ACADEMIC

YEAR:2019-23
DEPARTMENT:
ECE
ASSIGNMENT NAME: EM THEORY

NAME : Anwesha Ghosh

SEMESTER: IV

ROLL NO: 1952166

SECTION: C

GROUP: 6
ExpErimEnt no. 1
Title:
Plotting of Standing Wave Pattern along a transmission line when the line is open-
circuited, short-circuited & terminated by a resistive load at the load end.

Objective:

To plot Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) under different load conditions.

Theory:
Standing waves are created by the superposition of incident and reflected travelling
waves in an improperly terminated transmission line. By improper termination,
what is meant is, the load impedance (ZL) has a value different from that of the
characteristic impedance (Zo) of the line.
Signal energy is transmitted through a transmission line from the source or
generator to the load or receiver in the form of voltage and current waves. At the
load end, part of the signal is reflected back depending on the type of load
impedance (ZL) and the characteristic impedance (Zo) of the line. The ratio of ZL and
Zo determines the reflection coefficient ГL at the load end.
The voltage component of a standing wave in a uniform transmission line consists
of the forward wave (with amplitude Vf) superimposed on the reflected wave (with
amplitude Vr). Reflections occur as a result of discontinuities, such as an
imperfection in an otherwise uniform transmission line, or when a transmission line
is terminated with other than its characteristic impedance. The reflection
coefficient Г is defined thus:
(1)

is a complex number that describes both the magnitude and the phase shift of the
reflection. The simplest cases, when the imaginary part of is zero, are:

 : maximum negative reflection, when the line is short-circuited,

 : no reflection, when the line is perfectly matched,
 : maximum positive reflection, when the line is open-circuited.
For the calculation of VSWR, only the magnitude of , denoted by ρ, is of interest.
Therefore, we define

(2)

At some points along the line the two waves interfere constructively, and the
resulting amplitude is the sum of their amplitudes:

(3)

At other points, the waves interfere destructively, and the resulting amplitude
is the difference between their amplitudes:

(4)

The voltage standing wave ratio is then equal to:

(5)

As ρ, the magnitude of , always falls in the range [0,1], the VSWR is always ≥ +1.

ρ=1+ (ZL/ZO)/1-(ZL/ZO) = ZL-ZO/ ZL+ZO (6)

Experimental Setup:
The experimental setup using equipment Transmission Line Trainer (TLT-B) is as
shown in figure (1)
 Figure (1) Transmission Line Trainer (TLT-B)

Experimental observations:

Load Type Test Point Vp-p Reflection VSWR=1+ρ/1-

Distance from (Volt) coefficient ρ = ρ
Source ZL-ZO/ ZL+ZO
end(meter)
Open- circuit 0 2 -1 0
ZL = ∞ 25 2.6
ZO=50Ω 50 3
75 3.6
100 4.2
Short- circuit 0 1.4 +1 ∞
ZL = 0 25 1.3
ZO=50Ω 50 1
75 0.7
100 0.3
Resistive - I 0 1.7 9 -1.25
ZL = 25 1.9
ZO=50Ω 50 2.1
75 2.4
100 2.7
 Test Point Distance from Source end(meter) Vp-p
(Volt) {Open-Circuit}
4.5
4
3.5
3
Vp-p (volt)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Source End (meter)

Test Point Distance from Source end(meter) Vp-p

(Volt){short circuit}

1.6
1.4
1.2
Vp-p (volt)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Source End (meter)

Test Point Distance from Source end(meter) Vp-p

(Volt){resistive}
3

2.5

2
Vp-p (volt)

1.5

0.5

0
0 20 40 Source End
60 (meter) 80 100 120
Discussion:
The following graphs and values were obtained.

ExpErimEnt no. 2
Title:
Radiation pattern of dipole antenna.

Objective:
a) To plot the radiation pattern of dipole antenna
b) To calculate the basic antenna parameters for the given antenna.

Theory:

An antenna is a transition device or transducer, between a guided wave and a

free space wave and vice-versa. The antenna is a device which interfaces a circuit
and space. In other words it can be defined as a device that converts electrons
into photons and vice-versa. To create radiation, there must be a time varying
current or an acceleration (or deceleration) of charge. So if charge is moving with
uniform velocity through a wire or conductor, which is curved, bend,
discontinuous, terminated or truncated: radiation will occur. Another way of
radiation is form a charge when it oscillates in time domain. The space
surrounding an antenna is usually divided into three regions. They are:

1) Reactive Near Field

2) Radiative Near Field (Fresnel)
3) Far Field (Fraunhofer)

Dipole antenna is single wire antenna. Radiation pattern from this antenna is
based on acceleration (or deceleration) of charges. In this experiment the
radiation pattern in E plane and H plane is to be plotted.
The antenna parameters that are of utmost importance are:
1) Directivity 2)Gain 3)Beamwidth.
Directivity of an antenna is equal to the maximum power density P(  ,  ) max
(Watts/m2) to its average value over a sphere, as observed in the far field of an
antenna. Thus directivity from pattern is
P(  ,  ) max
D
P ( ,  ) avg
The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the
antenna divided by 4π. If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum
radiation intensity is implied. In that case, the directivity (maximum direction) is
U max
D
U0
Where D is maximum directivity
Umax is the maximum radiation intensity in w/unit solid angle
U0 is radiation pattern of isotropic source in w/unit solid angle
Gain of an antenna is defined a efficiency times the directivity or directive gain.
Thus,

Gain(G) = K  D

where K is efficiency factor (0 ≤ K ≤ 1), dimensionless.

The gain G of an antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than the
directivity D due to the ohmic losses in the antenna. In transmitting, these losses
involve power fed to the antenna which is not radiated but heats the antenna
structure. A mismatch in feeding the antenna also reduces the gain. For folded
antenna K=0.8, so maximum gain of dipole antenna is

41253
G0 fdipole  K
 HP
0
 HP
0

This is gain of the reference antenna. Now gain of the antenna under test (AUT) is

Pmax ( AUT )
G  G0 fdipole
Pmax (ref .ant.)

Beamwidth is the angular separation (in degrees) between two symmetric points,
measured on the radiation pattern (main lobe) of the antenna. Generally there are
two classification of beamwidth:
 1) Half power beam width (HPBW) defined as the angular width between two
points on the radiation pattern where radiated power has fallen half of its
maximum value.
2) Beam width between first nulls (FNBW) defined as the angular width
between first two null points on radiation pattern.

Equipment Required:
a) Antenna transmitter, receiver.
b) Two dipole antennas, antenna tripod, connecting cables, polarization
connector, stepper pod, RLB.

Experimental observations:
Table I: Data for E-field radiation pattern
Sl. No. Angle in degree Gain in dB Normalized gain in
dB
1 0 51.3 -0.9
2 5 51.3 -0.9
3 10 51.2 -1
4 15 51.1 -1.1
5 20 50.8 -1.4
6 25 51.7 -0.5
7 30 51.5 -0.7
8 35 51.2 -1
9 40 50.9 -1.3
10 45 50.6 -1.6
11 50 50.4 -1.8
12 55 49.9 -2.3
13 60 49.3 -2.9
14 65 48.7 -3.5
15 70 47.9 -4.3
16 75 46.9 -5.3
17 80 45.9 -6.3
18 85 45.5 -6.7
19 90 44.6 -7.6
20 95 43.5 -8.7
21 100 42.2 -10
22 105 41.4 -10.8
23 110 41 -11.2
24 115 41.2 -11
25 120 42 -10.2
26 125 43.1 -9.1
27 130 44.5 -7.7
28 135 45.7 -6.5
29 140 46.7 -5.5
30 145 47.8 -4.4
31 150 48.8 -3.4
32 155 49.4 -2.8
33 160 50 -2.2
34 165 50.5 -1.7
35 170 50.7 -1.5
36 175 51 -1.2
37 180 51.2 -1
38 185 51.3 -0.9
39 190 51.4 -0.8
40 195 51.4 -0.8
41 200 51.4 -0.8
42 205 51.3 -0.9
43 210 50.9 -1.3
44 215 50.6 -1.6
45 220 50.4 -1.8
46 225 50.3 -1.9
47 230 50.1 -2.1
48 235 49.7 -2.5
49 240 49.2 -3
50 245 48.4 -2.8
51 250 47.3 -4.9
52 255 46.7 -5.5
53 260 46 -6.2
54 265 44.9 -7.3
55 270 43.2 -9
56 275 40.8 -11.4
57 280 37.8 -14.4
58 285 36.1 -16.1
59 290 36.8 -15.4
60 295 38.5 -13.7
61 300 41.1 -11.1
62 305 43.5 -8.7
63 310 45.1 -7.1
64 315 46.5 -5.7
65 320 47.9 -4.3
66 325 49 -3.2
67 330 49.7 -2.5
68 335 50.4 -1.8
69 340 51 -1.2
70 345 51.4 -0.8
71 350 51.7 -0.5
72 355 51.9 -0.3
73 360 52.2 0
 Polar Plot
Gain in dB Normalized gain in dB
0
355 360 5 10 15
345350 60 20
340 25
335 30
330 50 35
325 40
320 40 45
315 50
310 30 55
305 60
20
300 65
295 10 70
290 75
0
285 80
280 -10 85
275 -20 90
270 95
265 100
260 105
255 110
250 115
245 120
240 125
235 130
230 135
225 140
220 145
215 150
210 155
205 160
200 195 170 165
190 185 180 175

Discussion:
The following values have been obtained and verified. Also plotted the E-Field
radiation pattern in polar plot and obtained the Half Power Beam Width.
ExpErimEnt no. 3
Title:
Beam width, gain and radiation pattern of a 3-element, 5-element and 7-element
Yagi-Uda antenna – Comparative study.
Objective:
a) To plot the Radiation pattern of three, five, and seven element Yagi-Uda
Antenna.

b) To compare different antenna parameters for aforementioned 3 types of

antenna.

Theory:
Yagi-Uda antenna is an array antenna which consists of one active element and a
few parasitic elements. The active element consists of a dipole whose length is
λ/2. The parasitic elements consist of reflector and a few directors. The length of
the reflector is greater than λ/2. It is located behind the active element. The
length of each director is less than λ/2 and they are placed in front of active
element. The spacing between each element is not identical and hence it can be
considered as a non-linear array. The number of directors in the antenna depends
on the gain required. The impedance of the active element is resistive. The
impedance of the reflector is inductive. The impedance of the directors are
capacitive. A typical Yagi-Uda Antenna is shown bellow.

Figure 1: 3-element Yagi-Uda Antenna

The optical equivalent of Yagi-Uda is shown below.
 Figure 2: Optical Equivalence of Yagi-Uda antenna
Light from the point source got reflected back by the concave lens towards the
direction of convex lens. Convex lens on the other hand focuses the light towards
its focal point. Thus light intensity is measured to higher in the direction of convex
lens than in the direction of concave one. The increment in numbers of directors
can be analogically understood with the increase in light intensity and thus gain in
a certain direction (towards the focal point of convex lens) of the optical
equivalence system. The radiation pattern of Yagi-Uda antenna is almost
unidirectional and gives a gain of about 7dB.
The antenna parameters that are of utmost importance are:
1) Directivity 2) Gain 3) Beamwidth.

Directivity of an antenna is equal to the maximum power density P(  ,  ) max

(Watts/m2) to its average value over a sphere, as observed in the far field of an
antenna. Thus directivity from pattern is
P(  ,  ) max
D
P ( ,  ) avg
The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the
antenna divided by 4π. If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum
radiation intensity is implied. In that case, the directivity (maximum direction) is
U max
D
U0
Where D is maximum directivity
Umax is the maximum radiation intensity in w/unit solid angle
U0 is radiation pattern of isotropic source in w/unit solid angle
Gain of an antenna is defined a efficiency times the directivity or directive gain.
Thus,
Gain(G) = K  D
where K is efficiency factor (0 ≤ K ≤ 1), dimensionless.
The gain G of an antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than the
directivity D due to the ohmic losses in the antenna. In transmitting, these losses
involve power fed to the antenna which is not radiated but heats the antenna
structure. A mismatch in feeding the antenna also reduces the gain. For folded
antenna K=0.8, so maximum gain of folded dipole antenna is
41253
G0 fdipole  K
 HP
0
 HP
0

This is gain of the reference antenna. Now gain of the antenna under test (AUT) is
Pmax ( AUT )
G  G0 fdipole
Pmax (ref .ant.)
Beamwidth is the angular separation (in degrees) between two symmetric points,
measured on the radiation pattern (main lobe) of the antenna. Generally there are
two classification of beamwidth:
3) Half power beam width (HPBW) defined as the angular width between two
points on the radiation pattern where radiated power has fallen half of its
maximum value.
4) Beam width between first nulls (FNBW) defined as the angular width
between first two null points on radiation pattern.

Equipment Required:
c) Antenna transmitter, receiver.
d) One dipole antenna, one 3-element Yagi antenna, one 5-element Yagi
antenna, one 7-element Yagi antenna, antenna tripod, connecting cables,
polarization connector, RLB, stepper motor, RS-232 cable, computer software
for plotting measured data.

Experimental observations:
Table I: Comparison data for E-field radiation pattern for 3, 5 and 7-element Yagi
Uda antennas
Sl. No. (1 – Angle for Gain (dB) for 3 Gain (dB) for 5 Gain (dB) for 7
36) observation element Yagi- element Yagi- element Yagi-
Uda Antenna Uda Antenna Uda Antenna
1 0 87.7 87.1 90.3
2 10 86.8 86.3 88.8
3 20 85.3 83.8 87.1
4 30 83.9 79.7 83.7
5 40 81.5 74.8 79.4
6 50 79.1 72 76.7
7 60 77.1 69.1 75.3
8 70 74.1 68.2 68.9
9 80 72.5 71.3 69.1
10 90 71.4 68.9 67.6
11 100 69.7 70.7 67.5
12 110 69.4 69.6 68.9
13 120 69.5 71.5 71.1
14 130 72.5 76.5 75.4
15 140 72.9 78.5 77.2
16 150 74.5 78.9 78.9
17 160 77.1 79 81.2
18 170 77.8 80.6 81.5
19 180 78.5 79.7 81.3
20 190 72.1 80 79.3
21 200 71.8 77.6 77.4
22 210 72.2 75.6 80.6
23 220 74.5 73.7 74.6
24 230 72.5 71.6 73.9
25 240 72.8 67.6 69.9
26 250 71.9 70 69.1
27 260 73.6 69.1 69
28 270 76.4 71.2 68.8
29 280 78.2 66.8 69.6
30 290 80.5 71.3 71.6
31 300 82.9 75 74.7
 32 310 84.6 80.6 80.8
33 320 86.6 83.9 85.8
34 330 87.6 86.5 88.5
35 340 88.2 87.5 90.1
36 350 88.5 88 90.5
37 360 88 87.8 90.1

Chart Title
Gain (dB) for 3 element Yagi-Uda Antenna Gain (dB) for 5 element Yagi-Uda Antenna
Gain (dB) for 7 element Yagi-Uda Antenna
0
360100 10
350 20
340 90 30
330 80 40
320 70 50
60
310 60
50
300 40 70
30
290 20 80
10
280 90
0
270 100

260 110

250 120
240 130
230 140
220 150
210 160
200 190 180 170

Result:

Antenna Type HPBW

3 Elements Yagi Uda 35°
 3 Elements Yagi Uda 30°
3 Elements Yagi Uda 30°

Discussion:
After completing this experiment we obtained the Gain(dB) of all three types of
Yagi Uda antenna and plotted the values in polar plot . And get almost near value
of HPBW for all the three.

ExpErimEnt no. 4
Title:
Radiation pattern, Gain, directivity of a Pyramidal Horn antenna.

Objective:
c) To plot the radiation pattern of aperture antennas (Horn Antennas).
d) To calculate the basic antenna parameters for the given antenna.

Theory:

Aperture antennas are waveguide type of antennas. A waveguide, when

excited at one end and open at the second end, radiates. The radiation coming
out is weak due to the mismatch between the space and the waveguide. The
mouth of the waveguide is flared out to improve the radiation efficiency, pattern
and directivity. Different types of horn antennas are:
1) Sectoral horn
2) Pyramidial horn
3) Conical horn
Sectoral hornantenna is again classified as:
1)Sectoral H-plane horn.
2)Sectoral E-plane horn.
For the experiment, Pyramidal horn antenna is used. The structure of the
antenna is as shown in fig. below

The horn antenna parameters are:

δ = path difference
I = axial length
d =aperture dimension
 θ = flare angle

d
b
axis

The design equations of horn antenna are:

θ = 2 tan-1 (d / 2l)

θ = 2 cos-1 (l /(l+δ))
Thus,
l = d2/ 8δ

Half-power beam width of optimum flared horns are

фE = 56λ / dE degrees
фH = 67λ / dH degrees

dE = aperture in E-plane in free space wavelength

dH = aperture in H-plane in free space wavelength

Directivity of horn is
D = 7.5Aa /λ2
Power gain,
gp= 4.5 A/ λ2

Here, Aa= dE dH= Physical area of the aperture

Equipments Required:
a) Klystron source, Horn antenna, VSWR meter
b) Coaxial cables, connecting probes

Experimental Observations:

Table: Frequency of operation (f1)

Sl. No. (1 – Angle for Gain (dB) for 3 Gain (dB) for 5 Gain (dB) for 7
36) observation element Yagi- element Yagi- element Yagi-
Uda Antenna Uda Antenna Uda Antenna
1 0 87.7 87.1 90.3
2 10 86.8 86.3 88.8
3 20 85.3 83.8 87.1
4 30 83.9 79.7 83.7
5 40 81.5 74.8 79.4
6 50 79.1 72 76.7
7 60 77.1 69.1 75.3
8 70 74.1 68.2 68.9
9 80 72.5 71.3 69.1
10 90 71.4 68.9 67.6
11 100 69.7 70.7 67.5
12 110 69.4 69.6 68.9
13 120 69.5 71.5 71.1
14 130 72.5 76.5 75.4
15 140 72.9 78.5 77.2
16 150 74.5 78.9 78.9
17 160 77.1 79 81.2
18 170 77.8 80.6 81.5
19 180 78.5 79.7 81.3
20 190 72.1 80 79.3
21 200 71.8 77.6 77.4
22 210 72.2 75.6 80.6
23 220 74.5 73.7 74.6
24 230 72.5 71.6 73.9
25 240 72.8 67.6 69.9
26 250 71.9 70 69.1
27 260 73.6 69.1 69
28 270 76.4 71.2 68.8
29 280 78.2 66.8 69.6
30 290 80.5 71.3 71.6
31 300 82.9 75 74.7
32 310 84.6 80.6 80.8
33 320 86.6 83.9 85.8
34 330 87.6 86.5 88.5
35 340 88.2 87.5 90.1
36 350 88.5 88 90.5
37 360 88 87.8 90.1
 Result:
After completing this experiment we obtained the Normalize Power (dB) of the
radiation of
Horn antenna and verify it’s output by plotting and get the HPBW = 17°.
Now if we have a look at the Dipole antenna and Horn antenna and
compares their Directivity we get :

Antenna Type Directivity

3 Elements Dipole (HPBW= 33.6612
35°)
5 Elements Dipole (HPBW= 45.8166
30°)
7 Elements Dipole (HPBW= 45.8166
30°)
Horn Antenna (HPBW= 17°) 142.7439