Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

1 1.1.
Exponential Functions
1.1.1. Exponential Function
1.2. Logarithmic Functions
1.2.1. Logarithm Function
1.2.2. Properties of Logarithm
1.3. Exponential Equations and Inequalities
1.3.1. Exponential Equations
1.3.2. Exponential Inequalities
1.4. Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities
1.4.1. Logarithmic Equations
1.4.2. Logarithmic Inequalities
1.5. Exponential and Logarithmic Models
Chapter I • Exponential And Logarithmic Functions 3
1. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
Exponential and logarithmic functions occur frequently in a wide variety of

applications, such as biology, chemistry, economics, and psychology.
• Solve the following equations.

a) 2x – 3 = 0
b) x2 – 3 = 0
c) 2x – 3 = 0
• Can you estimate world’s population in the following years?
1.1. Exponential Functions

1.1.1. Exponential function
For a > 0, a ≠ 1, and x Œ R

f(x) = ax
defines the base a exponential function.
General form of an exponential function is f(x) = ag(x) where a Œ R+ – {1}.
The domain of f is the set of all real numbers. In the definition of an exponential
function, we exclude the base a = 1 since this function is simply the constant
function f(x) = 1. For all x Œ R, ax is always positive; therefore range of f is positive
real numbers.
Some examples of exponential functions are as follows:

a) f(x) = 2x
1
b) g(x) = x − 3
4
c) h(x) = 5 . 3x+1
Note that for each function, the base of the exponential expression is a constant
and the exponent contains a variable.
EXAMPLE 1
Determine whether the following functions are exponential or not.

a) f(x) = (42)x
1
b) g(x) = +1
4 −x
c) h(x) = (–2)x–1
1
d) h(x) = 6 x
4 High Level Mathematics For High School 12
SOLUTION
a) f(x) = 16x Ş 16 Œ R+ – {1} therefore f(x) is an exponential function.

b) g(x) = 4x + 1 Ş 4 Œ R+ – {1} therefore g(x) is an exponential function.
c) h(x) = (–2)x–1 Ş –2 œ R+ – {1} therefore h(x) is not an exponential
function.
1
d) h(x) = 6 x Ş 6 Œ R+ – {1} and for x ≠ 0, k(x) is an exponential function.
1
Determine whether the following functions are exponential or not.
a) f(x) = (3–2)x
b) g(x) = 5–x –2
c) h(x) = (–3)2x
d) h(x) = (7)(x–1)
EXAMPLE 2
Evaluate each exponential function for x = 2 and x = –3

a) f(x) = 3x
b) g(x) = 2x+1 + 1
SOLUTION
a) f(2) = 32 = 9
1 1
f(–3) = 3–3 = =
3 3 27
b) g(2) = 22+1 + 1 = 23 + 1 = 8 + 1 = 9
1 5
g(–3) = 2–3+1 + 1 = 2–2 + 1 = 4 + 1 = 4
2
Evaluate each exponential function for x = –2 and x = 4
a) f(x) = 4x–1
d) g(x) = 3 . 2x–1 – 4
EXAMPLE 3
If f(x) = (a – 3)x+1 is a decreasing exponential function then find a.
SOLUTION
0<a–3Ş3<a
a–3<1Şa<4
Therefore, 3 < a < 4
3
If f(x) = (a + 2)x is an increasing exponential function then find a.
Properties of Exponents
For real numbers a, b, x and y, with a, b > 0
• ax . ay = ax+y
ax
• = ax−y
ay
• (ax)y = (ay)x = ax.y
• (a . b)x = ax . bx
1
• a–x = ax
`a a ab k
−x x
• b
j =
EXAMPLE 4
Evaluate (23)2 – (22)3 – 3(22).
SOLUTION
(23)2 – (22)3 – 3(22) = 82 – 43 – 34
= 64 – 64 – 81 = –81
4
Evaluate (32)2 – 2(22).
EXAMPLE 5
Simplify the following expression.

1 −3
(–p–2)3 . (–p)–2 . a − p k .(–p–5)
SOLUTION
1 −3
(–p–2)3 . (–p)–2 . a − p k . (–p–5) = (–p–6) . (p)–2 . (–p–1)–3 . (–p–5)
= (–p–6) . (p)–2 . (–p3) . (–p–5)

1
= –p–6 . p–2 . p3 . p–5 = –p–6–2+3–5 = p–10 =
p 10
5
(− x) .x . (− x) 6
3 7
Simplify
(− x 9) . (− x 6) . (− x) −8
EXAMPLE 6
2x−2 + 2x+1
Evaluate
2x−1 + 2x
SOLUTION
2 xa 4 + 2k 9
1
9 2 3
= 8 = 8.3 = 4
2 a 2 + 1k 2
x 1 3
6
a+2 a+1
2 + 3.2
Evaluate
2 a − 2 + 3.2 a − 2
EXAMPLE 7
Find 16x – 4x+1 if 2x = 3.
SOLUTION
16x – 4x+1 = (24)x – 4 . (22)x

= (2x)4 – 4 . (2x)2
= (3)4 – 4 . (3)2
= 81 – 4 . 9 = 81 – 36 = 45
7
Find 125x – 52x+1 if 5x = 2.
EXAMPLE 8
Find 200x in terms of p and q if 2x = p and 5x = q.
SOLUTION
200x = (2 . 100)x = (2 . 102)x = (2 . (2 . 5)2)x
= (2 . 22 . 52)x = (23 . 52)x = (23)x . (52)x
= (2x)3 . (5x)2 = p3 . q2
8
Find 1800a in terms of p, q and r if 2a = p, 3a = q and 5a = r.
Graph of Exponential Function

Graphing exponential function is similar to the graphing done before. However,
it has some differences. Therefore, it will be useful to determine how the graph
behaves as x-values go to infinity and negative infinity. Check if there is an
asymptote different from x-axis. Is it increasing or decreasing? So, constructing a
table of values will help us to graph of an exponential function.
EXAMPLE 9
Graph the exponential function f(x) = 2x.
SOLUTION
We can construct a table for some

x f(x) = 2x
integer x values. As we can understand
from the table when x goes to positive –10 2–10 ª 0.00098
An asymptote is a
infinity the function goes to positive –3 1
line which the graph 2–3 = 8
infinity as well. The graph never
approaches but never
touches x - axis that means it has no –2 1
actually reaches. 2–2 = 4
x-intercepts. So the line y = 0 is an
asymptote. As x values go to negative –1 1
2–1 = 2
infinity the value of the function gets
smaller values. The y-intercept of the 0 20 = 1
graph is 1 when x = 0. It is also very 1 21 = 2
obvious that the function is increasing 2 22 = 4
for all x.
3 23 = 8
10 210 = 1024
Using all this information, we can plot some of the points from the table.
y
6
(2,4)
3
(1,2)
` − 1, 12 j
` − 2, 14 j (0,1)
x
y=0 ` − 3, 18 j 3
EXAMPLE 10
1 x
Graph the exponential function f(x) = a 2 k .
SOLUTION 1 x
x f(x) = a 2 k
We can construct a table for
some integer x values. As we can –10 a1
−10
2k = 1024
understand from the table when x
−3
goes to positive infinity the function –3 a1
2k =8
goes to negative infinity. The graph
never touches x-axis that means –2
−2
a1
2k =4
it has no x-intercepts. Again, y = 0
is an asymptote. As x values go to –1
−1
a1
2k =2
negative infinity the value of the
function gets greater values. The 0
0
a1
2k =1
y-intercept of the graph is 1 when
x = 0. It is also very obvious that the 1 a1
1
2k = 2
1
function is decreasing for all x.
2
2 a1
2k = 4
Using all this information, we can 1
plot some of the points from the 3
3 a1
2k = 8
1
table.
10
10 a1
2 k ª 0.00098
y
6
(–2,4)
3
(–1,2)
` 1, 12 j
(0,1) ` 2, 14 j
–3 ` 3, 18 j y=0
We also could graph the function using transformation.

1 x
The graph of the function f(x) = a 2 k = 2–x is reflection about the of the
y-axis graph f(x) = 2x.
1
The graph of y1 = d x n = a–x for a > 0 is the reflection about the y-axis of
a
the graph of y2 = ax.
y y
y2 = f(x) = a x
y1 = f(x) = a –x
a a
x x
0 1 –1 0
EXAMPLE 11
Graph the exponential function f(x) = 3x and f(x) = 3–x on the same
coordinate plane.
SOLUTION
y
y = g(x) = 3 –x
y = f(x) = 3x
x
–1 0 1
The graph of g(x) = 3–x is the reflection about the y-axis of the graph of
f(x) = 3x.
9
Graph each of the following exponential functions.
a) f(x) = 4x
b) g(x) = –3x + 2
5x+1
c) h(x) = 2
EXAMPLE 12
Show that for a > 0, a ≠ 1, and all real numbers x, the exponential function
f(x) = ax is one-to-ne and onto.
SOLUTION
y y
y2 = f(x) = a x
y1 = f(x) = a –x
STUDY T!P
Horizontal Line Test
If every horizontal line intersects
a a
the graph of a function in at most
one point, the function is one- 1
1
to-one.
x x
0 1 –1 0
Any horizontal line intersects the graph of exponential function f(x) = ax

STUDY T!P
at most one single point, therefore the exponential function is one-to-one.
f: A Æ B
If f(A) ⊂ B then f is an onto Range of f is R+ since a > 0 which means that the graph of f is always above
function. the x-axis and never touches the x-axis. f: R Æ R+.
Since R+ Æ R then f is an onto function.
10
State if each of the following exponential functions is one-to-one and
onto.
a) f(x) = 2x
b) g(x) = –4x
1
c) h(x) = 3 x where x ≠ 0
Exercises 1.1.1
(− 1) 15 − (− 1 −10) . (− 1 16)
1. Determine whether the following functions are 9. Calculate
(− 1) 6 + (− 1 5) . (− 1 13)
exponential or not.
a) f(x) = (53)x
1
b)
g(x) = −2x + 3
3
c)
h(x) = (–3)x 10. Calculate
2 2 2 2
a) 32 .3 .23 .3 2
d)
h(x) = 2 . 6 x – 5
1
3 +3 +3
52 + 52 + 52 + 52 + 52
b)
24 + 24 + 24 + 24
3 + 3 21 + 3 25
17
2. Evaluate each exponential function for x = –2 and x = 2. c)
3 4 + 3 8 + 3 12
a) f(x) = 2 . 5x+1
b)
g(x) = 3x–1 + 10
3 3
x−1 11. Simplify +
c)
h(x) = 3
4 3 1 + 2b − a 1 + 2a − b
3. If f(x) = (a – 4)x+3 is a decreasing exponential function

then find a. 12. Simplify
1
+
1
ap − q + 1 aq − p + 1
4. Evaluate 272 . 95
13. Find 492x + 73x+2 if 7x = 1.
5. Evaluate 21 . 22 . 23 ... 210 14. Graph each of the following exponential functions.
a) f(x) = 3x
12 3 .2 −3
b)
g(x) = –2x + 1
6. Evaluate
33
c)
h(x) = 2x+1
3 3 4 4
7. Evaluate a 4 k . a 3 k 15. State if each of the following exponential functions is
one-to-one and onto.
a) f(x) = 6x+1
b)
g(x) = –3x – 2
c)
1
h(x) = 2 . 7 x + 1 where x ≠ 0
(− a) 2 .a −5 . (− a) −4
8. Simplify
(− a 7) . (− a 4) . (− a) −14
1.2. Logarithmic Functions
Approximately 400 years ago John Napier discovered an ingenious way to multiply
by adding and to divide by subtracting. He did this by developing logarithms. In
1614, Napier published his discovery in a paper entitled “A Description of the
Marvelous Rule of Logarithms”.
John Napier
1.2.1. Logarithm function
Recall that a one-to-one function y = f(x) has an inverse function that is defined
implicitly by the equation x = f(y). In particular, the exponential function
y = f(x) = ax where a > 0 and a ≠ 1, is one-to-one and hence has an inverse
function that is defined implicitly by the equation:
x = ay where a > 0 and a ≠ 1.
This inverse function is named as logarithmic function.
The logarithmic function to the base a, where a > 0 and a ≠ 1, is denoted by
y = f(x) = logax (read as “y is the logarithm to the base a of x”) and is defined by
y = f(x) = logax if and only if x = ay.
R R+
exponential function
f: ax
x = f–1(y) y = f(x)
f–1: logax
logarithmic function
EXAMPLE 1
Find the exact value of

a) log232
b) log3 a 27 k
1
SOLUTION
a) y = log232
2y = 32
2y = 25
y=5
Therefore, log232 = 5.
b) y = log3 a 27 k
1
1
3y = 27
3y = 3–3
y = –3
Therefore, log3 a 27 k = –3.
1

11
Find the exact value of
a) log749
b) log4 a 64 k
1
c) log5625
EXAMPLE 2
Find the value of x.

a) log 1 25 = x
5
b) log 12 x = 3
c) logx4 = 2
SOLUTION
a) log 1 25 = x
5
1 x
25 = a 5 k
52 = 5–x
The symbol ∴ is a –x = 2
shorthand for therefore
∴x = –2
b) log 12 x = 3
1 3 1
x =a2k = 3 = 8
1

2
c) logx4 = 2
4 = x2 Ş x = 2 x ≠ –2
(Base of a logarithm is always positive and different from 1.)
12
Find the value of x.
a) log 12 16 = x
b) log 13 x = 4
c) logx27 = 3
EXAMPLE 3
STUDY T!P Find the inverse of f(x) = 2x.
To find inverse of a function:
1. Substitute y for f(x).
2. Interchange x and y.
3. Solve for y. SOLUTION
4. Replace y by f–1(x).
f(x) = y = 2x
x = 2y
log2x = y
∴ f–1(x) = log2x
13
Find the inverse of f(x) = 3x+1 – 2.
EXAMPLE 4
Find the inverse of f(x) = 5x–1 + 2.
SOLUTION
f(x) = y = 5x–1 + 2
y – 2 = 5x–1
log5(y , 2) = x – 1
log5(y – 2) + 1 = x
∴ f–1(x) = log5(x – 2) + 1
14
Find the inverse of f(x) = 4 . 72x+3 – 1
EXAMPLE 5
Find the inverse of f(x) = log3(x – 2).
SOLUTION
f(x) = y = log3(x – 2)
3y = x – 2
3y + 2 = x
∴ f–1(x) = 3x + 2
EXAMPLE 6
Find the inverse of f(x) = 4 – 2 . log5(3x + 2).
SOLUTION
f(x) = y = 4 – 2 . log5(3x + 2)
y – 4 = –2 . log5(3x + 2)
y−4
− 2 = log5(3x + 2)
y−4
5a −2
k
= 3x + 2
y−4
5 −2 − 2 = 3x
y−4
5 −2 −2
3 =x
x−4 4−x
5 −2 −2 5 2 −2
∴ f–1(x) = 3 = 2
15
5x − 2 k
Find the inverse of f(x) = 3 – log2 a 3
EXAMPLE 7
If f(x) = log3(2x + m) and f–1(2) = 3 then find m.
SOLUTION
f(x) = y = log3(2x + m)
3y = 2x + m
3y − m
2 =x
3x − m
∴ f–1(x) = 2
32 − m
f (2) = 3 Ş
–1
2 =3
3 −m
2
2 =3Ş9–m=6
Şm=3
16
If f(x) = log2(3x – m2) and f–1(1) = 2 then find m.
Domain and Range of Logarithmic Function

Logarithmic function is the inverse of exponential function y = ax. That is if
f(x) = ax then f–1(x) = logax. Hence domain of logarithmic function is equal to the
range of exponential function and range of the logarithmic function is equal to
the domain of the exponential function.
We already know that the exponential function f: R Æ R+, f(x) = ax then
Domain of logarithmic function y = logax is R+ and range of logarithmic function
y = logax is R.
EXAMPLE 8
Find the domain of f(x) = log2(5 + x).
SOLUTION
f(x) = log2(5 + x)
5+x>0
x > –5
∴ domf = (–5, +•)
17
Find the domain of f(x) = log6(4 – x).
EXAMPLE 9
Find the domain of f(x) = log3 ( x1 +– 1x (
SOLUTION
f(x) = log3 ( x1 +– 1x (
x –• –1 1 •
1–x
– + –
x+1
∴ domf = (–1, 1)
18
Find the domain of f(x) = log2 a 5 − x k .
x+2
EXAMPLE 10
Find the domain of f(x) = log(x–2)(5 – x).
SOLUTION
f(x) = log(x–2)(5 – x)
5 – x > 0 ........ I
x – 2 > 0 ........ II
and x – 2 ≠ 1 Ş x ≠ 3
x –• 2 5 •
I + + 0 –
II – 0 + +
∴ domf = (2, 5) – {3}
19
Find the domain of f(x) = log(x–1)(7 – x)
EXAMPLE 11
Find the domain of f(x) = logx+3(x2 – 5x – 6).
SOLUTION
f(x) = logx+3(x2 – 5x – 6)
x2 – 5x – 6 > 0 ....... I
x + 3 > 0 ....... II
and x + 3 ≠ 1 Ş x ≠ –2
x –• –3 –1 6 •
I + + 0 – 0 +
II – 0 + + +
∴ domf = (–3, –1) – {–2}

20
Find the domain of f(x) = log(3–x)(x2 + x – 20).
Graph of Logarithmic Function

Since exponential functions and logarithmic functions are inverses of each other,
the graph of the logarithmic function y = logax is the reflection about the line
y = x of the graph of the exponential function y = ax where a > 1.
y y = ax y
y = ax
x x
y= y=
1 y = logax 1
x x
1 1
y = logax
a>1 0<a<1
As seen from the graph f(x) = logax,
• For x1 < x2; f(x1) < f(x2).
This means that logarithmic function f(x) = logax is increasing for all x where
a > 1.
• And also for x1 < x2; f(x1) > f(x2).
This means that logarithmic function f(x) = logax is decreasing for all x where
0 < a < 1.
EXAMPLE 12
Draw the graph of f(x) = log2x.
SOLUTION
f(x) = log2x Ş f–1(x) = y = 2x.
Draw the graph of y = 2x then draw the graph of y = log2x by reflecting the
graph of the exponential function y = 2x about the line y = x.
x=1Şy=0
x=2Şy=1
x=4Şy=2
y = 2x
y=x
4
y = log2x
2
1
x
1 2 4
21
Draw the graph of f(x) = log3x.
EXAMPLE 13
Draw the graph of f(x) = log2(x – 1).

STUDY T!P SOLUTION
Graph of exponential functions y = log2(x – 1) Ş x – 1 > 0 Ş x > 1 So the vertical asymptote is x = 1.

has a horizontal asymptote and x=2Şy=0
graph of a logarithmic function x=3Şy=1
has a vertical asymptote. x=5Şy=2
x=1
y = log2(x – 1)
2
1
x
1 2 3 5
22
Draw the graph of f(x) = log3(x + 2).
EXAMPLE 14
Draw the graph of f(x) = log 13 x .
SOLUTION
f(x) = log 13 x Ş f–1(x) = y = 3–x
Draw the graph of y = 2x then draw the graph of y = log 13 x by reflecting the
graph of the exponential function y = 3–x about the line .
x=1Şy=0
x = 3 Ş y = –1
y = 3–x y
y=x
3
1
x
–1 1 3
–1 y = log 13 x
23
Draw the graph of f(x) = log 12 x .
Exercises 1.2.1.
5. Find a if log2(2 – 8a) = 2.
1. Find the exact value of
a) log381
b) log8 a 64 k
1

6. Find m if log3[log4(2m – 4)] = log10.
c) log6216
x+y
7. If log2[log§24]x = y then find y − x .
2. Find the value of x.
a) log 13 9 = x
b) log4x = 2
8. If log3(1 + log2a) = 2 then find a.
c) logx8 = 3
9. Find the domain of the function f(x) = log2(4x – x2).

1
3. If log2k2 = 3 then find k.
10. Find the domain of f(x) = log2x+4(9 – x).

4. log(3a–1)64 = 2, find a.
11. Find the domain of f(x) = log5–x(2x – 3). 19. Find the inverse of the function f(x) = log5(3x – 1) + 2.
12. Find the domain of f(x) = 1 + log(x–3)(25 – x2). 20. If f(x) = log2(x – k) and f–1(3) = 5 then find k.
13. Find the domain of the function 21. If f(x) = log2(4x – 5) then find f–1(–1).
f(x) = log1–x2(6 – x – x2).
22. Draw the graph of f(x) = log2(x + 1).

x2 − 1
14. If f(x) = log2 a 1 − 2x k , find domf.
23. Draw the graph of f(x) = log3(x – 1).

15. If f(x) = log(–x2 + 6x + 16), find domf.
24. Draw the graph of f(x) = –log4x.

16. Find the inverse of the function f(x) = 2 x+1
– 3.
17. Find the inverse of the function f(x) = log(x – 1) + 3. 25. Draw the graph of f(x) = –2log2x.
18. Find the inverse of the function f(x) = 3 . log5x – 2. 26. Draw the graph of f(x) = 1 + log3(x + 2).
1.2.2. Properties of Logarithm

Property 1
A > 0, A ≠ 1 and B > 0
logAB = x ğ B = Ax
EXAMPLE 1
log3x = 2 then find x.
SOLUTION
log3x = 2 Ş x = 32 Ş x = 9
EXAMPLE 2
log5[log4(log3a)] = 0 then find a.
SOLUTION
log5[log4(log3a)] = 0
log4(log3a) = 50 = 1
log3a = 41 = 4
x = 34 = 81
24
log8(62 + log2(a + 2)) = 2 is given. Find a.
Property 2
logA1 = 0 and logAA = 1
Proof
Let B = logA1 Let B = logAA
AB = 1 AB = A
AB = A0 A B = A1
B = 0 B=1
There fore, logA1 = 0 Therefore, logAA = 1
EXAMPLE 3
Find a log 5 1 + log 2 1 − log 2 1 + log 5 5 − log 3 + log 13 3 k

1
3
SOLUTION
∴0+0–0+1–1+1=1
Property 3
logABn = n . logAB
Proof
Let C = logAB Ş AC = B
Let D = logABn
D = logA(AC)n
D = logAAC.n
AD = AC.n
D=C.n
∴ logABn = n . logAB
EXAMPLE 4
log2 8 + log3 9
Simplify 1 .
log 1 125
5
SOLUTION
F F
1 1
log2 8 + log3 9 log2 2 3 + log3 3 2 3. log 2 2 + 2. log 3 3 3 + 2 5

1 = = = 3 = 3
1 3 3. log 1 a 5 k
1
log 1 125 log 1 a 5 k
5 5
14425
1
4
43
EXAMPLE 5
f(x) = 2 + log3(x + 3) is given. Find f(6).
SOLUTION
f(6) = 2 + log3(6 + 3) = 2 + log39 = 2 + log332 = 2 + 2 = 4
25
1
f(x) = log x 0.125 is given. If f(k) = 4 then find k.
EXAMPLE 6
Order x = log26, y = log57 and z = log32.
SOLUTION
x = log26 Ş 4 < 6 < 8 Ş log24 < log26 < log28 Ş 2 < x < 3
123 123 123
2 x 3
y = log57 Ş 5 < 7 < 25 Ş log55 < log57 < log525 Ş 1 < y < 2
123 123 123
1 y 2
z = log32 Ş 1 < 2 < 3 Ş log31 < log32 < log33 Ş 0 < z < 1
123 123 123
0 z 1
0 < z < 1 < y < 2 < x < 3, hence z < y < x
26
Order x = log23, y = log314 and z = log465
Property 4
n
logAmBn = m . logAB
Proof
Let C = logAmBn
C = n . logAmB (from property 3)
C
n = logAmB
C
^ A mh n = B
m.C
A n =B
m
n .C = log A B
n
C = m . log A B
n
Therefore, log A m B n = m . log A B
EXAMPLE 7
Simplify log832.
SOLUTION
5 5
log8 32 = log2 2 5 = 3 . log2 2 = 3
<
3
27
Evaluate log 18 7 16 .
Common Logarithm
Base 10 logarithms are called common logarithms. The expression log10x is
usually written without the subscript as x.
f: R+ Æ R
f(x) = log10x = logx
EXAMPLE 8
Show that logx is positive for x > 1.
SOLUTION
Let n Œ Z+ and n > 1, 1 < x < 10n
n
log1 < logx < log10
0 < logx < n
28
Show that logx is negative for 0 < x < 1.
EXAMPLE 9
Show that logarithm of a number p which is not be able to be expressed as

the power of 10, is between two consecutive integers.
SOLUTION
Let p be any number between 10n and 10n+1.
10n < p < 10n+1
Take logarithm of the inequality:

log10n < logp < log10n+1
n < logp < n + 1
EXAMPLE 10
If log3 = 0.47712 then find the number of digits of 815.
The number e was

first introduced by the SOLUTION
mathematician John
Napier, who used it in p = 815 = (34)5 = 320
the development of his
theory of logarithms in the logp = log815 = log320 = 20 . log3 = 20 . (0.47712) = 9.54240
early 1600s. His version
of “natural” logarithms p = 109.54240
were abandoned almost
immediately, however,
Therefore, p has 10 digits.
in favor of “common”
logarithms with a base
of ten, and it was left to
Leonhard Euler to discover
29
many of the number’s
remarkable properties. If log2 = 0.30103 then find the number of digits of 88.
Euler was the first to use
the symbol e.
Natural Logarithm
The irrational number e ª 2.71828 often occurs as the base for exponential
and logarithmic functions that describe real-world phenomena such as growth,
decay problems; saving and logistic models and so on. For example, e is used in
continuous compounding for loans and investments.
x
As x increases, d1 + 1 n aproaches e ª 2.71828 ...
x
1
• a 1 + 1 k = 2
1
1 10
• a 1 + 10 k = 2, 59374
1 100
• a 1 + 100 k = 2, 70481
1 1.000
• a 1 + 1.000 k = 2, 71692
10.000
• a 1 + 10.000 k
1
= 2, 71815
100.000
• a 1 + 100.000 k
1
= 2, 71827
f: R+ Æ R
f(x) = logex = Inx, (e = 2,718 ...)
Property 5
logA(B . C) = logAB + logAC
Proof
Let M = logAB and N = logAC
AM = B and AN = C
logA(B . C) = logA(AM . AN) = logAAM+N = M + N
Therefore, logA(B . C) = logAB + logAC
EXAMPLE 11
log2 = a and log3 = b are given. Find log72 in terms of a and b.
SOLUTION
log72 = log(9 . 8) = log(32 . 23) = log(32) + log(23) = 2log3 + 3log2
123 123
b a
= 3a + 2b
30
log3 = a and log5 = b are given. Find log45 in terms of a and b.
EXAMPLE 12
If log2 = a find log5 in terms of a.

SOLUTION
log10 = 1 Ş log(2 . 5) = 1 Ş log2 + log5 = 1 Ş log5 = 1 – a
123
a
31
If log34 = x, then find log312 in terms of x.
Property 6
B
log A a C k = log A B − log A C
Proof
Let M = logAB and N = logAC
AM = B and AN = C
B AM
log A a C k = log A c N m = log A A M − N = M − N
A
B
Therefore, log A a C k = log A B − log A C
EXAMPLE 13
Calculate (log530 – log56).
SOLUTION
30
log530 – log56 = log5 6 = log55 = 1
32
If log35 – log3a = 2 then find a.
Property 7
log B
Change of Base log A B = logC A
C
Proof
Let M = logAB , then AM = B
Take logarithm of both sides of AM = B
logCAM = logCB
M . logCA = logCB
log B
M = logC A
C
log B
Therefore, log A B = logC A
C
EXAMPLE 14
If log62 = a then find log1824 in terms of a.
SOLUTION
log66 = log6(2 . 3) = log6(2) + log6(3) = 1 Ş log6(3) = 1 – a
123
a
a
H F
1
log 24 log (4.6) log (4) + log (6) log 2 2 + 1 2 log 2 + 1

log1824 = log6 18 = log6 (3.6) = log6 (3) + log6 (6) = log6 3 + 1 = log 63 + 1
> <
6 6 6 6 6 6
1 1−a
2a + 1
= 2−a
EXAMPLE 15
log a log b 1
If log3 b = log5 c = 2 then find c in terms of a.
3 5
SOLUTION
log3 a 1 1
log3 b = 2 & logb a = 2
log5 b 1 1
log5 c = 2 & logc b = 2
1 1 1
logba . logcb = 2 . 2 = 4
logc a logc b 1
. =
logc b logc c 4
; 1
1 1
logca = 4 & a = c 4 Ş c = a4
33
log2 = m and log3 = n are given. Find log256 in terms of m and n.
Property 8
1
log A B = log A
B
Proof
log B 1
log A B = logB A = log A
B B
EXAMPLE 16
2 2
Evaluate log 6 + log 6 .
2 3
SOLUTION
2 2
log2 6 + log3 6 = 2 (log6 2 + log6 3) = 2. lo g 6 (2.3) = 2. <
log6 6 = 2
1
EXAMPLE 17
4 4 4
Evaluate log 10x + log 10x + log 10x .
x 2 5
SOLUTION
1 1 1
4 c log 10x + log 10x + log 10x m = 4 (log10x x + log10x 2 + log10x 5)
x 2 5
= 4(log10xx + log10x2 + log10x5) = 4log10x(x . 2 . 5) = 4log10x10x = 4

123
1
34
1 1 1
If log 80 + log 80 + log 80 = 1 then find a.
2 8 a
Property 9
AlogAB = B
Proof
For inverse functions,
f(f–1(x)) = x for all x in domf–1
Using f(x) = Ax and f–1(x) = logAx
f(f–1(x)) = AlogAx = x
Let x = B , then AlogAB = B
EXAMPLE 18
Find 3log35 – 2log23.
SOLUTION
3log35 – 2log23 = 5 – 3 = 2.
123 123
5 3
35
In (In3)
a k
Evaluate 3 In3
Property 10
logAB . logBC . logCD = logAD where A, B and C are positive numbers; A ≠ 1,

B ≠ 1, C ≠ 1
Proof
log B log C log D
log A B. logB C. logC D = logx A . logx B . logx C
x x x
log D
= logx A = log A D
x
EXAMPLE 19
Evaluate log34 . log46 . log611 . log1127

SOLUTION
log 4 log 6 log 11 log 27 log 27 3 log 3
log34.log46.log611.log1127= log 3 . log 4 . log 6 . log 11 = log 3 = log 3 = 3
36
Evaluate log 3 2. log4 25. log 5 27 .
3
Property 11
logAB = logAC ğ B = C
Proof
Let x = logAB = logAC Ş
Ax = B and Ax = C
therefore, Ax = B = C
B=CŞ
Take logarithm of both sides:
logAB = logAC
EXAMPLE 20
If log3(x – 1) = log3(3 – x) then find x.
SOLUTION
log3(x – 1) = log3(3 – x)
x–1=3–x
2x = 4 Ş x = 2
37
If loga(x2 + 1) = loga(2x) where a > 0 and a ≠1 then find x.
Exercises 1.2.2.
m
8. In(m . n) = 4x and In` n j = 4y are given. Find (x + y)
1
1. Evaluate log 17 7 + 7 log7 7 . in terms of m.
2. Evaluate log8(sin45°)2. 9. If logba = x then write logbya in terms of x and y.
3. Evaluate log2(log93). 10. If logba2 = x then write loga3b2 in terms of x.
π
4. Evaluate log3` tan 6 j . 11. log2 = a and log6 = b are given. Find log18 in terms
of a and b.
5. Find a if loga = log32 – log4.

12. If log26 = a then find log23 in terms of a.
6. log5(a + 6) = 1 – log5(a + 2) is given find a.

13. log2x = 1,2 then find x5.
7. log2x + log 1 y + log§525 = 0 is given. If x = 4 then find

y.
2
14. log37 = m then find log2149 in terms of m.
15. If log32 = k then find (log26 + log212) in terms of k. 24. Evaluate log x y 3 . log z x. log y z 2 .
3
16. If log52 = m then find log210 in terms of m.

25. Evaluate log16 27. log 5 64. log 3 625 .
3 3
log2 x log2 y log2 z

17. 2 = 3 = 5 is given.
If x . y . z = 32 then find x2 + y2.
26. If log2x . logx3y = 4 then find y.
log x log y log z

18. 2 = 3 = 4 = log a is given.
y.z
If a ≠ 1 and a b = x then find b.
1 1
27. If log9 16 + log 3 = Ine x . log5 y . log3 5 , then find yx.
−1
19. If a = log23 , b = log35 then find log1520 in terms of a

and b.
28. If log5 = 0,698 then find the number of digits of 2510.
20. x, z Œ R+ – {1} and y Œ R+; If z = logxy, x = logzy and

x = 2z then find y – x.
29. log2 = 0,301 and log3 = 0,477 are given. Find the
number of digits of 620
1 log 5
21. Evaluate a 4 k + 5 (− 2 log
4
25 2)
.
log 4 + log 3 − log 6 30. Find the inverse of the function f(x) = 3 + In(5x – 2).
22. Calculate log 5. log 9. log 4 .
2 25 3
23. log34 . log45 . log56 ... logn(n + 1) = 3 then find n. 31. f(x) = In(9x) and g(x) = In(3x) are given.
Find (fog–1)(1).
1.3. Exponential Equations and Inequalities
1.3.1. Exponential Equations
Equations which involve terms of ax, a > 0 and a ≠ 1, are often referred as
exponential equations. All the properties of rational exponents that you know
also apply to real exponents. You can use the exponents properties to solve
exponential equations.
EXAMPLE 1
Solve each exponential equation.

a) 3x+2 = 27
b) 2x–1 + 1 = 17
STUDY T!P SOLUTION
When two exponential a) 3x+2 = 27 = 33 Ş x + 2 = 3 Ş x = 1

expressions with the same base b) 2x–1 + 1 = 17
are equal, then their exponents 2x–1 = 16
are equal. 2x–1 = 24
x–1=4
x=5
38
Solve each exponential equation.
a) 52x–1 = 125
b) 2 . 7x+3 – 1 = 97
EXAMPLE 2
Solve 22m–1 + 4m–1 = 12 for m.
SOLUTION
22m–1 + 4m–1 = 12
22m . 2–1 + 4m . 4–1 = 12
4m . 2–1 + 4m . 4–1 = 12
4m(2–1 + 4–1) = 12
4m a 2 + 4 k = 12
1 1
4m a 4 + 4 k = 12
2 1
3
4m . 4 = 12
4m = 16 = 42
∴m=2
39
Solve 22x+3 – 4x–1 = 124.
EXAMPLE 3
Solve 3m–1 = 2 for m.
SOLUTION
3m–1 = 2
m – 1 = log32
m = 1 + log32
m = log33 + log32
m = log3(3 . 2) = log36
∴ S = {log36}
40
Solve 43m+2 = 5 for m.
EXAMPLE 4
Solve 16x – 13 . 4x + 36 = 0.
SOLUTION
16x – 13 . 4x + 36 = 0
42x – 13 . 4x + 36 = 0
Let 4x = a.
a2 – 13a + 36 = 0
(a – 4)(a – 9) = 0
a = 4 or a = 9
4x = 4 or 4x = 9
x = 1 or x = log49
∴ S = {1, log49}
41
Solve 4x – 5 . 2x + 6 = 0
EXAMPLE 5
Solve e2x – 7 . ex + 10 = 0.
SOLUTION
e2x – 7 . ex + 10 = 0
Let ex = a
a2 – 7a + 10 = 0
(a – 2)(a – 5) = 0
ex = a = 2 or ex = a = 5
x = In2 or x = In5
∴ S = {In2, In5}
42
Solve e2x – 4 . ex – 21 = 0.
Exercises 1.3.1.
1. Solve 2x = 8. 11. Solve 2x–2 + 2x–1 + 2x = 56.
2. Solve 2x–3 = 64. 12. Solve 2 . 53x–2 + 4 = 9.
3. Solve 52x–7 = 125. 13. Solve 22x+1 = 6.
4. Solve 92x–2 = 3x+2. 14. Solve 52x+1 – 26 . 5x + 5 = 0.
1
5. Solve 81–x = . 15. Solve 9x –3x+2 – 22 = 0.
2 2x − 3
6. Solve 4x+1 = 8. 16. Solve e2x – 5 . ex + 6 = 0.
4 x−6 27 x + 5
7. Solve a 9 k = a 8 k . 17. Solve ex + 16 . e–x – 8 = 0.
49 5 − 2x a 9 k3x − 4
8. Solve a 81 k = 7 . 18. Solve 49x + 7x – 12 = 0.
9. Solve (0,05)x+1 = (20)x+1.

19. Solve 2x–2 = 7x+1.
5 x −1
2
10. Solve a 7 k = 1.
1.3.2. Exponential Inequalities

An exponential inequality is an inequality involving exponential functions.
x, y Œ IR
• a > 1 and x < y Ş ax < ay
• 0 < a < 1 and x < y Ş ax > ay
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the exponential inequality 16 ≥ 4x+5.
SOLUTION
16 ≥ 4x+5
42 ≥ 4x+5
2≥x+5
–3 ≥ x
∴ S = (–•, –3]
43
Solve the exponential inequality 9 < 27x–2.
EXAMPLE 2
1
Solve the exponential inequality < 3 2x + 1 .
27 x
SOLUTION
1
< 3 2x + 1
3 3x
3x
a1 1 − (2x + 1)
3k <a3k
3x > –2x – 1
5x > –1
1
x>−5
∴ S = a − 5 , + 3k
1
44
1 1
Solve the exponential inequality < .
16 x 32 (x − 1)
EXAMPLE 3
Order x, y and z if 2x = 39,3y = 75,5z = 650.
SOLUTION
2x = 39 Ş 25 < 2x < 26 Ş 5 < x < 6

123
39
3y = 75 Ş 33 < 3y < 34 Ş 3 < y < 4

123
75
5z = 650 Ş 54 < 5z < 55 Ş 4 < z < 5

123
650
3<y<4<z<5<x<6
∴y<z<x
45
Order x, y and z if 2x = 20, 3y = 59, 13z = 5.
Exercises 1.3.2.
1. Order the following exponents. 1

4. Solve the exponential inequality < 25 2x − 1 .
a) 81 , 9 , 27
10 20 8 125 x
b) 432, 3214, 824

c) 375, 2100, 550
d) 3–24, 2–32, 5–40 1 x−1
x + 1 ≤ a 16 k
1
5. Solve the exponential inequality .
64
2. Order x, y and z.
a) 2x = 12,3y = 92,4z = 10 1 x+2 1 x−2
6. Fin the maximum integer value of x if a 2 k < a 4 k
b) 7x = 35,2y = 55,10z = 5000
3 x+1 9 x−2
7. Fin the minimum integer value of x if a 2 k < a 4 k
3. Solve the exponential inequality 49x–1 ≥ 73x–4.
1.4. Logarithmic Equations And Inequalities

1.4.1. Logarithmic Equations
You can use the properties of logarithms to solve equations involving logarithms.
We also need to check solutions if it satisfies the equation.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the solution set of log2(x – 5) = 2.
SOLUTION
x – 5 = 22
x=4+5=9
∴S = {9}
46
Find the solution set of log3(4x – 1) = 3.
EXAMPLE 2
Solve log2(x2 – 6x) = 4.
SOLUTION
log2(x2 – 6x) = 4
x2 – 6x = 24
x2 – 6x – 16 = 0
(x – 8)(x + 2) = 0
x = 8 or x = –2
∴ S = {–2, 8}
47
Solve log4(x2 – 15x) = 2.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the solution set of log4(x – 1) + log3(3x + 1) = 3.
SOLUTION
log4(x – 1) + log4(3x + 1) = 3
log4[(x – 1)(3x + 1)] = 3
[(x – 1)(3x + 1)] = 43
3x2 – 2x – 1 = 64
3x2 – 2x – 65 = 0
(3x + 13)(x – 5) = 0
13
x = − 3 or x = 5
13
Check solutions in the original equation − 3 − 1 < 0
∴ S = {5}
48
Find the solution set of log2(x + 3) + log2(x – 1) = 5.
EXAMPLE 4
9 2x + 15 k
Find the sum of the roots of the equation log3 a 8 = 2x .
SOLUTION
9 2x + 15 k
log3 a 8 = 2x
92x + 15 = 8 . 32x
92x – 8 . 32x + 15 = 0
Let 9x = t.
t2 – 8t + 15 = 0
(t – 3)(t – 5) = 0
t = 9x = 3 or t = 9x = 5
x = log93 or x = log95
Sum of the roots is log93 + log95 = log9(3 . 5) = log915
EXAMPLE 5
Solve 2log3x2 + 8 = 9 . 2log3x.
SOLUTION
2log3x2 + 8 = 9 . 2log3x
22.log3x + 8 = 9 . 2log3x
Let log3x = t
t t
F F
2 2.log x + 8 = 9.2 log x
3 3
(2t)2 – 9 . 2t + 8 = 0
Let 2t = A
A2 – 9A + 8 = 0
(A – 1)(A – 8) = 0
A = 2t = 1 or A = 2t = 8
t = log21 = 0 or t = log28 = 3
t = 0 = log3x Ş x = 30 = 1
t = 3 = log3x Ş x = 33 = 27
∴ S = {1, 27}
49
2
Solve 3 log 2 x + 27 = 12.3 log 2 x
EXAMPLE 6
Solve xInx = e4 . x3.
SOLUTION
Take natural logarithm of both sides.
In(xInx) = In(e4 . x3)
Inx . Inx = In(e4) + In(x3)
(Inx)2 = 4 + 3Inx
Let Inx = a
a2 – 3a – 4 = 0
(a – 4)(a + 1) = 0
a = Inx = 4 or a = Inx = –1
1
x = e4 or x = e–1 = e
∴ S = ` e , e 4j
1
50
Solve xInx = e6 . x5.
Exercises 1.4.1.
10. Solve log5x + log5(x – 4) = 1.
1. Solve log(3x – 4) = log5.
11. Solve log6(x + 3) + log6(x – 2) = 1.

2. Solve log(x – 3) + log(x + 1) = log21.
3. Solve log2(2x + 1) + log2(2x – 1) = 3.

12. Solve log2x + log4x + log16x = 7.
4. Solve log3(x2 + 8x) = 2.
13. Solve log2[log2(2x – 4)] = log100.
5. Solve log3(32x + 2) = x + 1.
14. Solve log3 82 − logx 5x + 6 = 2.

6. Solve log 12 6log 3 (x − 5) @ = − 1.
7. Solve log 12 6log3 (2x − 5) @ = − 1 .

3
15. Solve log2 a (x) − a − 4 = 0 if a = logx2.
8. Solve log3[log2(4 + x)] = log5 + log2.
16. Find the sum of the roots of the equation

log2(16x + 15) = 2x + 3.
9. Solve log2[log§3(5x – 1)] = 2.
17. Find the sum of the roots of the equation 25. Solve xlog2x = 256x2.
log224x = 8log2x + 1.
18. Find the product of the roots of the equation

26. Find the solution set of the following equation system
In2x = Inx4 + 12.
log2x + log2y = 4
logyx – 3logxy = 2

log2x – 2logx2 = 1.
27. 32log3a – 5log54 = logb1 then find a where b > 0 and b ≠ 1.

log2x – 8logx22 = 3.
28. Solve log22(x – 1) – 2log2(x – 1) + 1 = 0.

8
log8 a 2 k − 3^ log8 x h2 = 0 .
x
29. Solve 2 . log22x = log2x + 1.
22
22. Solve log8x4 + log4x – 3 = 0.
30. Find the solution set of the equation xlog2x = 8x2.

23. Solve e . x = x .
4 Inx 5
31. Find the solution set of the equation

24. Solve log3x + log9x + log27x = 33. In(x – 1) + In(x + 1) = 2In§6 – In2.
1.4.2. Logarithmic Inequalities
• If a > 1, x > 0 and logax > y, then x > ay.
• If a > 1, x > 0 and logax < y, then 0 < x < ay.
• If a > 1, then logax > logay if and only if x > y, and logax < logay if and only
if x < y.
• 0 < a < 1 and logax < logay Ş x > y
EXAMPLE 1
Find the solution set of log2(x – 5) < 3.
SOLUTION
i. x–5>0
x>5
ii. x – 5 < 23
x–5<8
x < 13
Hence, 5 < x < 13 . ∴ S = (5, 13)
51
Find the solution set of log3(x – 7) ≥ 2.
EXAMPLE 2
Find the solution set of log 13 (x − 4) < 2.
SOLUTION
i. x–4>0
x>4
1 2
ii. x – 4 > a 3 k
1
x–4> 9
1
x>4+ 9
37
x> 9
Therefore, x Œ a 9 , + 3 k
37

52
Find the solution set of log 14 (x − 1)≤ 1.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the solution set of log5(3x – 4) < log5(x + 1).
SOLUTION
Since the base of the logarithms are greater than 1,

3x – 4 < x + 1
5
2x < 5 Ş x < 2
i. 3x – 4 > 0
4
x> 3
ii. x + 1 > 0
x > –1
4 5
Therefore, 3 < x < 2
∴ S = a 3, 2k
4 5

53
Find the solution set of log7(2x – 3) < log7(x + 2).
EXAMPLE 4
Find the domain of f (x) = 3 − log2 (x − 5)
SOLUTION
i. 3 – log2(x – 5) ≥ 0
3 ≥ log2(x – 5)
23 ≥ x – 5
23 + 5 ≥ x
13 ≥ x
ii. x – 5 > 0
x>5
Therefore, 5 < x ≤ 13
∴ S = (5, 13]
54
Find the domain of f (x) = 2 − log3 (x − 8) .
EXAMPLE 5
Solve log 13 6log 2 (x − 1) @ > 0
SOLUTION
I. log 13 6log 2 (x − 1) @ > 0
1 0
log 2 (x − 1) < a 3 k
log2(x – 1) < 1
x – 1 < 21
x–1<2
x<3
II. log2(x – 1) > 0
x–1>1
x>2
And also x – 1 > 0 Ş x > 1
Therefore, 2 < x < 3 S = (2, 3)
55
Solve log 14 6log 5 (x − 6) @ ≥ 0 .
EXAMPLE 6
Solve logx25 ≥ 2.
SOLUTION
I. If x > 1 then 25 ≥ x2,
therefore 1 < x ≤ 5
II. If 0 < x < 1 then 25 ≤ x2,
Ş 25 – x2 ≤ 0
Ş (5 – x)(5 + x) ≤ 0
x –5 5
25 – x ≤ 0
2
– + –

So, there is no solution
∴ S = (1, 5]
56
Solve the following inequalities.

a) logx9 > 2
b) logx(2x – 1) < 2
Exercises 1.4.2.
11. Find the solution set of the inequality
1. Find the solution set of log2(2x – 8) < 2.
log3(x – 6) + log3(x + 2) ≤ 2.
2. Find the solution set of log2(x + 2) ≤ 1.

log 12 (x − 1) ≤ log2 8 .
3. Find the solution set of log3(x + 4) < 1.
4. Find the solution set of log2(8x + 5) < log2(9x – 18). 13. Find the domain of f (x) = 4 − log3 (x − 7) .
5. Find the solution set of log 14 ^ 3x + 2h < log 14 ^ 4x − 3h .
14. Find the domain of the function

5x
f (x) = logx 4 − x + 2 + log3 a x + 1 k .
6. Find the solution set of log7(x2 – 2x – 8) < 1.
7. Find the solution set of log7(x2 – 4x + 4) ≤ 0. 15. Solve logx4 > 2.
8. Find the natural number n satisfying the inequality 16. Solve logx(6x – 9) ≤ 2.
2 < log23n < 9.
17. Find the domain of the function

9. Find the minimum integer value of x satisfying the
f (x) = log 12 6log3 (x − 8) @.
inequality 1 ≤ log3(x – 2) < log313.
18. Find the sum of the integer values of x satisfying the

inequality log2|2x – 5| < 2.
x+2
log3 ` x j ≥ log 3 c 2 m
2

1.5. Exponential and Logarithmic Models
Many processes that occur in nature, such as population growth, radioactive

decay, heat diffusion, and numerous others, can be modeled using exponential
functions. Logarithmic functions are used in models for the loudness of sounds,
the intensity of earthquakes, and many other phenomena.
The population of the world over time can be modeled by a continuous exponential
growth function. We can estimate the world population in the following years.
Both discrete and continuous exponential growth can be modeled by an
exponential function.
You will make some calculations involving exponential and/or logarithmic
expressions with the help of a simple scientific calculator where you can find a
free and online versions through the internet or even you can download into your
smart phone.
In these modelling problems, you may need to evaluate exponential expressions
such as e2, e–3 and so on, to find powers of 10, to calculate the natural logarithm
of a positive number, to calculate the common logarithm of a positive number, to
find any power of any number.
Exponential Growth Model

y = a . ek.t , k > 0
a represents the initial amount
k represents the rate of growth
t represents the time period
y represents total amount after the time period x.
EXAMPLE 1
In 2000, there were 80 rabbits in a natural park. How many rabbits were
there in the natural park in 2020, If the population after t years is modelled by
f(t) = a·e0.10t.
SOLUTION
f(0) = 80 = a.e(0.10).0 ⇒ a = 80
The time period is t = 2020 – 2000 = 20
f(20) = 80 . e (0.10).20 . 80 . (7.39) . 591.12
Therefore, there will be 591 rabbits in 2020.
EXAMPLE 2
In t years time, population of Turkey is modelled by the function p(t) = a.ek.t

Turkey’s population according to the census conducted in 2007 and 2010
are given in the following table
Date Population
2007 70 586 206
2010 73 722 988
a) Find Turkey’s annual population growth rate based on this data.
b) Find the population of Turkey in 2020.
c) In which year will Turkey’s population reach 100 000 000?
SOLUTION
(Initial time) t = 0 ⇒ P(0) = a.e0 = 70.59 ⇒ a = 70.59

a) In three years:
2010 – 2007 = 3 years
P(3) = 73.72 = 70.59 . e3k
73.72
70.59 = e
3k
1.04434 = e3k
In 1.04434 = 3k
In 1.04434
k= 3 . 0.01446
Therefore, Turkey’s annual population growth rate is about 1.45%

b) 2020 – 2007 = 13
P(13) = 70.59 . e13.0.01446 . 85 188 674
The population of Turkey in 2020 is going to be about 85 200 000.
c) 100 = 70. 59 . e0.01446t
1.41663 = e0.01446t
In 1.41663 = 0.01446t
In 1.41663
0.01446 . 24.09
2007 + 24 = 2031
Therefore, in 2031 Turkey’s population will reach 100 000 000.
57
In 2000 the population of the world was 6.1 billion. In t years time,
population is modelled by the function P(t) = a.e0.0149t. Estimate the
population of the world in the year 2030.
Exponential Decay Model
y = a . ek.t , k < 0
a represents the initial amount
k represents the rate of decay
t represents the time period
y represents the remaining amount after the time period x.
EXAMPLE 3
Use the formula y = a . e–0.000124t, where a is the initial amount of

Carbon-14, t is the number of years ago the animal lived, and y is the
remaining amount after y years.
a) How old is a fossil remain that has lost 85% of its Carbon-14?
b) How old is a skeleton that has 90% of its Carbon-14 remaining?
SOLUTION
a) The remaining part is 100% – 85% = 15%

15a −0.000124t
100 = a.e
All radioactive substances 0.15 = e–0.000124t
have a specific half-life, In0.15 = –0.000124t
which is the time required In0.15
for half of the radioactive t = − 0.000124 . 15299.35
substance to decay. In
Therefore, the fossil is 15299 years old.
carbon dating, we use the
fact that all living organisms b) The remaining part is 90%
contain two kinds of 90a −0.000124t
carbon, carbon-12 and
100 = a.e
carbon-14. 0.9 = e–0.000124t
In 0.9 = –0.000124t
In0.9
t = − 0.000124 . 849.681
Therefore, the skeleton is 15299 years old.
58
The radioactive isotope 226Ra has a half-life of 1620 years. If the original
amount was 4 grams, how much would remain after 8100 years?
Logistic Growth
The rate of growth of a quantity may slow down after initially increasing or
decreasing exponentially. A function that behaves in this way is a logistic growth
function.
P(t) P(t)
y=a y=a
inflection point inflection point
t t
Increasing logistic Decreasing logistic
growth function growth function
The logistic curve given by the function

a
P (t) =
1 + b.e −rt
where P is the population size and t is the time. If b < 0 then it is a decay model.
EXAMPLE 4
The population of a certain species of fish in a lake after t years is given by

1870
P (t) =
(1 + 1.32.e −0.087t)
a) What is the maximum population of the fish in the lake?

b) When will the population reach 1865?
SOLUTION
a) As t goes to infinity,
1870 1870 1870 1870
P (3) = = = = 1 = 1870
(1 + 1.32.e − 3) a 1 + 1.32 k (1 + 0)
e3
1870
1865 =
(1 + 1.32.e −0.087t)
(1 + 1.32 . e–0.087t) = 1.00268
1.32 . e–0.087t = 0.00268
e–0.087t = In 0.00203
In 0.00203
t= − 0.087 . 71.26 years
59
The population of a specific habitat after t years is given by
16000
P(t) =
(1 + 1.5.e −0.082t)
a) What is the maximum population?
b) When will the polulation reach 15900?
Compound Interest
STUDY T!P When you borrow an amount of money from a bank for a period of time at an
interest rate, you charge interest. When the interest due at the end of a payment
Banks give interest in varying
number of periods: period is added to the principal so that the interest computed at the end of the
• bi-annually-interest every two next payment period is based on this new principal (old principal + interest), the
years (n = 0.5) interest is said to have been compounded. Thus compound interest is interest
• annuall - interest once a year paid on previously earned interest.
(n = 1)
• semi-annually - interest twice The amount A after y years due to a principal P invested at an annual interest r
a year (n = 2) compounded n times per year is
• quarterly - interest every 3 r n.t
months (n = 4) A = P . `1 + n j
• monthly - interest every
month (n = 12)
• weekly - interest every week
(n = 52)
• daily - interest every day
(n = 360) EXAMPLE 5
A 1000 Å is invested at an annual rate of 10% find the amount of money

you will earn after 1 year if it is compounded
a) annually
b) quarterly
c) monthly
d) daily
SOLUTION
r 1.1
a) A = P . ` 1 + 1 j = 1000 . (1 + 0.10) = 1100 Å
r 4.1 0.10 4
b) A = P . ` 1 + 4 j = 1000 . a 1 + 4 k = 1103,81 Å
r 12.1 0.10 12
c) A = P . ` 1 + 12 j = 1000 . a 1 + 12 k = 1104,71 Å
r 360.1 0.1 360

d) A = P . ` 1 + 360 j = 1000 . a 1 + 360 k = 1105,16 Å
60
Find the amount the results from each investment:
a) 200 Å invested at 4% compounded quarterly after a period of 1 year.
b) 400 Å invested at 5% compounded monthly after a period of 2 years.
Continuous Compounding
When the interest is compounded so that amount of 1 year is P . er, we say that
the interest is compounded continuously.
The amount A after t years due to a principal P invested at an annual interest rate
r compounded continuously.
A = P . er.t
EXAMPLE 6
Find the amount resulting from the investment: 200 Å invested at 9%

compounded continuously after a period of 2 years.
SOLUTION
A = P . er.t = 200 . e0.09 . 2 = 200 . e0.18 = 239,44 Å
61
Find the amount resulting from the investment: 300 Å invested at 5%
compounded continuously after a period of 1 year.
The Richter Scale

The Richter magnitude scale (also Richter scale) assigns a magnitude number
to quantify the energy released by an earthquake. The Richter scale is a base -
10 logarithmic scale, which defines magnitude as the logarithm of the ratio of
the amplitude of theseismic waves to an arbitrary, minor amplitude. In 1935
the Americam geologist Charles Richter (1900 - 1984) defined the magnuted
I
M of an earthquake to be M = log ` s j where I is the intensity of the earthquake
(measured by the amplitude of a seismograph reading taken 100 km from the
epicenter of the earthquake) and S is the intensity of a “standard” earthquake
(whose amplitude is 1 micron = 10–4 cm)
EXAMPLE 7
The 1992 earthuquake in Erzincam had an estimated magnitude of 6.8 on

the Richter scale. In 1999 a powerful earthquake occurred in İzmit and was
3.98 times as intense. What was the magnitude of the İzmit earthquake on
the Richter scale?
SOLUTION
If I is the intensity of the Erzincan earthquake, then from the definition of

I
magnitude we have M = log ` s j = 6.9
The intensity of the İzmit earthquake was 3.98I, so its magnutide was
3.98I k
M = log a S
I I
log a S k = log 3.98 + log a S k . 0.6 + 6.9 . 7.5
3. 98
> 0.599 > 6.9
62
The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake that shook San Francisco had a
magnutide of 7.1 on the Richter scale. How many times more intense was
the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco having a magnitude of 8.3 than the
1989 event?
The Decible Scale

The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit used to express the ratio between two
values of a physical quantity, often power or intensity. The loudness of any sound
is measured relative to the loudness of sound at the threshold of hearing. Sounds
at this level are the softest that can still be heard. The formula used to compare
sounds is;
I
L = 10 . log a I k
0
1
where L is the loudness measured in decibels ( 10 of a bel). I is the intensity
of the sound being measured I0 is the intensity of a sound at the threshold of
hearing. At the threshhold of hearing, the loudness of sound is zero decibels (0
dB).
EXAMPLE 8
If a sound is 6000 times more intense that a sound youu can just hear
(i.e. threshold), calculate it’s measure in decibles.
SOLUTION
I0 = threshold
I = 6000 . I0
6000.I0
L = 10 . log c I0
m = 10 . log6000 . 10 . 3.78 . 37.8
Therefore this sound wolud measure 37.8 dB
63
In an underpass where there is heavy traffic, the loudness of the sound
was measured 107 dB at a certain point and at a certain time. How much
more intense is tne loudness of traffic than a normal conversation with
70 dB?
The pH Scale
The pH scale allows chemists to determine the concentration of

hydrogen ion in a liquid. It ranges from values of 1 to 14. The
higher the pH, the more basic, or eless acidic the liquid. The lower
the pH, the more acidic or less basic the liquid.
• A liquid with a pH of less than 7.0 is considered acidic
• A liquid with a pH of greater than 7.0 is considered basic
• A liquid with pH = 7.9 is considered to be neutral. Pure water has

a pH of 7.0. The relationship between pH and H+ ion concentration
is inversely proportional so;
• Low pH = High H+ ion concentration while High pH = Low H+ ion concentraiton.

The relationship between pH and hydrogen ion concentration is given by the
formula; pH = –log[H+] where [H+] is the concentration of hydrogen ion in
moles per litre.
EXAMPLE 9
Calculate the pH given [H+] is 10–5 moles/litre.
SOLUTION
pH = –log[H+] = –log(10–5) = –(–5)log10 = 5
64
Find the [H+] of tomato juice which has a pH of 4.1.
Exercises 1.5.
5. What annual rate of interest compounded annually
1. The initial bacterium count in a culture is 400. A
should you seek if you want to double your inventment
biologist later makes a sample count of bacteria in
in 6 years?
the culture If the growth that models the number of
bacteria after t hours is f(t) = a.e0,3t,
a)
What is the estimated count after 1 hour?
b) What is the estimated count after 10 hours?

6. A 1000 Å deposit is made at a bank that pays 10%
compounded annually. How much will you have in
your account at the end of 5 years?
2. Polonium - 210 (210Po) has a half-life of 140 days.

Suppose a sample of this substance has a mass of 200
mg.
a) Find a function that models the amount of the 7. A zero-coupon bond can be redeemed in 8 years for
sample remaining at time t. 1200 m. How much should you be willing to pay for it
now if you want a return of
b) Find the mass remaining after two years.
a)
8% compounded annually?
c) How long will it take for the sample to decay to a
mass of 100 mg? b) 7% compounded quarterly?
c) 6% compounded monthly?
3. If you start a biology experiment with 4 000 000 celss

and 45% of the cells are dying every minute, how long 8. How long will it take for an inventment to double in
will it take to have less than 2000 cells? value if it earns 4% compounded continuously?
1000
4. P (t) = represents the population
(1 + 32.32.e −0.438t)
of a bacteria after t hours. 9. If one earthquake is 20 times as intense as another,
a) What was the initial amount of bacteria in the how much larger is its magnitude on the Richter
population? scale?

10. How much more intense is an earthqake of magnitude 14. Calculate the pH given [H+] is 10–7 moles/litre.
6.2 on the Richter scale as one with a magnutide of
4.8?
11. How much more intense is a quake registering 8.1 15. Find the [H+] of milk which has a pH of 6.5
than one registering 5.4?
12. Loudness level of a heavy snore is 70 dB. The loudness 16. The pH of water in a small lake has dropped from 5.2
level of a conversation is 50 dB. The loudness level of to 4.6 over the last four years. How many more times
a whisper is 30 dB. Compare how many times more as acidic is the lake now compared to four years ago?
intense a snore is than a conversation and then a
whisper.
13. Emir decided to change the stock muffler on his car to

a new high performance free flow style. The original
muffler had a sound level measured at 70dB while the
new muffler will be 120dB. How many times louder is
the new muffler?

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

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Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

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1 1.1.

Exponential and logarithmic functions occur frequently in a wide variety of

• Solve the following equations.

1.1. Exponential Functions

For a > 0, a ≠ 1, and x Œ R

Some examples of exponential functions are as follows:

Determine whether the following functions are exponential or not.

a) f(x) = 16x Ş 16 Œ R+ – {1} therefore f(x) is an exponential function.

Evaluate each exponential function for x = 2 and x = –3

If f(x) = (a – 3)x+1 is a decreasing exponential function then find a.

Evaluate (23)2 – (22)3 – 3(22).

Simplify the following expression.

= (–p–6) . (p)–2 . (–p3) . (–p–5)

Find 16x – 4x+1 if 2x = 3.

16x – 4x+1 = (24)x – 4 . (22)x

Find 200x in terms of p and q if 2x = p and 5x = q.

Graph of Exponential Function

Graph the exponential function f(x) = 2x.

We can construct a table for some

We also could graph the function using transformation.

Any horizontal line intersects the graph of exponential function f(x) = ax

3. If f(x) = (a – 4)x+3 is a decreasing exponential function

13. Find 492x + 73x+2 if 7x = 1.

1.2. Logarithmic Functions

1.2.1. Logarithm function

Find the exact value of

Find the value of x.

(Base of a logarithm is always positive and different from 1.)

Find the inverse of f(x) = 5x–1 + 2.

Find the inverse of f(x) = log3(x – 2).

Find the inverse of f(x) = 4 – 2 . log5(3x + 2).

If f(x) = log3(2x + m) and f–1(2) = 3 then find m.

Domain and Range of Logarithmic Function

Find the domain of f(x) = log2(5 + x).

Find the domain of f(x) = log3 ( x1 +– 1x (

Find the domain of f(x) = log(x–2)(5 – x).

∴ domf = (2, 5) – {3}

Find the domain of f(x) = logx+3(x2 – 5x – 6).

∴ domf = (–3, –1) – {–2}

Graph of Logarithmic Function

As seen from the graph f(x) = logax,

• For x1 < x2; f(x1) < f(x2).

• And also for x1 < x2; f(x1) > f(x2).

Draw the graph of f(x) = log2x.

Draw the graph of f(x) = log2(x – 1).

STUDY T!P SOLUTION

Graph of exponential functions y = log2(x – 1) Ş x – 1 > 0 Ş x > 1 So the vertical asymptote is x = 1.

Draw the graph of f(x) = log 13 x .

9. Find the domain of the function f(x) = log2(4x – x2).

10. Find the domain of f(x) = log2x+4(9 – x).

22. Draw the graph of f(x) = log2(x + 1).

23. Draw the graph of f(x) = log3(x – 1).

24. Draw the graph of f(x) = –log4x.

1.2.2. Properties of Logarithm

log3x = 2 then find x.

log5[log4(log3a)] = 0 then find a.

Find a log 5 1 + log 2 1 − log 2 1 + log 5 5 − log 3 + log 13 3 k

log2 8 + log3 9 log2 2 3 + log3 3 2 3. log 2 2 + 2. log 3 3 3 + 2 5

f(x) = 2 + log3(x + 3) is given. Find f(6).

Order x = log26, y = log57 and z = log32.

Show that logx is positive for x > 1.

Show that logarithm of a number p which is not be able to be expressed as

Take logarithm of the inequality: