
137.72
4 10 0 0.437 0.875 1.311 0.875 0.437 0 234.1073 34.88199 791.9188
U3U4 5
11 0 0
5 11 0 0.292 0.583 0.875 1.166 0.584 0 122.5 208.2248 31.0255 704.375
U4U5
12 0 0
6 12 0 0.221 0.443 0.664 0.886 1.106 0 116.2 197.5148 29.42971 668.15
U5L6
7 0 0
7 7 0 0
L5L6 - - - - - -
6 0 0 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536
0.146 0.292 0.437 0.583 0.729 76.615
8 6 0 0
L4L5 - - - - - -
5 0 0 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536
0.146 0.292 0.438 0.584 0.729 76.615
9 5 0 0
L3L4 - - - - -
4 0 0 -122.5 -208.225 -31.0255 -704.375
0.292 0.583 0.875 1.166 0.583
10 4 0 0
L2L3 - - - - -
3 0 0 -122.5 -208.225 -31.0255 -704.375
0.583 1.166 0.875 0.583 0.292
11 3 0 0
L1L2 - - - - - -
2 0 0 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536
0.729 0.584 0.438 0.292 0.146 76.615
12 2 0 0
L0L1 - - - - - -
1 0 0 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536
0.729 0.583 0.437 0.292 0.146 76.615
13 11 0 0.166 0.333 0.498 0 31.5 61.0344 9.094126 181.125
L4U4 - -
5 0 0 -13.97 -31.3072 -4.66477 -80.3275
0.333 0.166
14 12 0 0 0
L5U5 -
6 0 0 0 0 0 -35 -84.6244 -12.609 -201.25
0.998
15 10 0 0 0 0 0 0
L3U3 -
4 0 0 0 0 0
0.001
16 9 0 0.498 0.333 0.166 0 31.5 61.0344 9.094126 181.125
L2U2 - -
3 0 0 -13.97 -31.3072 -4.66477 -80.3275
0.166 0.333
17 8 0 0 0
L1U1 -
2 0 0 0 0 0 -35 -84.6244 -12.609 -201.25
0.998
18 8 0 0.22 0 4.61 14.4934 2.159517 26.5075
L2U1 - - - -
3 0 0 73.6 -132.039 -19.6738 -423.2
0.884 0.663 0.442 0.221
19 9 0 0.221 0.441 0 19.7 43.0678 6.417102 113.275
L3U2 - - -
4 0 0 -40 -78.6614 -11.7205 -230
0.663 0.442 0.221
20 11 0 0.441 0.221 0 19.7 43.0678 6.417102 113.275
L3U4 - - -
4 0 0 -40 -78.6614 -11.7205 -230
0.221 0.442 0.663
21 12 0 0.22 0 4.61 14.4934 2.159517 26.5075
L4U5 - - - -
5 0 0 73.6 65.2088 9.716111 423.2
0.221 0.442 0.663 0.884

Table (4-3) Total Forces in truss.
Member L.L I D.L Total
LoU1 197.5148 29.42971 668.15 895.0945 Tension
U1U2 208.2248 31.0255 704.375 943.6253 Tension
U2U3 234.1073 34.88199 791.9188 1060.908 Tension
U3U4 234.1073 34.88199 791.9188 1060.908 Tension
U4U5 208.2248 31.0255 704.375 943.6253 Tension
U5L6 197.5148 29.42971 668.15 895.0945 Tension
L5L6 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536 -590.159 Compression
L4L5 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536 -590.159 Compression
L3L4 -208.225 -31.0255 -704.375 -943.626 Compression
L2L3 -208.225 -31.0255 -704.375 -943.626 Compression
L1L2 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536 -590.159 Compression
L0L1 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536 -590.159 Compression

61.0344 9.094126 181.125 100.7975 Tension
L4U4 170.926
-31.3072 -4.66477 -80.3275
L5U5 -84.6244 -12.609 -201.25 -298.483 Compression
L3U3 0 0 0 0 0 0
61.0344 9.094126 181.125 100.7975 Tension
L2U2 170.926
-31.3072 -4.66477 -80.3275
L1U1 -84.6244 -12.609 -201.25 -298.483 Compression
14.4934 2.159517 26.5075 -396.693
L2U1 -548.406 Compression
-132.039 -19.6738 -423.2
43.0678 6.417102 113.275 -116.725
-78.6614 -11.7205 -230
43.0678 6.417102 113.275 -116.725
-78.6614 -11.7205 -230
14.4934 2.159517 26.5075 -396.693
-132.039 -19.6738 -423.2
When the combination process has made between forces resulting from the live and
dead load, then the member subjected to reversal stresses must be designed according to
final stress for combination or both of them. The following figure shows the final forces.

U1 L = 208.2 U2 L = 234.1 U3
I = 31.02 I = 34.8
D = 704.3 D = 791.9
T = 943.62 T = 1060.9
L = 197.514 L =84.62 L =132.03 L =61.03 L =78.66

I = 29.4 I =12.6 I =19.67 I =9.09 I =11.2 0
D = 668.15 D =201.25 D =423.2 D =100.79 D =-230
T = 895.094 T =298.47 T =574.9 T =170.92 T =-139.62
L =130.7 L =130.2 L =208.2

I =19.4 I =19.4 I =31.02
L0 D =440.5 L1 D =440.5 L2 D =704.3 L3
T =590.6 T =590.6 T =943.22
Fig. (4-12): Final Load for live & dead load combination
4-9 Selection of truss member:
4-9-1 Design of tension member:
Table (4-4a) tension member forces.
LoU1 197.5148 29.42971 668.15 895.0945 Tension
U1U2 208.2248 31.0255 704.375 943.6253 Tension
U2U3 234.1073 34.88199 791.9188 1060.908 Tension
U3U4 234.1073 34.88199 791.9188 1060.908 Tension
U4U5 208.2248 31.0255 704.375 943.6253 Tension
U5L6 197.5148 29.42971 668.15 895.0945 Tension

61.0344 9.094126 181.125 100.7975 Tension
L4U4 170.926
-31.3072 -4.66477 -80.3275
61.0344 9.094126 181.125 100.7975 Tension
L2U2 170.926
-31.3072 -4.66477 -80.3275
KL
Max = 300 K =1 (AASHTO specification)
r
Table (4-4b) Design of tension member.
Member LoU1 U1U2 U2U3 U3U4 U4U5 U5L6 L4U4 L2U2
Design 895.0945 943.6253 1060.908 1060.908 943.6253 895.0945 170.926 170.926
Length 53.15 35 53 53 53 53.15 40 40
2
A g (in ) 27.62 29.12 32.744 32.744 29.12 27.62 5.2 5.2
2
A g (in ) 22.86 24.1 27..09 27..09 24.1 22.86 4.36 4.36
Section W10*49 W6*20 W10*49 W10*49 W6*20 W10*49 W8*28 W8*28
rmin. 2.126 1.4 2.12 2.12 1.4 2.126 1.6 1.6
L*12/r 251.102< 280<300 250.393< 250.393< 280<300 251.102 296.296< 296.296<

min<300 300 300 300 300 300
Example for calculation
By using LRFD method
LoU1 = 895.0945 k
Length = 53.15 ft
895.0945
min A g  Pu/ * Fy   27.62in 2 (control )
0.9 * 36
895.0945
A g  Pu/ * Fu * u  est. holes   0  22.81 in 2
0.75 * 58 * 0.9
We will take the bigger Ag

L 1 * 53.15 *12
rmin    2.126 in
300 300
From table (1-1) in the AISC manual

Try W10*49(Ag=14.4 in2, rx=4.35 in, ry=2.524 in, d=10 in, bf=10 in, tf=0.56
in)
Recheck
1-Pu=Fy*Ag=36*29.1=1047.6 ….o.k.
φ tensile strength >pu o.k [(D2-1) PDF (1503)]
φP=0.9*1047.6=942.84>895.0945 o.k
2- φ Check tensile rapture (tensile rupture >pu) o.k
Pn=Fu*Ae=Fu*Anet*U [(D2-2) PDF (1503)]
3-Check the slenderness ratio L*12/r <300 (min r for the new section (in))
L *12 1* 53.15 *12
 300......  251.1002  300....o.k.
r 2.54
4-9-2 Design of compression member:
Table (4-5a) Compression Member forces.
L5L6 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536 -590.159 Compression
L4L5 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536 -590.159 Compression

L3L4 -208.225 -31.0255 -704.375 -943.626 Compression
L2L3 -208.225 -31.0255 -704.375 -943.626 Compression
L1L2 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536 -590.159 Compression
L0L1 -130.22 -19.4028 -440.536 -590.159 Compression
L5U5 -84.6244 -12.609 -201.25 -298.483 Compression
L1U1 -84.6244 -12.609 -201.25 -298.483 Compression

14.4934 2.159517 26.5075 -396.693
-132.039 -19.6738 -423.2
43.0678 6.417102 113.275 -116.725
-78.6614 -11.7205 -230
43.0678 6.417102 113.275 -116.725
-78.6614 -11.7205 -230
14.4934 2.159517 26.5075 -396.693
-132.039 -19.6738 -423.2
Table (4-5b) Design of Compression Member

member Design Length
Force (ft) A g (in2) Section φFcr λ λr
(k)
L5L6 590.159 35 15.73 W14*132 16.7596 7.135 15.8
L4L5 590.159 35 15.73 W14*132 16.7596 7.135 15.8
L3L4 943.626 35 25.16 W14.193 18.3594 5.45 15.8
L2L3 943.626 35 25.16 W14.193 18.3594 5.45 15.8
L1L2 590.159 35 15.73 W14*132 16.7596 7.135 15.8
L0L1 590.159 35 15.73 W14*132 16.7596 7.135 15.8
L5U5 298.483 40 7.95 W14*90 16.3974 10.211 15.8
L1U1 298.483 40 7.95 W14*90 16.3974 10.211 15.8
L2U1 548.406 53.15 14.62 W14*132 16.7596 7.135 15.8
L3U2 207.107 53.15 5.52 W14*90 16.3974 10.211 15.8
L3U4 207.107 53.15 5.52 W14*90 16.3974 10.211 15.8
L4U5 548.406 53.15 14.62 W14*132 16.7596 7.135 15.8
L5L6 = 590.159 k
Length = 35 ft
KL/r< 300
1-Assume KL/r=50…..table 4-22 to find φFcr=37.5
2-min A g  Pu/Fcr =590.159/37.5=15.73
table 1-1... try W14*132

3-recheck:
1-(KL/r )x = 1*35*12/6.28=66.87
(KL/r )y =1*35*12/3.76=111.702
choose the largest ….table 4-22 ….φFcrAg=16.7596*38.8=650.27
>Pu=590.159 ok
2-λ<λr ………. 7.135<15.8
𝑏𝑓 14.7
𝑏
λ=flange (bf/2/ tf ) web (d-2k/tw) = = 2
= 2
= 7.135
𝑡 𝑡𝑓 1.03
𝐸 29000
λr=…table B4.1 PDF 1493 case (3-10) =0.56√ = 0.56√ =15.8
𝐹𝑦 50
λflange< λr ….o.k non-slender flange (flange is compact).

λweb< λr ….o.k non-slender web (web is compact).
4-10 Wind Load on Truss:
Assume wind load = 20 Ib/ft

Fig. (4-13) Wind load on truss.

Table (4-6) Wind Load calculation.
Joint L0 Joint U1:
[(35 + 53.15) / 2] *20/1000 [(40 + 35 + 53.15 + 53.15) / 2] * 20 /1000=
= 0.8815 k 1.813 k
Joint L1: Joint U2:
[(40 + 35 +35) / 2] * 20/1000 =1.1 k [(40 + 35 + 35 +53.15) / 2] * 20/1000
= 1.6315 k
Joint L2: Joint U3:
[(40 + 35 + 35 +53.15) / 2] * 20/1000 = [(40 + 35 +35) / 2] * 20/1000 =1.1 k
1.6315 k
Joint L3: Joint U4:
[(35 + 35 + 40 + 53.15 + 53.15) / 2] * [(40 + 35 + 35 +53.15) / 2] * 20/1000 = 1.6315
20/1000 = 2.163 k k
Joint L4: Joint U5:
[(40 + 35 + 35 +53.15) / 2] * 20 /1000= [(40 + 35 + 53.15 + 53.15) / 2] * 20 /1000=
1.6315 k 1.813 k
Joint L5: Joint L6:
[(40 + 35 +35) / 2] * 20 /1000=1.1 k [(35 + 53.15) / 2] *20/1000 = 0.8815 k
Diagrammatic illustration of wind brace and portal action shows in this figure.

Fig. (4-14) wind brace and portal action

4-11Design of Bracing:
4-11-1 Design of lower bracing (bottom chord lateral system):
B=2n – 3 = 2 (14) – 3 = 25 B act = 31 > 25

It is statically indeterminate to 6 th degree. Therefore assume panel shear equally divided
among the diagonal.
By using Staad Pro Program to find the Axial Force:

Lo' L1' L2' L3' L4' L5' L6'
Lo L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
0.8815 K 0.8815 K
1.1 K 1.6315 K 2.163 K 1.6315 K 1.1 K

Fig. (4-15) Lower Bracing.
Final result of design of lower bracing:
L0’ L1’ L2’ L3’ L4’ L5’ L6’

-1.417 -2.968 -4.148 -4.148 -2.968 -1.417
2.88 1.659 0.945 -0.296 -1.454 -1.495
2.185 -0.141 0.443 0.516

0.443 -0.14 2.185
0.945
-1.495 -1.454 -0.296 1.659 2.88
L0 0.736 L1 2.868 L2 3.829 L3 3.829 L4 2.868 L5 0.736 L6
Fig. (4-16): Final Results.

Table (4-7): Staad pro Results.
Beam Axial Force kip
1 LoL1 0.736 Tension
2 L1L2 2.868 Tension
7 L6L6' 2.185 Tension
8 L6'L5' -1.417 Compression

14 L0'L0 2.185 Tension
16 L1'L1 -0.141 Compression
20 L0L1' -1.495 Compression
4-11-1-1 Design of Tension Member:
Table (4-8a) Tension Member forces.
1 LoL1 0.736 Tension
Table (4-8b) Design of Tension Member.
Member Design Length A g (in2) A eff (in2) rmin. L/rsec.<300
Force (ft) Section
(k)

L0L1 0.736 35 0.02271 0.01879 W8*15 1.4 298.655 <300
L1L2 2.868 35 0.08851 0.07325 W8*15 1.4 298.655 <300
L2L3 3.829 35 0.11817 0.0978 W8*15 1.4 298.655 <300
L3L4 3.829 35 0.11817 0.0978 W8*15 1.4 298.655 <300
L4L5 2.868 35 0.08851 0.07325 W8*15 1.4 298.655 <300
L5L6 0.736 35 0.02271 0.01879 W8*15 1.4 298.655 <300
L6L6' 2.185 62 0.06743 0.05581 W12*49 2.48 292.91<300
L0'L0 2.185 62 0.06743 0.05581 W12*49 2.48 292.91<300
L0'L1 2.88 71.2 0.08889 0.07356 W12*65 2.84 282.91<300
L1'L2 1.659 71.2 0.0512 0.04237 W12*65 2.84 282.91<300
L2'L2 0.443 62 0.01367 0.01131 W12*49 2.48 292.91<300
L3'L3 0.516 62 0.01592 0.01318 W12*49 2.48 292.91<300
L3L2' 0.945 71.2 0.02916 0.02413 W12*65 2.84 282.91<300
L3L4' 0.945 71.2 0.02916 0.02413 W12*65 2.84 282.91<300
L5L6' 2.88 71.2 0.08889 0.07356 W12*65 2.84 282.91<300
L4L5' 1.659 71.2 0.0512 0.04237 W12*65 2.84 282.91<300
L4L4' 0.443 62 0.01367 0.01131 W12*49 2.48 292.91<300
KL
Max = 300 K =1 (AASHTO specification)
r
L0L1 = 0.736 k
Length = 35 ft
0.736
0.9 * 36
0.736
min A g  Pu/ * Fu * u  est. holes   0  0.01879 in 2
0.75 * 58 * 0.9

L 1 * 35 *12
rmin    1.4
300 300

Try W8*15(Ag=4.43 in2, rx=2.56 in, ry=1.45 in, d=5.99 in, bf=5.99 in, tf=0.26
in)
Recheck
1-Pu=Fy*Ag=36*4.43 =159.48 ….o.k.
2-φ tensile strength >pu o.k
φP=0.9*159.48 =143.53>0.736 o.k
3- φ Check rapture (tensile rupture >pu) o.k
4-check Slenderness (L/r>300)
L 1* 35 *12 L 1* 35 *12
  164.0625   298.655
r 2.56 r 1.45
4-11-1-2 Design of compression member
16 L1'L1 -0.141 Compression
Table (4-9b) Design of Compression Member.
member Design
Length λ λr
Force
(ft)
A g (in2) Section φFcr
(k)
L6'L5' -1.417 35 0.03778 W8*67 5.75322 4.427 15.89
L5'L4' -2.968 35 0.07914 W8*67 5.75322 4.427 15.89
L4'L3' -4.148 35 0.11061 W8*67 5.75322 4.427 15.89
L3'L2' -4.148 35 0.11061 W8*67 5.75322 4.427 15.89
L2'L1' -2.968 35 0.07914 W8*67 5.75322 4.427 15.89
L1'L0' -1.417 35 0.03778 W8*67 5.75322 4.427 15.89
L1'L1 -0.141 62 0.00376 W14*109 5.677 8.488 15.89
L0L1' -1.495 71.2 0.03986 W14*257 5.7669 4.232 15.89
L1L2' -1.454 71.2 0.03877 W14*257 5.7669 4.232 15.89
L5L4' -1.454 71.2 0.03877 W14*257 5.7669 4.232 15.89
L6L5' -1.495 71.2 0.03986 W14*257 5.7669 4.232 15.89
L5L5' -0.141 62 0.00376 W14*109 5.677 8.488 15.89
L4L3' -0.296 71.2 0.00789 W14*109 5.677 8.488 15.89
L2L3' -0.296 71.2 0.00789 W14*109 5.677 8.488 15.89

L6'L5' =1.417 k
Length = 35 ft
KL/r< 200
1-Assure KL/r=50…..table 4-22 to find φFcr=37.5
2-min A g  Pu/Fcr =1.417/37.5=0.03778
table 1-1... try W8*67
3-recheck:
1-(KL/r )x = 1*35*12/3.72=112.90
(KL/r )y =1*35*12/2.12=198.113
>Pu=1.417 ok
2-λ<λr ……….4.427< 15.89
𝑏𝑓 8.28
𝑏
= 2
= 4.427
𝑡 𝑡𝑓 0.935
𝐸 29000
λr=…table B4.1 case (3-10) =0.56√ = 0.56√ =15.8
𝐹𝑦 50
4-11-2 Design of upper bracing (upper chord lateral system):

U1' U2' U3' U3' U5'
U1
U2 U3 U4 U5
1.815 k 1.6315 k 1.1 k 1.6315 k 1.815 k

Fig. (4-17) Upper Bracing.
Final result of design of upper bracing:

U1’ -0.994 U2’ -1.448 U3’ 8-1.448 U4’ -0.99 U5’
2.022 0.441
0.037 2.022
0.037 -0.818
2.235 0.332 2.235
-0.482 -0.191 0.441 -0.482
U1 0.237 U2 1.325 U3 1.325 U4 0.237 U5

Fig. (4-12): Final Results.
Table (4-10): Staad pro Results.
Beam Axial Force
kip
3 U1U2 0.237 Tension
7 U5U5' 2.235 Tension

8 U4'U5' -0.994 Compression
23 U2U3' -0.191 Compression
4-11-2-1 Design of tension member:
Table (4-11a) tension member forces.
Beam Axial Force
kip
KL
Max = 300 K = 1 (AASHTO specification)
r
Table (4-11b) Design of tension member.
member Design Length A g (in2) A eff (in2) rmin. L/rsec.<300
Force (ft) Section
(k)
U1U2 0.237 35 0.00731 0.00605 W8*15 1.4 298.655 <300
U2U3 1.325 35 0.04089 0.03384 W8*15 1.4 298.655 <300
U3U4 1.325 35 0.04089 0.03384 W8*15 1.4 298.655 <300
U4U5 0.237 35 0.00731 0.00605 W8*15 1.4 298.655 <300
U5U5' 2.235 62 0.06898 0.05708 W12*49 2.48 292.91<300
U1U1' 2.235 62 0.06898 0.05708 W12*49 2.48 292.91<300
U2U2' 0.037 62 0.00114 0.00094 W12*49 2.48 292.91<300

U2U1' 2.022 71.2 0.0624 0.05164 W12*65 2.84 282.91<300
U4U5' 2.022 71.2 0.0624 0.05164 W12*65 2.84 282.91<300
U4U3' 0.037 62 0.00114 0.00094 W12*49 2.48 292.91<300
U3U4' 0.441 71.2 0.01361 0.01126 W12*65 2.84 282.91<300
U3U3' 0.332 62 0.01024 0.00848 W12*49 2.48 292.91<300
U3U2' 0.441 71.2 0.01361 0.01126 W12*65 2.84 282.91<300
U1U2 = 0.237 k
Length = 35 ft
0.237
0.9 * 36
0.237
min A g  Pu/ * Fu * u  est. holes   0  0.00605 in 2
0.75 * 58 * 0.9

L 1 * 35 *12
rmin    1.4
300 300

Try W8*15(Ag=4.43 in2, rx=2.56 in, ry=1.45 in, d=5.99 in, bf=5.99 in, tf=0.26
in)
Recheck
1-Pu=Fy*Ag=36*4.43 =159.48 ….o.k.
2-φ tensile strength >pu o.k
φP=0.9*159.48 =143.53>0.736 o.k
4-check Slenderness (L/r>300)
L 1* 35 *12 L 1* 35 *12
  164.0625   298.655
r 2.56 r 1.45
4-11-2-2 Design of compression member:

Beam Axial Force
kip
Table (4-12b) Design of Compression Member.
Member Design Length
Force (ft) A g (in2) Section φFcr λ λr
(k)
U4'U5' 0.994 35 0.0265 W8*67 5.75322 4.427 15.89
U3'U4' 1.448 35 0.0386 W8*67 5.75322 4.427 15.89
U2'U3' 1.448 35 0.0386 W8*67 5.75322 4.427 15.89
U1'U2' 0.994 35 0.0265 W8*67 5.75322 4.427 15.89
U2U3' 0.191 71.2 0.00509 W14*257 5.7669 4.232 15.89
U4U3' 0.191 71.2 0.00509 W14*257 5.7669 4.232 15.89
U5U4' 0.482 71.2 0.0129 W14*257 5.7669 4.232 15.89
U1U2' 0.482 71.2 0.0129 W14*257 5.7669 4.232 15.89
U4'U5' = 0.994 k
Length = 35 ft
KL/r< 200
2-min A g  Pu/Fcr =0.994 /37.5=0.0265
3-recheck :
1-(KL/r )x = 1*35*12/3.72=112.90
(KL/r )y =1*35*12/2.12=198.113
>Pu=1.417 ok
2-λ<λr ……….4.427< 15.89

𝑏𝑓 8.28
𝑏
= 2
= 4.427
𝑡 𝑡𝑓 0.935
𝐸 29000
λr=…table B4.1 case (3-10) =0.56√ = 0.56√ =15.8
𝐹𝑦 50
4-12 Design of Portal:

Σ M0 = 0 (+) clock wise
4 (25) – V (62) = 0
V =1.612 k
Moment at fixed end S
MA = MA’ = 2 (15) = 30 k .ft
Fig. (4-18) Portal Design.
Table (4-13) Staad pro Results.

Beam Fx kip
1 AB -1.558 Compression
2 BC 0.781 Tension
3 CD 7.079 Tension
4 DC' -3.2 Compression
5 B'C' -0.806 Compression
6 A'B' 1.558 Tension
7 B'E' 4.723 Tension
8 DE -5.365 Compression
10 BE -4.695 Compression
11 E'E 0.031 Tension
12 C'E' 1.189 Tension
13 CE -1.076 Compression

4-12-1 Design of tension member:
Table (4-14a)Tension Member forces.
Beam Fx kip
2 BC 0.781 Tension
3 CD 7.079 Tension
6 A'B' 1.558 Tension
7 B'E' 4.723 Tension
11 E'E 0.031 Tension
12 C'E' 1.189 Tension
Max. (KL/r) = 300 K = 1 (AASHTO) specification
Table (4-14b) Tension Member Design results.
Mem. Design Length(ft) Ag A g (in2 Section rmin.

Force k (in2
CD 7.079 31 0.2184 0.1808 W5*16 1.24
BC 0.781 10 0.0241 0.0199 W4*13 0.4
A'B' 1.558 30 0.04808 0.0397 W5*16 1.2
B'E' 4.723 16.29 0.14577 0.1206 W4*13 0.6516
E'E 0.031 31 0.00095 0.00079 W5*16 1.24
'C'E 1.189 16.29 0.0366 0.030 W4*13 0.6516
CD=7.079 k
Length = 31 ft
7.079
0.9 * 36
7.079
min A g  Pu/ * Fu * u  est. holes   0  0.1808 in 2 (control )
0.75 * 58 * 0.9

L 1 * 31 *12
rmin    1.24
300 300
Try W5*16 (Ag=4.71 in2, rx=2.13 in, ry=1.26 in, d=5.01 in, bf=5 in, tf=0.360
in)
Recheck
1-Pu=Fy*Ag=36*4.71=169.56 ….o.k.

2- φ tensile strength >pu o.k
φP=0.9*169.56=152.604>7.079 o.k
Fu*Ae=58*4.71*0.9=245.862>7.079 ok
4-check block shear >pu o.k
4-12-2 Design of compression member:

Beam Fx kip
1 AB -1.558 Compression
4 DC' -3.2 Compression
5 B'C' -0.806 Compression
8 DE -5.365 Compression
10 BE -4.695 Compression
13 CE -1.076 Compression
Table (4-15b) Compression Member Design results.
Member Design Length(ft) Ag(in2) section φFcr Λ λr
Force k
BE 4.695 16.29 0.1252 W4*13 5.9112 5.884 15.89
AB 1.558 30 0.0415 W8*31 7.21029 9.1954 15.89
DC' 3.2 31 0.8534 W8*31 6.65894 9.1954 15.89
B'C' 0.806 10 0.0214 W4*13 15.2 5.884 15.89
DE 5.365 16.29 0.14306 W4*13 5.9112 5.884 15.89
CE 1.076 16.29 0.02869 W4*13 5.9112 5.884 15.89

BE = 4.695 k
Length = 16.29 ft
KL/r< 200
2-min A g  Pu/Fcr =4.695/37.5=0.1252
3-recheck :
1-(KL/r )x = 1*16.29*12/1.72=113.65

(KL/r )y =1*16.29*12/1=195.48
choose the largest ….table 4-22 ….φFcrAg=5.9112*3.83=22.63 >Pu=4.695
ok
2-λ<λr ……….5.884 <15.89
𝑏𝑓 4.06
𝑏
= 2
= 5.884
𝑡 𝑡𝑓 0.345
𝐸 29000
λr=…table B4.1 case (3-10) =0.56√ = 0.56√ =15.89
𝐹𝑦 50
Table (4-16) section properties.

Chapter Five Comparison of Sections Selected With STAAD Pro Program
Chapter Five
Comparison of Sections Selected
With STAAD Pro Program
5-1 Design Operations:
STAAD contains a broad set of facilities for designing structural members as
individual components of an analyzed structure. The member design facilities provide
the user with the ability to carry out a number of different design operations. These
facilities may be used selectively in accordance with the requirements of the design
problem. The operations to perform a design are:
 Specify the members and the load cases to be considered in the design.
 Specify whether to perform code checking or member selection.
 Specify design parameter values, if different from the default values.
These operations may be repeated by the user any number of times depending upon
the design requirements.
Steel Design may be performed based on the following codes: AISC-ASD, AISC-
LRFD and AASHTO.
Currently STAAD supports steel design of wide flange, S, M, HP shapes, angle,
double angle, channel, double channel, beams with cover plate, composite beams and
code checking of prismatic properties. Almost all AISC steel shapes are available for
input. Following are the descriptions of all the types of sections available:
1. Wide Flanges (W shapes): All wide flange sections as listed in AISC/LRFD are
available the way they are written, e.g. W10X49, W21X50, etc.
2. C, MC, S, M, HP Shapes: The above shapes are available as listed in AISC
without decimal points. For example, C8X11.5 will be input as C8X11 and
S15X42.9 will be input as S15X42, omitting the decimal weights. (Exception:
MC6X151 for MC6X15.1 and MC6X153 for MC6X15.3.)

3. Double Channels, Angle, Double Angles, Tees, Pipes, Tubes, Welded Plate
Girders
5-2 Code Checking:
The purpose of code checking is to check whether the provided section properties
of the members are adequate. The adequacy is checked as per AISC. Code checking is
done using the forces and moments at specified sections of the members. If no sections
are specified, the program uses the start and end forces for code checking. When code
checking is selected, the program calculates and prints whether the members have
passed the code or have failed. The design philosophy embodied in the Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Specification is built around the concept of limit state
design, the current state-of-the-art in structural engineering. Structures are designed and
proportioned taking into consideration the limit states at which they would become unfit
for their intended use. Two major categories of limit-state are recognized--ultimate and
serviceability. The primary considerations in ultimate limit state design are strength and
stability, while that in serviceability is deflection. Appropriate load and resistance
factors are used so that a uniform reliability is achieved for all steel structures under
various loading conditions and at the same time the chances of limits being surpassed
are acceptably remote. In the STAAD implementation of LRFD, members are
proportioned to resist the design loads without exceeding the limit states of strength,
stability and serviceability. Accordingly, the most economic section is selected on the
basis of the least weight criteria as augmented by the designer in specification of
allowable member depths, desired section type, or other such parameters. The code
checking portion of the program checks that code requirements for each selected section
are met and identifies the governing criteria.
The criteria governing the capacity of tension members is based on two limit states.
The limit state of yielding in the gross section is intended to prevent excessive
elongation of the member. The second limit state involves fracture at the section with
the minimum effective net area. STAAD calculates the tension capacity of a given

member based on these two limit states and proceeds with member selection or code
check accordingly.
The column strength equations have been revised in LRFD to take into account
inelastic deformation and other recent research in column behavior. Two equations
governing column strength are available, one for inelastic buckling and the other for
elastic or Euler buckling. Both equations include the effects of residual stresses and
initial out-of-straightness.
Singly symmetric and unsymmetric compression members are designed on the
basis of the limit states of flexural-torsional and torsional buckling. In addition to the
compression resistance criterion, compression members are required to satisfy
slenderness limitations which are a function of the nature of use of the member (main
load resisting component, bracing member, etc.). In both the member selection and code
checking process, STAAD immediately does a slenderness check on appropriate
members before continuing with other procedures for determining the adequacy of a
given member.
5-3 Design Parameters:
The program contains a large number of parameter names which are needed to
perform designing and code checking. These parameter names, with their default values.
The default parameter values have been selected such that they are frequently used
numbers for conventional design.
 Member Selection Specification
This command instructs STAAD to select specified members based on the
parameter value restrictions and specified code. The selection is done using the
results from the most recent analysis and iterating on sections until a least weight
size is obtained.
 Member Selection by Optimization
The program selects all members based on a state-of-the-art optimization
technique. This method requires multiple analyses as well as iteration of sizes

until an overall structure least weight is obtained. This command should be used
with caution since it will require longer processing time.
5-4 purpose of comparison:
We take for comparison the portal frame of the bridge and compare it sections with
AISC manual. The goal of the comparison to show that our analysis is very close to
STAAD Pro results and the difference in results would however relate to that our
Manual is (2005 Edition) while STAAD PRO used is (2008 Edition) that means
difference in Manual Edition used. Tables below shows the difference between selected
member of AISC manual by (LRFD method) with STAAD pro Program. Tables
illustrated the difference between sections in tension and compression member.
Fig. (5-1) Portal Design.
5-5 Design of tension member by AISC manual by (LRFD method) and STAAD PRO
program (Check the adequacy of members based on specifications of the desired
code).
Table (5-1): Comparison of Design results with ASCE manual by (LRFD method) and STAAD PRO
in Tension Member.
Mem. Design Length(ft) ASCE manual by (LRFD method) STAAD PRO

Force
k
Ag Ag Section rx ry Ag Section rx. ry.
(in2 (in2 (in2)
CD 7.079 31 0.2184 0.1808 W5*16 2.13 1.26 3.83 W4X13 1.72 1
BC 0.781 10 0.0241 0.0199 W4*13 1.72 1 3.83 W4X13 1.72 1
A'B' 1.558 30 0.04808 0.0397 W5*16 2.13 1.26 3.83 W4X13 1.72 1
B'E' 4.723 16.29 0.14577 0.1206 W4*13 1.72 1 3.83 W4X13 1.72 1
E'E 0.031 31 0.00095 0.00079 W5*16 2.13 1.26 3.83 W4X13 1.72 1

'C'E 1.189 16.29 0.0366 0.030 W4*13 1.72 1 3.83 W4X13 1.72 1
From table (1-1) in the AISC manual or (Appendix A).

Try W4*13(Ag=3.83 in2, rx=1.71 in, ry=1in, d=4.16 in, bf=4.06 in, tf=0.345
in)
1-Pu=Fy*Ag=36*3.83 =137.88 ….o.k.
φP=0.9*137.88 =124.092>7.079 o.k
Fu*Ae=58*3.83 *0.9=199.926>7.079 ok
L *12 1* 31*12
 300......  372  300.........not.o.k.
r 1
5-6 Design of Compression member by AISC manual by (LRFD method) and STAAD
PRO program (Check the adequacy of members based on specifications of the desired
code).
in Compression Member.
Desig ASCE manual by (LRFD method) STAAD PRO
Lengt
Membe n
h
r Forc Ag(in sectio Ag(in φF
ek
(ft) 2) n
φFcr λ λr 2) section
cr
λ λr
0.1252 W 5.9112 5.88 15.8 3.83 5.9 5.8 15.
BE 4.695 16.29 W4*13
4*13 4 9 112 84 89
0.0415 W 7.2102 9.19 15.8 3.83 Not _ _
AB 1.558 30 8*31 9 54 W4*13 foun
9 d
0.8534 W 6.6589 9.19 15.8 3.83 Not _ _
DC' 3.2 31 8*31 4 54 W4*13 foun
9 d
0.0214 W 15.2 5.88 15.8 3.83 15. 5.8 15.
B'C' 0.806 10 4*13 4 W4*13 2 84
9 89
0.1430 W 5.9112 5.88 15.8 3.83 5.9 5.8 15.
DE 5.365 16.29 W4*13
6 4*13 4 9 112 84 89
0.0286 W 5.9112 5.88 15.8 3.83 5.9 5.8 15.
CE 1.076 16.29 W4*13
9 4*13 4 9 112 84 89
SectioW4*13
1-(KL/r )x = 1*16.29*12/1.72=113.65 <300
(KL/r )y =1*16.29*12/1=195.48 <300

φFcrAg=5.9112*3.83=22.63 >Pu=4.695 ok
2-λ<λr ……….5.884 <15.89
𝑏𝑓 4.06
𝑏
= 2
= 5.884
𝑡 𝑡𝑓 0.345
𝐸 29000
λr=…table B4.1 case (3-10) =0.56√ = 0.56√ =15.89
𝐹𝑦 50
Figs. (5-2) Staad Pro results based on check the adequacy of members.

5-7 Design of tension member by STAAD PRO program (Select Least weight section
size based on specifications of the desired code. The selection is done using the results
from the most recent analysis and iterating on section sizes until a least weight size is
obtained and Optimum section).
in Tension Member.
Mem. Design Length(ft) ASCE manual by (LRFD method) STAAD PRO

Force
k
Ag Ag Section rx ry A g Section rx. ry.
(in2 (in2 (in2)
CD 7.079 31 0.2184 0.1808 W5*16 2.13 1.26 2.52 W 6*8.5 2.43 0.89
BC 0.781 10 0.0241 0.0199 W4*13 1.72 1 2.52 W 6*8.5 2.43 0.89
A'B' 1.558 30 0.04808 0.0397 W5*16 2.13 1.26 2.52 W 6*8.5 2.43 0.89
B'E' 4.723 16.29 0.14577 0.1206 W4*13 1.72 1 2.52 W 6*8.5 2.43 0.89
E'E 0.031 31 0.00095 0.00079 W5*16 2.13 1.26 2.52 W 6*8.5 2.43 0.89
'C'E 1.189 16.29 0.0366 0.030 W4*13 1.72 1 2.52 W 6*8.5 2.43 0.89
From table (1-1) in the AISC manual or (Appendix A).

Try W6*8.5(Ag=2.52 in2, rx=2.43 in, ry=0.89 in, d=5.83 in, bf=3.94 in,
tf=0.195 in)
1-Pu=Fy*Ag=36*2.52 =90.72 ….o.k.
φP=0.9*90.72 =81.648>7.079 o.k
Fu*Ae=58*2.52*0.9=131.54>7.079 ok
L * 12 1 * 31 * 12
 300......  417.977  300...........not.o.k.
r 0.89
5-8Design of compression member by STAAD PRO program (Select Least weight
section size based on specifications of the desired code. The selection is done using the
results from the most recent analysis and iterating on section sizes until a least weight
size is obtained and Optimum section).
in Compression Member.
Desig ASCE manual by (LRFD method) STAAD PRO
Lengt
Membe n
h
r Force Ag(in sectio Ag(in sectio
k
(ft) 2) n
φFcr λ λr 2) n
φFcr λ λr

0.1252 W 5.9112 5.884 15.8 W not _ _
BE 4.695 16.29 4*13 2.52
9 6*8.5 found
0.0415 W 7.2102 9.195 15.8 2.52 W not _ _
AB 1.558 30 8*31 9 4 found
9 6*8.5
0.8534 W 6.6589 9.195 15.8 2.52 W not _ _
DC' 3.2 31 found
8*31 4 4 9 6*8.5
0.0214 W 15.2 5.884 15.8 2.52 W 12.43 10. 15.
B'C' 0.806 10 4*13 4 1 8
9 6*8.5
0.1430 W 5.9112 5.884 15.8 2.52 W not _ _
DE 5.365 16.29 6 4*13 found
9 6*8.5
0.0286 W 5.9112 5.884 15.8 2.52 W not _ _
CE 1.076 16.29 9 4*13 found
9 6*8.5
SectionW6*8.5
1-(KL/r )x = 1*16.29*12/5.1=38.32 <30
(KL/r )y =1*16.29*12/0.89=219.64 >300... φFcr not found from table (4-22)
Fig. (5-3) Staad Pro results based on select least weight section and optimum section.

Fig. (5-4) selected section from staad Pro results based on select least weight section and optimum
section.

Chapter Six Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter Six
Conclusions
6-1 Conclusions:
In this project we design the through steel truss highway bridges by using the
equations to design and analysis and solving. So that this project take along time for
solving the equation of design. But to save time by using a computer software programs
to design and analysis process of these types of bridges and these programs takes the
inputs of bridge design and carried out the calculations easily and quickly so that we
saved time and ensure that the design was correct.
 The Excessive stringer spacing result in an extra thick concrete slab, with resulting
increase in total dead load of floor system and sizes main truss member. Stringer
spacing in the range of (7 to 8) ft has been found to be economical for truss
bridges.
 In continuos bridges span bending moments over interior support are considerably
larger than maximum positive bending moment, Hence it is advantageous to make
continuos girder deeper at interior supporters than at mid span.
 The advantages of use the simply, supported spans include less weight, greater
stiffness, smaller deflection and fewer bearing and expansion joints.
6-2 Future work:
1-Using a computer software programs to design and analysis process of these types of
bridges.
2- Design and analysis of different type of steel truss bridges such as sub divided truss,
cantilever truss bridge; continuous bridge truss and arch bridge.
3- Design and analysis of through steel truss bridge using AASHTO specifications with
different numbers of lanes.

References
1- AISC, (Manual of steel Construction), American institute of steel construction,
thirteen editions 2005.
2- Edwin H. Gaylord, jr., Charles N. Gaylord. (Design of steel structures). second
Edition.
3- AASHTO specification for high way bridge, American association of state high
way and transportation officials. Edition 1973, McGrow- Hill, Inc.
4- (Structure steel design) the Ronald press company 1964.
5- (Bridge engineering hand book) Wai-Fah Chen, CRC Rness LLC 2000.
6- Heinse C.P. and fimage, (1976), "Design of modern steel high way bridge", .j.
Wiley and son, Inc. Canada.
7- BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL (U.S. Customary Units) State of Connecticut
Department of Transportation, (2003) Edition.
8- Jack C. McCormac and Stephen F. Csernak, (2012), "Structural steel design",
fifthe edition.
Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge

‫الخــــــــــالصــــــــــة‬
‫الجسور الحديدية (الجملون) هي عبارة عن تصميم جسور حديثة‪ .‬القوى الرئيسية في تراكيبها الحديدية‬
‫هي عبارة عن قوى محورية‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬هناك أنواع عديدة من جسور الجمالون الحديدية مثل الجسور المقسمة‪ ،‬الجسور الناتئة‪ .‬جسور‬
‫الجملون المستمرة‪ ،‬الجسور المقوسة‪ ،‬الخ ‪...‬‬
‫‪ ‬تصنف الجسور الحديدية (الجملون) الى جسور سطحية‪ ،‬جسور تمر منها (‪)through trusses‬‬
‫المركبات او تمر عليها السارات (‪ )half through trusses‬حيث تقسم الى‪:‬‬
‫‪ ‬دعامات السطح‪ :‬يقع السطح بالقرب من الوتر العلوي حتى يتم حمل تلك المركبات فوق االوتار‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬الجسور التي تمر من خاللها المركبات تمرمن خالل العوارض حيث يوضع السطح بالقرب من‬
‫الوتر السفلي حتى تمر المركبات بين الدعامات‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬الجسور النصفية تحمل الدعامات التي تحمل السطح الرتفاع عال جدا فوق الوتر السفلي لذلك‬
‫التثبيت واالسناد الجانبي ال يمكن وضعها بين االوتار السفلى‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬تستخدم أنواع مختلفة من (الجملونات) في بناء الجسور‪ .‬معظم هذه الجلونات هي ‪ pratt‬أو ‪warren‬‬
‫‪ truss‬مع بعض التعديالت‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬على الرغم من استخدام الجملونات عادة في جسور الطرق السريعة للجسور الطويلة (في حالة‬
‫مركبات تمر من خالل الجسور)‪ ,‬تكون اهم المتطلبات هي السالمة المرورية للسرعة العالية‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬عموما جسور الجملونات هي جسور اقتصادية لفضاءات جسور من ‪ 100‬قدم ومناسبة لمجموعة من‬
‫االطوال تمتد من ‪ 1230-130‬قدم‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬عمق الجسور المسندة بصورة بسيطة (‪ )simple- span bridge‬عادة تمتد من من حوالي خمس‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫الى ثمن الجسر ‪ ، - −‬الجسور القصيرة تكون أعمق نسبيا (مواصفات ‪ AASHTO‬تعين ما ال‬
‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫يقل عن العشر ‪10/1‬لهذه النسبة)‪.‬‬

‫‪ ‬نسبة عمق الجسور تعتمد أيضا إلى حد ما على األحمال الحية‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬تنتج الجملونات ذات االجزاء االقتصادية إذا كانت الزاوية بين الدعامات القطرية والعمودية تتراوح‬
‫من (‪ 450‬الى ‪.)600‬‬
‫يتناول هذا البحث تصميم الجسور الحديدية (الجملون) التي تمر منها المركبات خالل الجسر‬
‫(الجمالون) نوع برات (‪ )Pratt‬باستخدام مواصفات (‪ .)AASHTO‬هذا المشروع يتكون من جسر حديدي‬
‫جلمون مقسم الى اربعة خطوط تمر المركبات من خالل الجسر الجمالون ومصممة من ‪ 210‬قدم طول‬
‫الجسر‪ 62 ،‬قدم العرض و‪ 40‬قدم ارتفاع الجملون‪ .‬في البحث تم المقارنة مع برنامج الستاد برو حيث وجدت‬
‫النتائج جدا قريبة من نتائج التصميم حسب الكود ‪.AISC‬‬
‫الطرق والمتطلبات لتحديد وتطبيق األحمال تعرض اوال‪ ,‬تليها مناقشات على مجموع االحمال‬
‫واالحمال المقسمة بشكل مجاميع‪ .‬اي معلومات إضافية على انواع الجسور وموضع واشكال وانواع‬
‫االحمال التي يتعرض لها الجسر تعطى في الفصول مشروحة بشكل وافي‪.‬‬
‫يقسم البحث إلى ستة فصول‪- :‬‬

‫‪ ‬يتضمن الفصل األول مقدمة عن الجسور الحديدية (الجملون)‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬يتضمن الفصل الثاني ويناقش األحمال وتوزيعها على الجسر وفقا لمواصفات ‪.AASHTO‬‬
‫‪ ‬يتضمن الفصل الثالث ويحتوي على حسابات التصميم للبالطات والعتبات‪floor ،stringer ،‬‬
‫‪.beam‬‬
‫‪ ‬يتضمن الفصل الرابع تصميم وتحليل الجملون‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬يتضمن الفصل الخامس مقارنة المقاطع التصميمية مع برنامج ‪.STAAD Pro‬‬
‫‪ ‬يتضمن الفصل السادس استنتاجات وتوصيات هذه الدراسة‪.‬‬
‫كلية المنصور الجامعة‬
‫قسم الهندسة المدنية‬
‫تصميم وتحليل جسر حديدي (جملون) للطرق السريعة مكون‬

‫من اربعة خطوط‬
‫مشروع مقدم لقسم الهندسة المدنية في كلية المنصور الجامعة كجزء من متطلبات نيل‬
‫شهادة بكلوريوس هندسة في الهندسة المدنية‪.‬‬
‫اعداد‬
‫‪.1‬ميس ربيع عبدالغني‬

‫‪.2‬سما صباح صالح الدين‬
‫‪.3‬ايمن فائز‬
‫‪.4‬احمد محمد‬
‫اشراف‬
‫د‪ .‬عال عادل قاسم‬
‫‪1436‬هـ‬ ‫بغداد‬ ‫‪2016‬‬
‫‪View publication stats‬‬

Analysis and Design of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge

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ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FOUR LANES STEEL TRUSS HIGHWAY BRIDGE

Thesis · May 2016

Ola Adel Qasim

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ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge I

Methods and requirements for determining the magnitude and application of

This study is divided into four chapters:-

 The first chapter presents the introduction of steel truss bridge.

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge II

I certify that this project entitled (ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FOUR

Supervisor Name: Dr. Ola Adel Qasim

We certify that we have read this project entitled (ANALYSIS AND

Date: / /2016 Date: / /2016

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge IV

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge V

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge VI

Fig. (1-1) Truss bridge.

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 1

Fig. (1-2) Truss bridge components.

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 3

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 4

Fig. (1-3) Types of bridges.

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 5

Fig. (1-4) Thru, pony and deck Truss bridge.

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 7

Fig. (1-5) Component of Through Truss bridge.

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 12

Fig. (2-1): Bridge Plan system.

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 13

Diagonal of bottom chord lateral Stringer

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 14

Fig. (2-3): Through Truss Bridge.

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 15

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 16

2-9 Live Load:

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 17

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 18

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 19

W = total weight of truck and load.

Fig. (2-5): AASHTO HS20 Truck and H20 Design Truck

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 20

Fig. (2-6) Standard AASHTO lane Loads.

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 21

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 22

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 23

3-1 Design of Bridge:

Fig. (3-1) Bridge cross section.

3-2 Design of Concrete Slab:

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 24

Fig. (3-2) Bridge cross section.

Width of flange = 0.8 ft

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 25

Impact bending moment

Total bending moment

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 26

Max reaction (By)= 52.8 k

Fig. (3-3) Maximum reaction calculated by MD Solid Program.

Design and Analysis of Four Lanes Steel Truss Highway Bridge 27

Abs. Max. Moment =361.2 k. ft

Fig. (3-4) Maximum Moment calculated by MD Solid Program.

S = 3170 in3 I = 67400 + 41 (21.72)2 = 69288 in4