GENERAL CHEMISTRY: CHAPTER II

I. Atomic Theory

 John Dalton (1801-1810) a chemist and physicist proposed a

theory called “Dalton’s Atomic Theory”

6 Major Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory:

1. All matter is made up of very tiny particles called atoms.

-Element and compund is made up of atoms.

2. Atoms are indivisible particles which cannot be created nor

destroyed in a chemical reaction.
-Atoms are the fundamental units, dividing them is impossible.
Elements can combine to form compound where in atoms
aren't destroyed nor crated.

3. Atoms are a given element are identical in mass and chemical

properties.

4. Atoms of different elements have different massess and

chemical properties.

5. Atoms combine in a ration of small whole numbers to form

compounds.
- unit always in the form of whole number. Example: 2 Hydron
and 1 oxygen is water

6. The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given

compound.
- example is water wherein 2 unit of hydrogen always have 1
unit of oxygen

Laws of Chemical Combination

1. Law of Conservation of Mass

In simple terms, this law states that matter can neither be created
nor destroyed. In other words, the total mass, that is, the sum of the
mass of reacting mixture and the products formed remains constant.
Antoine Lavoisier gave this law in the year 1789 based on the data
he obtained after carefully studying numerous combustion
reactions.

2. Law of Definite Proportions

Joseph Proust, a French chemist stated that the proportion of

elements by weight in a given compound will always remain exactly
the same. In simple terms, we can say that irrespective of its
source, origin or its quantity, the per cent composition of elements
by weight in a given compound will always remain the same.

3. Law of Multiple Proportions

This law states that if two elements combine to form more than one
compound, the masses of these elements in the reaction are in the
ratio of small whole numbers. This law was given by Dalton in the
year 1803.

4. Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes

In 1808, Gay Lussac gave this law based on his observations. This
law states that when gases are produced or combine in a chemical
reaction, they do so in a simple ratio by volume given that all the
gases are at the same temperature and pressure. This law can be
considered as another form of the law of definite proportions. The
only difference between these two laws of chemical combination is
that Gay Lussac’s Law is stated with respect to volume while the
law of definite proportions is stated with respect to mass.

5. Avogadro’s Law

Avogadro proposed this law in the year 1811. It stated that under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure, an equal volume
of all the gases contains an equal number of molecules. This
implies that 2 litres of hydrogen will have the same number of
molecules as 2 litres of oxygen given that both the gases are at the
same temperature and pressure.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY: CHAPTER II

II. The Structure of an Atom

1. There are a 118 different kinds of atoms which are each the
smallest part of an element If we observe elements like gold,
carbon, and oxygen we can see that they have very different
properties that don't look or act the same.

2. Atoms are made up of electron, proton, neutron.

3. Atomic number is the number of protons.

4. Electron is smaller than protons. zip around protons at lightning

speed making an electron cloud because of their negative electric
charge which pulls towards the postive charge.

5. The pull between negative and positive charge is called the

electric force.

7. Without neutrons the eletric force will cause the potrons to leave
atoms. What stops it is called the strong nuclear force between
neutron and potron. It hold the nuclues together.

8. If there were no neutrons everything would simply be hydrogen.

9. Whenever a free electron gets close enough to a lonely proton,

they'll become part of the same atom. That's why all the (stable)
elements have the same number of electrons and protons.

10. Electrons are much smaller than proton.

 GENERAL CHEMISTRY: CHAPTER II

III. Mendeleev and The Periodic Table

 Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

- A Russian chemist and inventor.

- He is best remembered for formulating the Periodic Law and

creating a farsighted version of the periodic table of elements.

- He used the Periodic Law not only to correct the then-accepted

properties of some known elements, such as the valence and
atomic weight of uranium, but also to predict the properties of
three elements that were yet to be discovered.

- He used dash to predict unknown element.

Example:

The eka-aluminum which was one step away from aluminun. Later
on was discovered as Gallium

Eka means tranfered for one.

Eka-aluminum properties:
atomic weight is 68
isolated-solid metal at room temperature
melting point is low
a cubic cm will weigh 6 grams

He predicted all of this things simply from where the blank spots
was and how the element behaved. A few years after this prediction,
a French guy named Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran discovered
a new element in ore samples and named it gallium after Gaul, the
historical name for France. Gallium is one step away from
aluminum on the periodic table. It's eka-aluminum. So were
Mendeleev's predictions right? Gallium's atomic weight is 69.72. A
cubic centimeter of it weighs 5.9 grams. it's a solid metal at room
temperature, but it melts at a paltry 30 degrees Celcius, 85 degrees
Fahrenheit. It melts in your mouth and in your hand. Not only did
Mendeleev completely nail gallium, he predicted other elements
that were unknown at the time: scandium, germanium, rhenium.

The element he called eka-manganese is now called technetium.

Technetium is so rare it couldn't be isolated until it was synthesized
in a cyclotron in 1937, almost 70 years after Dmitri predicted its
existence, 30 years after he died. Dmitri died without a Nobel Prize
in 1907, but he wound up receiving a much more exclusive honor.
In 1955, scientists at UC Berkeley successfully created 17 atoms of
a previously undiscovered element. This element filled an empty
spot in the perodic table at number 101, and was officially named
Mendelevium in 1963.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY: CHAPTER II

IV. Molecules
What is a molecule?

a.The smallest particle of a pure chemical substances that still

retains its composition and chemical properties.
b.A group of atoms stuck together through chemical bonds.
c.Different types of atoms can form different numbers of
bonds.
d.Molecules can be as small as two atoms stuck together or as
is the case for some proteins.
e.They may contain over half a million atoms, all covalently
bound together

1. If a hydrogen atom happens to pass close enough to another

lone hydrogen atom--their electrons, which are attracted like
magnets to protons can pull the atoms toward each other until they
collide and stick together.

2. The two atoms now share each other's electrons in what is

called a covalent chemical bond.

3. What were once two individual hydrogen atoms have now

formed a single hydrogen molecule.

*** This bond is not permanent with enough heat or due

to interactions with other molecules the hydrogen
atoms will readily separate once more.

 Different types of atoms can form different numbers of chemical

bonds. A hydrogen atom can only form one covalent bond at a
time. If a third hydrogen atom were to collide with a hydrogen
molecule. It would simply bounce off or if it hits hard enough, or
in just the right place. It can trade spots with one of the existing
atoms.
 Huge molecules can form if bonds happen to be properly
arranged. For example, even though hydrogen can only form
one bond. A standard water molecule is always made of three
atoms. This is possible because oxygen which can form two
bonds forms just one bond with each hydrogen atom

Example: Sugar -> C6H12O6

 Space Filling Model

 Also known as a calotte model, They show us roughly what the

outside of each atoms electron cloud looks like and different
types of atoms have been assigned different colors when we
look at real molecules with a scanning tunneling microscope.

 Is a type of three-dimensional (3D) molecular model where the

atoms are represented by spheres whose radii are proportional
to the radii of the atoms and whose center-to-center distances
are proportional to the distances between the atomic nuclei, all
in the same scale.

 Ball and Stick Model

 These highlight the bonds between atoms the skeleton of a

molecule instead of showing each atoms outside surface.

 Molecular model of a chemical substance which is to display

both the three-dimensional position of the atoms and the bonds
between them. The atoms are typically represented by spheres,
connected by rods which represent the bonds. Double and triple
bonds are usually represented by two or three curved rods,
respectively, or alternately by correctly positioned sticks for the
sigma and pi bonds.
TRIVIA:

1.When atoms come together to form a molecule the molecule vibrates between
itsbonds in a regular pattern. You can think of the bond as a bouncing spring. This is
because the protons and the nucleus of each atom repel one another while the
shared electrons in each bond pull the atoms back together. The vibrations we find in
molecules are the result of a perpetual tug-of-war between these two forces. if you
add more energy to a molecule with heat or light. The amplitude, the length of each
vibration will increase without changing how frequently each vibration completes its
cycle. This means the bouncing spring stretches further and the atoms move faster. If
you add enough energy the bond will eventually break. These vibrations have a huge
number of potential applications in chemistry, medicine, electronics and computer
engineering.
1.
2.In April 2019 in the journal Nature, Joonhee Lee and his colleagues from The
Center For Chemistry at the Space-Time Limit have published the first images ever
taken of molecular vibrations at the atomic scale. It showed how molecule bends and
pulses between its bonds.