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Qdoc - Tips o Level Physics Notes
Qdoc - Tips o Level Physics Notes
1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS.
Physics is the branch of science which deals with the study of matter in relation to energy.
Energy -Is
-Is the ability of doing work.
The word physics comes from Greek word ‘physicos’ which which means Natural. Therefore
Therefor e generally physics can
be described
described as the study of nature
nature whose aim is to understand
understand the behavior the universe.
behavior of the
Physics as a subject uses concept like force
force,, ener
ner g y, mass,
mass, wei
wei g ht to
to explain different phenomena.
A person who studies physics is called a phy
physicist
sicist or
or phy
physicia
sician.
n.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICS AND OTHER SUBJECT
Physics is said to be the most fundamental of the natural science therefore the following are the subjects in
which physics related to ;
Chemistry
Biology
Mathe
Mathemmatics
Astrono
Astronom
my
Geography
APPLICATION OF PHYSICS IN REAL LIFE
The following are areas/fields in which physics can be applied;
AT HOME
All tools and machinery that are used in our home to simply our works are made in accordance with the laws of
.e.g hamm
physics .e.g hammer , door door handles,
handles, hing
hi ngees, car j ack , pulleys etc.
etc.
MEDICAL FIELD.
A variety of medical processes and machinery rely on physics .eg x-ra x-r ay, ult
ultraso
rasoundund, syri
syri nges
nges and needles.
SOURCE OF ENERGY
some process and machines help us to obtain energy for our daily use.eg batte batterr i es ,ge
,g enerator
nerator s and dynamo.
TRANSPORT.
Application of the laws of physics such us frict fr iction
ion and frict
fr iction
iona
al force
force ensures that human being and animal
can walk, run and stop without falling over. Vessels used in transportation such as car car s/aut
s/automomob obii les, ships,
shi ps,
aer
aer o planes and trains are also able to move, brake stop where necessary.
COMMUNICATION
Example of devices that are used in communication are such as telephones, mobile p mobile pho hone
ness, modem, television,
transm
tr ansmii tter
tter r ecei
cei ver
ver , satelli
satellite
te dish ,new
, newspa
spape
perr , ema
emai ls, fax,
f ax, short message
message ser
ser vice
vi ce ( sms)
sms) are due to knowledge
acquired from physics.
ENTERTAIMENT
Physics enable people to enjoy a variety of leisure activities as evident in pho phottogra
gr aphs,
hs, D igita
ig itall applianc
liancees,
exer cise
ci se mac
machi hine
ness and other sports equipments such as inflated balloons, merry – go-
go- round
roundss are used to
entertain children. Music for example is recorded on tapes, CD using the skills acquired in physics . Television
VCD ,DVD etc.
INDUSTRY
Physics have been able to came up with tools and processes that have resulted in advanced technological
equipments and new discoveries Eg com compute
puter s, binoc
binocular
ularss and telescopes.
IN SCHOOL
The instruments and apparatus used in school laboratory are made through application of the knowledge and
skill acquired in physics class.
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8.I t br
br i ngs hope
hope to a victim
victi m.
THE FIRST AID KIT
F ir st aid kit is
is the small box which contains items and tool needed for first aid.
COMPONENT OF FIRST AID KIT.
ITEMS/COMPONENTS USES
Antisep
Antiseptic soa
soap Washing hands ,wounds, and equipments.
Antisep
Antiseptic solut
solution
ion Cleaning fresh cut and bruises.
Assorte
Assorted
d banda
ndages
ges and cot
cotton wool Covering and drying wounds
D i sposab
sposable
le ster
ster i le gloves
gloves Preventing direct contact
contact with
with victim’s
victim’s body
body fluids.
Pain ki llers
llers Reducing pain
pain
Adhe
Adhesive banda
ndage or pla
plast
ste
er Covering minor wounds.
Steri
Steri le gauz
gauze
e Covering wounds to protect them from dust and germs
Safe
Safetty pins clips
clips and tape. Sucuring bandage or dressings
Scissors
Scissors and razo
razor bla
blad
de Cutting dressing materials
P etrole
troleum
um jelly Smoothening and soothing skin.
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Fire is the one of the most highty destructive accidents in the laboratory.
Generally for fire to break out three factors must be fulfilled;
.1H eat
2.Fue
2.F uell
3.Oxyge
3.Oxygen n
In any physics laboratory fire may be caused by;
1.E lect
lectrr i cal
cal faults
faults
2.Smo
2.Smoking ma materi als
3.Carel
3.Carele essne
ssnessss
4.I g norance and negl neglii gence
BASIC PRINCIPLE
PRINCIPLE OF PREVENTING FIRE
1.No
1.N o light
lig htii ng of ope
open fi r es nea
near buildings
uilding s
2.No smo
smoking
ki ng in proh
prohibit
ibite
ed area
3.No interf
interfe erence
rence with eleclectri cal
cal insta
installat
llation
4.A ll electr
lectrii cal
cal appli
appliance
ancess must be turne
tur nedd off i mmediately
diately afte
afterr use or
or bef
before leavi
leaving
ng the
laboratory
5.All flam
flammable sub substa
stance
nce sho
should be locke
locked d up in drawe
rawer oror ca
cabinet
inet
FIRE EXTINGUISHER
Fire are classified according to the type of medium that is burning
There are four (4) types of fire extinguisher
Water
Dry powder
F oam
oam
C ar bon
bon dioxid
dioxi de
CLASSES OF FIRE
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TOXIC
HAMFUL OR IRRITANT
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This is substance which can corrode surfaces and burn your skin.
EXPLOSIVE
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Data presentation involves the use of mathematical concept to represent the data or results collected this could
include the use of pie chart, graphs and formulate
8. DRAWING CONCLUSION
Conclusion .is the summary of the result of the experiment
3: MEASUREMENTS.
MEASUREMENTS.
Measu
Measure
rem
ment is the process of assigning numbers to observation or events
Measurement should have two parts
1. Numb
N umbeer par
par t
2.Unit part
E.g. 2kg,5s
A complete measurement is called phy
physica
sicall quant
uantitie
itiess
BASIC FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
There are two categories of physical quantities which are;
I . F undam
undamental
ntal quantiti
uantitie
es
I I . Derive
Deri ved
d quant
uantii ties
ties
fundamental quantities of nature include;
1.Length
2.Mass
2.Mass
3.tim
3.timee
4.Temperature
5.Amo
5.Amountunt of sub
substa
stance
nce
6.elect
6.electrr i c curre
curr ent
7.Luminous intensity
N.B: Mass,
Mass, L engthngth and Time
Time (ML
(M L T) are known as the basic physical quantities of measurement
1. LENGTH
Length is the distance between two points. This is the commonly made measurement in our daily life.
The S.I unit
unit of
of Le
L ength is metre (m)
The length of object or distances tend to vary for example distance from the earth to the sun and diameter of a
wire. To cope with this great difference, there are other several units obtained from metre such as kilometre,
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centimetr
centimetr e ,mill
,mi llII metre, mi
mi crom
cr ome
etre
tr e and nanomet
nanometrr e.
Their equivalence are as follows;
1km — 1000
1000 m
1m — 100
100 cm
106 µm
1m — 10
1m---109 nm
E xample
amples.
s.
1.Change the 0.01km into centimeters.
Solut
Solution
ion::
1km = 1000000cm
1000000×0. 0
0.01km = cm?
1 1
= 1000cm
metre rule
When taking measurement always ensure that your eye is right above the mark one the scale of the metre rule,
otherwise the value will have an error . The error is due to parallax
Parallax occur when a point an object is viewed from different positions. This makes the object to shift
positions
Parallax is
is the apparent motion of an object relative to another when the position of the eye is varied
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1. .
solution:
Main scale= 0.00 cm
Vernier scale=0.06 cm
Reading of the vernier caliper = Main scale + Vernier scale
= 0.00 cm + 0.06 cm
= 0.06cm
2.
solution:
Main scale=8.6 cm
Vernier scale=0.02 cm
Reading of the vernier caliper = Main scale + Vernier scale
= 8.6 cm + 0.02 cm
= 8.62cm|
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1.
solution:
Main scale=2.5 mm
Thimble scale scale=0.38 mm
Reading of the vernier caliper = Main scale + Thimble scale
= 2.5 mm + 0.38 mm
= 2.88 mm
2. MASS
Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. The S.I Unit of
of mass is K ilogr
ilograam (K g)
The apparatus commonly used to measure mass of objects in the laboratory are;
i .B eam
eam balance
balance
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i i . Di
D i gi tal
tal balance
balance /electr
lectr onic
onic bala
balance
nce
B eam balance
balance D i gi tal
tal balance
balance
3. TIME
Time is the interval between one event and another. The S.I unit of
of time is Seco
Second
nd (s)
Time can be measured by using;
i . Stop
top wat
watch
ch
i i . Wri
Wr i st watc
watch
h
ii i. Clo
C lock
ck
Stop
Stop watch Wri st watch Clock
Clock
DERIVED QUANTITIES
D er i ved
ved quantiti
quantitiees are obtained by combining two or more of the fundamental quantities through multiplication
or division.
Example of derived quantities are Are Ar ea, Volum
Volume, Density
Density,, Velo
Velocity,
city, We
Weig
ight
ht and Work.
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1. VOLUME
VOLUME OF CYLI NDE R 2. VOLUME
VOLUME OF CUBE
2. V OLUME
OLU ME OF CUB
C UB E
EXERCISE
1. Calculate the volume of rectangular block of sides 15cm ,8cm and 7cm .
2. Calculate the volume of cylinder with the height of 14cm and diameter of 20cm.
3.Calculate the volume of sphere with a diameter of 28m.
4.A cylinder with a height of 100cm has a volume of 61600m 3 calculate its diameter.
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II. LIQUID
The litre is the standard unit used for measuring volume of liquids
1litre=1000cm 3 = 1000ml
1cm 3 =1ml
This implies that 1cm
Instruments used for measuring volume of liquids in the laboratory are;
i.Beakers
i i .Ca
.C alib
li br ated
ted flasks
iii.Burette
iv.pipette
v.Me
v.M easuri ng cyli cylind
ndeer
B eaker
aker C onical fla
fl ask B ure
ur ette
tte P i pette
tte M easuri
sur i ng cylinder
cylinder
III. GAS
A gas always fill any container in which it is placed therefore the volume of the Gas can be determined by
measuring the volume of the container.
ERRORS
Errors is a minimal deviation from true volume
Is a measure of estimated difference between observed and the value of a quantity that is being measured
SOURCES OF ERRORS
i .F ault duri
duri ng manufactu
nufacturr e
i i .Da
.D amage duri
duri ng use
iii.Poor storage
i v.H uma
uman fa
f actor
ctor
TYPES OF ERRORS
i. Parallax
i i . Zero
Zero er
er ror
i i i . H uma
uman facto
factor
r
DENSITY
Density is
is the mass of an object per unit volume.
=
The S.I unit
unit of
of density is K i logra
logr am per
per cubi
cubi c me (k g /m 3 )
metre (kg
measuring density are gra
Other units used for measuring gr ams per cub
cubic ic cent
centim
ime (g /cm 3 ) and gra
etres (g/ gr ams per millili
millilittres
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(g/ml)
DENSITIES OF SOME COMMON SUBSTANCES
SUBSTANCE DENSTIY(g/cm3)
Alumini
Aluminium
um 2.7
Copper 8.3
Gold 19.3
Lead 11.3
Water 1
I ce 0.92
E xamp
xample;
le;
1.What is the density of a piece of wood of mass 25g and volume of 29.4cm 3?
Solution
Data given
Mass =25g
Volume =29.4cm3
Density =?
=
= .
The density of a piece of wood is 0.9g/cm 3
2.A cup of gold colored metal beads was measured to have a mass of 425g by water displacement the volume of
the beads was calculated to be 48.0cm 3 identify the density of the metal .
Solution
Data given
Mass =425g
Volume=48.0cm 3
Density=?
=
=
g /cm 3
metal is 8.8542 g/
The density of metal
3.Calculate the density of block of glass of mass 5.4g and volume of 2cm 3
Solution
Data given:
Mass=5.4g
Volume=2cm 3
Density=?
But
=
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= .
2.7g/ccm 3
The density of block is 2.7g/
The density of regular solid can be obtained by calculation once its mass and volume have been measured
It is found by dividing mass and volume.
The mass of the material can be obtained by using beam balance on the other hand volume can be obtained by
using various methods depending the nature of the material
DENSITY OF IRREGULAR SOLID
Density of irregular solid can be obtained by;
Measuring its mass by using beam balance or digital balance
Determining its volume through displacement or immersion method involving the Eureka or measuring cylinder
Divide the mass and the volume obtained
==
Examples;
1. An irregular solid x has a mass of 50g when its totally immersed in water of volume 60cm 3 the final volume
of water is read as 70cm 3 calculate the density of the irregular solid x.
Solut
Solution
ion
Data given
Mass of an object =50g
=50g
Initial volume water =60cm3
volume f water
Final volume water =70cm3
volume of water
Displaced water
water = V 2-V 1
But
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sand.
1. Measure the mass of an empty density bottle with its stopper record as ( m 1)
2. Add a small amount of sand to the bottle, replace the stopper and measure (m 2)
DENSITY OF LIQUIDS
The density of liquid can also be calculated if its mass and its volume are known. the Density of a liquid can be
determined
determined through the following steps;
= ( m()
m)
Examples;
In an experiment to determine the density of liquid Y, Chidibo a form1 Student obtained the following results
Mass of empty beaker=500g
Mass of beaker + liquid (25cm3) =600g
What did he obtained as the density of liquid Y,
Data given;’
given;’
Mass empty beaker=500g
Mass of beaker and liquid=600g
Volume=25cm3
== (
== m2m ()
2 m1m1))
== (600
6 00
500)
50
(25) 0)
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=
The density of liquid Y is 4g/cm 3
Relative density has no unit. Therefore relative density is unitless.
Examples;
1.An object has a density of 7g/cm 3 calculate relative density.
Data given
Density=7g/cm3
Density of water=1g/cm3
==
.= 7/ 1/
Relative density of an object is 7
DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE DENSITY OF LIQUID
Relative density of liquid can be determined by using relative density bottle
PROCEDURES.
1. Find the mass of an empty bottle (m ) 0)
bottle=liquid (m )
2.Find the mass of bottle=liquid 1)
3. Find the mass of bottle with water (m 2 )
)
=
= ( ())
Examples:
1. In an experiment to determine the relative density of liquid X Samba a form1 Physics student attained the
following results.
Mass of an empty relative density bottle=15g
Mass of bottle liquid X=35g
Mass of bottle water=40
Calculate density of liquid X
Data given
Mass of bottle=15g
Mass of bottle liquid=35g
1. What is the density of piece of wood of mass 25g and volume of 29.4 cm 3.
2. A cup of gold colored metal beads was measured to have a mass of 425g, by water displacement the
volume of the beads was calculated to be 48.0 cm 3. Identify the volume of the metal.
3. Farhan threw a plastic ball in the pool for his dog to fetch. The mass of the ball was 125g. What must
the volume be to have a density of 0.500g/ cm 3 ?
4.What is the mass of cylinder of lead that is 2.80 cm in diameter and 10cm
1 0cm in height. If the density of the
lead is 11.4g/cm 3.
5. The volume of the solution was measured in a graduated cylinder was 45 cm 3, if the mass of solution
measured to be 60.75 grams. What is the density of the solution?
6. An ice cube measured 58cm by 58cm by 58 cm has a density of 0.917g/ cm 3 , what is mass?
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7. Gasoline is a non polar liquid that will float on water 450g o f gasoline is spilled in puddle of water. If
the density of gasoline is 0.665 g/cm3.
8. The density of Aluminium
Aluminium is 2.70
2.70 g/cm3. If the mass of a piece
piece of Aluminium is 244g. What
What is the
volume of Aluminium?
9. The density of substance is 1.63
1 .63 g/cm 3. What is the mass of 0.25 litres of the substance in grams.
10. A
10. A cup made of an alloy of Gold and Silver has a volume of 60 cm3 and a mass of 1050 g. Find the mass of
Gold contained in the cup. (Density of Gold = 19.3 g/cm3, Density of Silver = 10.5 g/cm3)
3: FORCE.
Force is a pull or push of a body. Force can;
The S.I unit of force is the Newton (N)
The branch of physics that deals with the effect of force on matter is called mechanics.
Force can;
C ause a movi
moving ng body
body to stop,
stop,
A bo
body at restrest to sta
start moving.
Change the size and shape of an object force can.
Affe
Af fecct dir ection
ction and the spe
speed of a moving bo
body .
TYPES OF FORCES
There are four types of fundamental
fundamental forces which are
1.GRAVITATIONAL
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
Is the force of attraction between
between bodies in the universe.
universe. A n example is the earth’s gravity which pulls objects
towards earth’s centre.
The force of gravity is always equal to the weight of the object. This can be stated as;
From ;
=
= =
but
=
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=
Examples;
1. If an object has a mass of 60 kg how much would it weight on earth?
Solution:
Data given:
Mass=60kg
Acceleration due to gravity g=10m/s 2
Weight=?
From;
= =
F=60kg x 10m/s2
F = 600N
= /
ℎ
=
= 30
10
Mass of an object is 3kg
2. STRONG FORCES.
These are forces responsible for binding nuclei of an atom they hold the nucleus together (neutron and proton)
3.WEAK FORCE
Is the force responsible for various trends of radioactive decay. The decay of fundamental particles such as Beta
particles.
4. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE
Is the force which cause magnetic and
and electric effect
effect
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
i. It may be repulsive or attractive
ii. It is a central force
iii. It is stronger than gravitational force
iv. It is also long range force
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EFFECT OF FORCE
effects an object in real situation these effects include Friction, Stret
Force have several effects Stretching,
ching, Com
Compress
ression
ion,,
r esto
stor i ng, A ttr
ttr acti
cti on , R epulsion, Torsi on, Vi
V i scosity,
scosity, Ai
A i r r esistance
sistance
1.FRICTIONAL
1.FRICTIONAL FORCE
Friction is the force that one surface an object encounter when resting or moving over another .When one
object slides over another object friction tries to stop movement, thus friction is an oppo
opposi
sing
ng f or ce.
Friction force produces heat and causes wearing and tearing of car tyres and sho
shoe sole
soless
2. STRETCHING FORCE
This is the force that passes through a strong cable, loop or wire when it is pulled tight by force acting from
both ends.
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4. AIR RESISTANCE
Ai r resist
resista
ance
nce .is the force that resist the movement of an object through the air.
5. VISCOUS FORCE
Viscosity is
is the resistance of the fluid to flow; example of viscous fluids are honey, grease, and turpentine
7. NORMAL FORCE
This is support force exerted upon an object which in contact with another stable object.eg when a person leans
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against the wall the wall supports the person by pushing horizontally
8. APPLIED FORCE
containing books across a floor then there is a force acting on the box is known applied force
If you push a box containing
9. TORSIONAL FORCE
This is a force produce on solid object when it is twisted.
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This show that while inside the liquid an upward force (upthrust) acts on a cork. This force is greater than the
weight of the cork hence a cork is pushed to the surface.
BUOYANT FORCE
B uoyant
uoyant f or ce is a upward force that acts on an object if partially immersed
immersed in a fluid (liquid or gas)
This upward force enables the object to float or at least seem lighter.
You would not be able to swim in water if it were not for an upthrust force to act on your body .Water vessels
like ships
ships and boats sail on water due to this force, otherwise they would sink.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN APPARENT AND REAL WEIGHT
When the body is totally or partially immersed in the fluid the buoyant force on the body is equal to
the weight of the displaced water or fluid submerged bodies always weight less than when not
immersed in the fluid.
This loss of weight when a body bod y is totally or partially immersed in the fluid is not real hence it is
known as appa
apparr ent loss in
i n wei
wei g ht .
Ap
A pparent
rent weight
ig ht is the weight of the body when is totally or partially immersed in the fluid.
R eal we
wei g ht is
is the weight of the object in air.
Ap
A pparent
rent loss
loss in weight is the loss in weight when the body is totally or partially immersed in the
fluid.
Therefore;
=
=
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
If an object is immersed in a beaker full of water, it displaces some of the water.
A Greek scientist by the name Ar chim
chime edes discovered that there was a relationship between upthrust acting on
the body and the weight of the liquid displaced, this relation is known as Archimedes principle.
Ar chim
chimeedes pri ncipl
nciple
es sta
states that
hat , “ If
“ If an object
object is partially
partially or totally
totally immersed
immersed in the fluid it experienc
experiences
es an
upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced .”
displaced .”
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=
=
In terms of apparent weight
weight loss it can be expressed
expressed as ;
25
== 2517
.=
= 3.125
Therefore the relative density is 3.125
3.125
Archimedes principle can be used to determine the relative density of both solids and liquids.
BUT;
==
=
Therefore;
BUT;
() =
( ()
(
ALSO;
() =
( ()
(
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=
=
=
Therefore;
NOTE:
The relative density also determines the proportion of a floating body that will be submerged in a fuid.
If the body is 70%
70% as dense as the fluid, 70%
70% of its volume will be submerged.
Examples:
1. In an experiment to determine the relative density of a liquid, a solid weighed as follows;
Weight in air, WO = 8.6N
Weight in water, W1 = 6.4N
Weight in liquid, W2 = 5.4 N
Calculate the relative density of the liquid
Solution;
Data given:
Weight in air, WO = 8.6N
Weight in water, W1 = 6.4N
Weight in liquid, W1 = 5.4 N
Relative density of the liquid= ?
=.WW−.−W−W
=
.−. 1.2
Relative density of the liquid=
=1.2
=
= =
= =
= .
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UPTHRUST AND FLOATATION
Since;
=
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1. An object is hung from a spring balance its weight is 40N in air and 30N when immersed in water;
(a) Calculate upthrust of the object
(b) Calculate the weight of the fluid displaced
(c) What is the mass of displaced water
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STATES OF MATTER
Matter exist in three physical states which are;
i. Solid state
i i .Li
.L i quid sta
state
i i i .G ases
ses state
state
I. SOLID STATE
Solid state have definite shape and volume, particle in a solid are closed parked together therefore the particles
are not free to move because they are held together by strong inter molecular forces.
Examples of solids are; wood, stone, books, ice, rock, iron and pen .
II. LIQUID STATE
Unlike solid state, liquids have fixed volume but variable in shape .This largely because a liquid will assume the
shape of any container in which it is hold. In liquids, the atoms and molecules are only slightly held together
weaker than in solid.
Examples of liquids are water, kerosene, milk, petrol, diesel, oil, honey, wine, saliva and urine
III. GASES STATE
Gases have neither a fixed shape nor fixed volume .Gases always fill the container in which they are held.
fixed shape nor
Atoms and molecules in gases are so far apart that they do not interact with each other, therefore gases have
weakest intermolecular forces of attraction.
Examples of gases are oxygen,
are oxygen, hydrogen nitrogen, Sulphur dioxide and Carbon dioxide .
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1. ELASTICITY
E last
lastii city is the ability of an object to regain its original shape and size after the removal of the deforming force.
E lasti
lasti c ma
mater
ter i al is the one which is able to regain its original shape and size after the removal of the deforming
force. Examples of elastic materials are r ubber ubber band,
band, catapult
catapult e.t.c
e.t.c
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TENSION AND EXTENSION OF A LOADED ELASTIC MATERIAL;
HOOKE’S LAW
Hooke’s law states that ‘‘the ‘‘ the extension of the spiral spring is directly proportional to the load provided that the
elastic limit is not exceeded.’’
APPLICATION OF ELESTICITY
At home ;
i. Rubber
i. Rubber gaskets
gaskets that seal refrigerator’s
refrigerator’s doors
ii.Clothing
iii. Spring in furniture
iv. Rubber band that holding things together
v. Toys and balloons
In transport;
i. Rubber tyes .
ii . Aeroplanes
Aeroplanes wings.
wings .
In industries;
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APPLICATION OF CAPILLARITY
1. It facilitates the transport of water and nutrient in plants
2. It assists circulation of blood in animals.
3. It facilitates the movement of ground water.
4. It is the principle on which towels absorbs water.
5. The wick of the lamp draws up the fuel (kerosene) by using capillarity.
5. DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
For example diffusion occurs;
i. When a bad egg (rotten egg) is broken
ii. When a bottle of perfume is sprayed
6. OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of lower concentration of solute to the region of
higher concentration of solute through semi- permeable membrane.
7. PRESSURE
Pressure is the force acting normally per unit area
=
a rea
=
Therefore the S.I unit of pressure is N ewton
wton per
per M etre
tre square N/M 2 )
square (N/M
Other units of pressure are;
1Nm 2=1Pa
1atm=760
1atm=760 mmH
mmHgg
1atm=1.01×10 5 N/M
N/M 2 =1.01×10 5 Pa
A. PRESSURE DUE TO SOLIDS
Pressure due to solids depends on the surface of contact. A force F applied onto a small area exerts a higher
pressure as applied onto
onto a large
large surface.
E xample
amples;
s;
1.Consider a block of wood that weigh 30N and measure 5m by 10m by 4m. If it is placed on a table with a
largest possible area (10m × 5m) in contact with the table, it exerts less pressure that it would when exert when
placed with
with its smallest
smallest possible
possible area (5m × 4m)
4m) in contact with the table.
table.
(a) Large surface= (10m × 5m)
Force= 30N
Area= 10 × 5= 50m2
=
=
= =0.6
0.6 N/M 2
Minimum pressure = 0.6 N/M
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=
= = =1.5
1.5 N/M 2
Maximum pressure = 1.5 N/M
2. The tip of a needle has a cross-sectional area of 1× 10 -6 m2. If adoctor applies a force of 20N to a syringe that
is connected to a needle, what is a pressure exerted at the tip of the needle?
Solution
Force= 20N
Area= 1×10-6 m2
Pressure=?
=
= ×
=2×107 N/M 2
Pressure =2×10
APPLICATION OF PRESSURE DUE TO SOLIDS
1.Objects with sharp points. E.g nails, pins, spears, arrow heads.
2. Objects with sharp edges. E.g razor blade,
blade, knife,
knife, matchette
3. Buildings are constructed with wide foundations to ensure that the weight of building acts over a large area.
4. During construction of railway wide wooden sleepers are placed below the railway trucks.
5. Caterpillars and tractors tyres have wide surface area in order to significantly
significantly produce low pressure. This
prevents them
them to sink in soft soil.
6. Heavy loads (cargo) are carried in trucks which have many
many tyres. The presence of many tyres increases
surface area in contact, hence reduced pressure on the roads.
7. Wide straps for school bags. If thin straps with small area were used, high pressure would be produced
causing pain to the shoulders of the pupil.
8. Wide soled shoes are used on sand surface or snow to reduce pressure and avoid sinking.
B. PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
A liquid will exert pressure on an immersed object as well as on the walls of the container.
CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTIC S OF PRESSURE
P RESSURE IN LIQUID
The pressure at any point in any liquid at rest depends on;
1. De
D epth ( h)
2. D ensity
nsity of liqu
liquid
id ( ρ
ρ )
It does not depend on area;
=
But;
=
=
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But;
=
=
But;
=
= h
=ℎ/
=
==
Examples;
1. Calculate the pressure acted on a diver at a depth of 20m below the surface of water in a sea.
Solution:
Data given:
Density= 1000Kg/m3
Height= 20m
Acceleration
=ℎ
Acceleration due to gravity = 10N/ Kg
= 1000000 20 1010
= 200000N/M2
Pressure exerted on a diver is 2000
200000
00N/
N/MM 2 or
or 2 x 10 5N/M
N/M 2
The acceleration due to gravity( g) is constant. Therefore, pressure is proportion to desinty (P ρ) as
well as depth (P h
) of the liquid. This can be seen clearly when holes are made in a container at different
levels and the container is filled up with water. The speed or height of water jets coming out of each hole would
be different.
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As the depth increases, water comes out with higher speed indicating greater pressure. This knowledge finds
useful application in contraction of dams where dams are built with thicker walls at the bottom than the top in
order to withstand the higher pressure at the bottom.
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This is a useful application in a car braking system. When a brake pedal is placed, it exerts pressure on the
brake fluid, the fluid then
then transmits
transmits the pressure
pressure equally
equally to the breaks to the all tyres.
This property is summarize by Pascal’s principle which states that, “The external pressure acting on a closed
surf
surfaace of liqu
liquid
id is transm
ransmitt
itte
ed equally throughout the liquid”
If pressure was varying in different parts, each part of the container would have its own height. Thus pressure in
liquids is independent of the shape or volume of the container.
APPLICATION OF PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
1.SPIRIT BUBBLE LEVEL
This is an instrument used to check the horizontal levelness of a given surface. That is it is not inclined, it can
also be used to test if a wall is vertical or slanted. It is used by masons and civil engineers in construction of
buildings.
It has a smaller air bubble trapped by spirit or alcohol in a small glass tube. When the surface is horizontal the
bubble stays
stays at the centre of
of the tube.
2. BOILER GAUGE
A small glass tube is connected to the side of a boiler to indicate the level of a liquid in a boiler. Since the boiler
is opaque, it is not easy to see the exact level of the liquid in the boiler. The level of the liquid in a glass handle
shows the level of the liquid in a boiler.
This exploits the principle of a liquid maintaining same height in different parts of a containing vessel due to the
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same pressure.
3. WATER SUPPLIES
Water is supplied to houses from a tank which is placed on a tower or a hill. Water is pumped into a tank and a
supply pipe takes it from the reservoir tank to the houses.. The position of the tank must
must be at higher level than
all the houses its supplying.
4. HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATIONS
Water falls from a dam have high pressure. Therefore, water reaches out to the turbines with high speed. The
fast moving water drives the water turbines which produce electricity.
As the level of water in the dam decreases, the pressure of the falling water also decreases. Consequently the
speed of water coming out of the dam decreases as well. If the water level becomes very low, the dam stops
producing electricity
electricity.. This is because, the pressure
pressure gets considerably
considerably low hence, reduce the
the speed or force of
water which now is unable to rotate the turbines.
PRINCIPLE OF HYDRAULIC PRESS
In general, small force acting on small area can be used to overcome big force on a large area. This is the
principle applied in many hydraulic
hydraulic systems.
systems. One such as the
the hydraulic
hydraulic lift used
used in lifting
lifting cars in garage.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
An inflated football or car tyres are good examples that show that gases do exert pressure. The air molecules are
in continuous random motion colliding with each other and with the walls of the tube. These collisions produce
pressure on the tube’s walls.
Though the air molecules in a room do collide and exert pressure on bodies, this is not regarded as atmospheric
pressure, the
the atmospheric
atmospheric pressure
pressure is due to weight of air or contents
contents of the
the atmosphere.
atmosphere. The air behaves
behaves as a
liquid whose pressure depends on depth.
Mountains top have shorter height of atmosphere above it, thus it experiences higher atmospheric pressure.
Hence pressure at sea level is very high. Climbers on high mountains such as Mount Kilimanjaro experience
low pressure when nearing the top. The low pressure causes the low air density, therefore the climbers
experience poor breathing.
EVIDENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
Pour water into a thin metal can a quarter full. Heat the water up to boiling. A lid or cap is then tightly fitted
onto the can. Then pour cold water on the can. This causes the can to collapse or become crushed When cold
water was poured on the can ,it caused the steam to condense .This created low pressure inside the can
.Therefore, the can crushed
.
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Fill a glass with water to the brim. Slide a paper card over top of the glass to prevent any air bubbles in the
water. Slowly turn the glass upside down with your hand firmly placed on the card . Gently remove your hand
and continue holding the glass upside down. It would be observed that the card does not fall off .Since no air
was trapped inside the glass, the pressure on the card is due to weight of water only. On the outside, the
atmospheric pressure is greater than pressure of the water. Therefore, the card experiences a net upward force
which holds the card in place. Hence, water is prevented from coming out of the glass.
Rubber suckers are used in industries in lifting metal sheets or glass sheets. Most of printing machines also lift
pieces of
of paper by use
use of rubber
rubber suckers. They are also used in kitchens for clearing
clearing blocked sinks and other
water draining systems.
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DRINKING STRAW.
When you drink fruit juice or any other drink using a straw, you suck into the straw hence removing air from it.
This creates low pressure in the straw. The atmospheric pressure pushing down on the liquid in the container
now becomes greater than the pressure in the straw. This forces the liquid up through the straw into your mouth.
THE SYRINGE.
The syringe commonly used by nurses for giving injection, works on the same principle as the drinking straw.
The pressure inside the syringe is reduced by pulling the piston outward .this causes the medicine to rush into
the syringe.
BICYCLE PUMP.
When in operation the bicycle pump uses two valves. One valve is in the bicycle tyre and the other one is the
greasy leather washer which also act as piston in the pump. When the handle is pushed inwards, the washer
presses tightly
tightly against
against the walls
walls of the barrel so that
that the air inside cannot escape.
escape. The air in the barrel
barrel gets
compressed. This causes pressure inside the barrel to become higher than pressure in the bicycle tyre. The valve
in the bicycle tyre thus opens to let in air into the tyre. When the handle is pulled out the pressure in the barrel
decreases below that of the tyre and atmospheric pressure such that the tyre valve is forced to close. The
atmospheric pressure pushes air into the barrel. The washer allows the air to get in. The barrel is now full ready
for another down stroke.
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LIFT PUMP.
Lift pumps are used for raising water from wells. The lift pump is made up of cylindrical metal barrel with a
side outlet of water from the barrel after being lifted up from the well. There are two valves one is the piston
and the other at the bottom of the barrel closing the entry to the plunger which goes into the well. To understand
how the pump works, let us look at it with the piston down and valves B. Before starting to pump, water is
poured at the top of the piston to prevent air from leaking
leaking past it by pressing on valves
valves A. The piston
piston is pulled
pulled
by means of a system
system o f levers
levers as shown
shown in the diagram
diagram.. Atmospheric pressure acting
acting on the
the surface of the
water presses up water through valve B and into the barrel. The water above the piston is lifted upward and
flows out through the side sprout.
On the down stroke, valve B closes due to pressure of water on it. At the same time valve .A opens allowing
water to pass into the upper part of barrel above the piston . This process is repeated frequently to let out the
water. The lift pump can only raise water to height of about 10m at normal atmospheric pressure. In practice,
however, the height cannot be attained due to leaks of water at the valves and piston.
Also in some places where atmospheric pressure is low due to lower altitude above sea lever, the height would
be less than
than 10m.
FORCE PUMP.
This type of pump is capable of raising water to heights well over 10 m above the water well. This makes the
pump more suited to lift
lift water from deeper
deeper wells than
than the lift
lift pump.Figure
pump.Figure 7.29 shows
shows how this
this pump works.
works.
The piston is pushed down forcing both valve A and B to close . As the piston is pulled up,the pressure in the
barrel above
above valve B becomes
becomes reduced to below that of the atmospheric
atmospheric pressure.
pressure. The atmospheric
atmospheric pressure
pressure
acting on the water surface in the well forces the water past valve B into the chamber. See figure 7.29 valve A
remains closed because the pressure above it is still that of the atmosphere. When the piston is now pushed
down again,valve B is forced to close and the pressure inside causes valve A to open and water enters into
chamber. As water enters the chamber it causes air in the chamber to be compressed. The compressed air forces
water out of the chamber through the outlet pipe making the flow to be continuous. On the next upstroke,the
same process is repeated.The height to which water is pumped by this pump depends on on the force that can be
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THE SIPHON
This is an arrangement
arrangement used to empty fixed tanks which are difficult to remove their content in normal way. The
tank containing the liquid is fitted with a flexible tube i.e. bent tube which draws out the liquid from the tank.
One end of the tube is set into the liquid and the other set out below the level of the liquid or the upper
reservoir. The tube is bent such that one arm is shorter. The liquid then pours out through the tube. For the
siphon to start working, the tube must first be filled with the liquid. The pressure acting at end A is almost that
of the atmospheric pressure. The pressure at the end E is the atmospheric pressure and pressure due to liquid
column DE of length, h. At A, the pressure is atmospheric, p and at B, the pressure is atmospheric .liquid
pressure. Since
Since the inside pressure
pressure at end E is greater
greater than atmospheric
atmospheric pressure, the
the liquid comes
comes out at end E.
This principle is also used in automatic flushing tanks. When the level of water rises above the level ``A`` the
tank discharges water through the pipe because the out end is lower than the other end in the tank.
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[c]Aneroid barometer
The simple barometer and fortin barometer both use mercury while aneroid barometer does not.
A. SIMPLE BAROMETER
A simple barometer consists of inverted glass tube containing mercury. Above the mercury column is a vacuum
causing the pressure inside to be zero. The tube’s open end is immersed in a mercury container. Since the
pressure inside
inside is zero,
zero, the atmospheric
atmospheric pressure pushes
pushes the mercury
mercury to a height which
which is approximately
approximately 76 cm.
That is why sometimes atmospheric
atmospheric pressure is said to be 76 cm of mercury [76 cm Hg or 760 mm Hg].
The value of atmospheric pressure in Pascals can be found from the mercury height of a simple barometer.
Density of mercury is 13,600 kg/m3 and g=10m/s2,height is 0.76 m.
P= gh
=13,600 x 10 x o.76
=103,360N/m2 or 103,360 Pa
The atmospheric pressure is approximated as 100,000 Pa.
B.FORTIN BAROMETER
Fortin barometer is similar to simple barometer but with some modifications. It is a very accurate barometer.
The barometer tube dips into a leather bag containing mercury. As the pressure rises and falls, the levels of
mercury in the bag [reservoir] changes.
The adjusting screw is adjusted to bring the level of mercury to the ivory tip .This makes mercury level to be in
a correct position needed in taking measurements. Near the closed end of the tube is a vernier scale which is
adjusted using thumb screw.
Behind the barometer tube, there is a plane mirror used when taking reading. Using a thumb screw, the bottom
of vernier scale is brought to level with the meniscus of the mercury. The barometric height is then read from
the vernier scale correct to 0.1 mm.
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C. ANEROID BAROMETER
Aneroid barometer consist of a thin corrugated metal box which has been partially evacuated creating a partial
vacuum in it. The sides of the box are held a part by use of a spring. The box expands when atmospheric
pressure decreases
decreases and contracts when
when atmospheric
atmospheric pressure
pressure decreases
decreases and contracts when atmospheric
atmospheric pressure
pressure
increases.
The two sides move due to pressure changes. Since the movements are small, they are magnified by a system of
levers. They levers cause a pointer on the circular scale to move. The scale is marked in centimeters of mercury
or other standard barometers.
barometers.
Calculate the pressure and force the tin exerts at the bottom.
3. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of the tank of water 15 m deep due to the water above it.
2. How much work is done to first lift a 7kg object is a distance of 2m and then hold it at that height for 10
seconds.
Solut
Solution
ion
Data given;
Mass=7kg
Distance=2m
Time=10s
But;
From;
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== =
Since;
F = mg = 7 x 10 =70N
W=FD
= 70 2
Work done=140J
ENERGY.
Energy is
is the ability or capacity to do work
The SI unit
unit of energy is joule
of energy joule (J )
The concept of energy is used in all fields of science among them are;
Physics: Change in motion, heat and the states of matter, electric and magnetic phenomena, atomic and nuclear
transformation.
Chemistry : Interaction in matter at the atomic or molecular level, the change of one va
Geology : Earthquakes, volcano, formation of mountains, erosion and continental drift.
Mete
Meteorolo
rology : Wind, precipitation, lighting, hurricane and tornadoes.
Astrono
Astronom my : Stars and galaxy formation the motion of nomical objects
Biology : Growth and development, metabolism in living, photosynthesis and reproduction
Therefore work is done with the availability of energy hence the possession of energy can be viewed as a
promise of work
work to be done.
done.
FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy exist in many different forms. All energy may be classified as either kinetic energy or
or po
potential
ntial energy .
Within the two classification of energy there are many different forms of energy which are;
i. Thermal energy
ii . E lect
lectrr i cal
cal ener
ner gy
iii. Chemical energy
iv. Nuclear energy
v. E lectrom
lectroma ag netic
netic ener
ner g y
vi. Soun
Sound d energ
nergyy
vii. E lastic pote
potenti
ntial
al energy
nerg y
viii. Mecha
Mechanica nicall energ
nergyy
.=
The SI unit of K.E is joule
joule (J )
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Examples;
1. An object as a mass of 5kg what is its kinetic energy if its speed is 10m/s 2
Solut
Solution
ion;;
Data given
Mass =5kg
Velocity=10m/s 2
K.E=?
1
.= 21
.= 2 5 10
= 250
The kinetic energy is 250J.
250J.
1
.= 21
.= 2 0.00012 320
= 6.144
The kinetic energy is 6.144J
E xamp
xamples;
les;
1. A stone of mass 2kg fall from a height of 25m above the ground calculate the potential energy possessed by
the stone.
Solut
Solution
ion::
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Data given
Mass = 2kg
Height =25m
Acceleration due to gravity=10N/kg
P.E=?
From
.. == ℎ =
ℎℎ ℎ
. = 2 101025
P.E = 500J
TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY
THE PRI NCIPLE OF CONSERVATION
CONSERVATION OF E NERGY
The principle of conservation of energy state that “ E ner
ner gy can nei
nei ther
ther of be cr
cr eate
ated nor
nor destr
destroy
oyed
ed but it can
be transfor
transformmed fro
fr om one form to another”
A device which coverts or transforms one form of energy to another is called a transducer.
Examples of energy transformations includes;
The bow converts
converts Potent
Potentii al E ner
ner gy into
into kine
ki netic
tic ener
ener gy .
Microp
M icropho honene converts soun
sound
d energ
nergy
y into
into electric energy . .
R ecei
cei ver
ver converts electric energy into
into sound
sound energnergy
y . .
Dynamo converts mechanical energy into into electric energy.
Turbines converts mechanical energy into into electric energy
F i lame
laments of the electric lamp converts electric energy into light and and heat energy
B atte
atterr i es (dry
( dry cells)
cells) coverts chem
chemi cal
cal ener
ener g y into
into electric energy .
.
Generator converts
converts chemical energy into electri
lectricc ener
ener g y . .
Chlorophyll converts sun light energy into chem chemi cal
cal energy.
nerg y.
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Consider the motion of simple pendulum. A pendulum is a mass suspended by a string or wire from a fixed
point so that
that it can move back
back and forth along arc.
arc.
T he lowe
lowest poi
poi nt is
is called the equilibrium level.
NB: The total mechanical energy of the pendulum remains constant.
At point A and
and D
The pendulum’s highest point above equilibrium level, all energy is P.E
Thus,
= . + ..
== .. +
But K.E = 0
At point C
The point C is the lowest point, therefore all the energy is K.E
Thus,
= . + ..
But at point C
At point B
At points like B, Between highest and lowest points, the energy is a mixture of K.E and P.E
Thus;
= . + ..
Examples:
1.At its highest point, a pendulum of mass 0.8 Kg is 1.2m above the equilibrium level.
(a) What will be its velocity, as it swings its lowest point?
(b) What is its velocity when it is 0.9m above reference level/equilibrium level
(c) At what height above the equilibrium level will its velocity be 2m/s
Solution:
Data given;
Mass= 0.8kg
Height= 1.2m
(a) What will be its velocity, as it swings its lowest point?
The pendulum’s highest point above equilibrium level, all energy is P.E
Thus,
= P. E + K.K. E
But K.E = 0
== PP.E. E + 0
But;
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.=ℎ
... == 0.9.8419.81.
81.2
But;
At the lowest energy P.E=O
== 0K. +E K.EK.E
Therefore;
2K.E=
= 2.2.
= 2 0.9.841
V= 4.85
Velocity at the lowest point is 4.85m/s
(b) What is its velocity when it is 0.9m above reference level/equilibrium level.
P.=ℎ
. E + K.E =9.41
... =7.= 0.086 99..8 00..9
K.EK.EK.K. EE =2.= 35 .
= 2.2.
= 2 0.2.835
= 4.0.4.78
=√5.875
=2. 4 1
Velocity at the lowest point is 2.41m
2.41m//s
(c) At what height above the equilibrium level will its velocity be 2m/s
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.= 2 0.8 2
. ==P.1E.6+ K.K. E
P.P.EE =9.=411.K.E6
P.E =7.81
But;
.=ℎ
ℎ = ..
h=1m
= ...
The height will be 1m
POWER
Power is the rate of doing work.
Power is the measure of the rate at which energy changes. This means that whenever work is done, energy
changes in a different form.
=
Therefore;
=
The S.I unit of power is Jo
J oule per seco
second
nd (J /S) or Watt
Watt ( W)
1J/
1J /S = 1Watt
1Watt
Other units of power are;
1Ki
1K i lowat
lowattt = 1000 Watts
Watts
1Megawatt =
1Ho
Watts
1H or se power ( H P) = 750Watt
Examples:
1. A forklift was used to raise the load of 400kg to a height of 2m in 4 seconds. Determine the power
determined.
Solution:
Data given;
Mass= 400kg
Height= 2m
Time= 4s
But;
.. == 4ℎ
0010ℎ102
P.E = 8000J
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=
=
= = 2000 Watts
Therefore the power developed is 2000
2000 Wat
Watts
1. A force of 80N pulls a box along a smooth and level ground through a distance of 5m. calculate the
work done by the force.
2. Chambundu lifts a brick of mass 10kg from a flow to a shelf 3m high. How much work does he do?
3. If a man pushes a van against a force of 300N for a distance of 10m, how much work does he do?
4.What is the kinetic energy of 2kg missile travelling at 600m/s?
5. Chipato has a mass of 80 kg. If he runs at a speed of 15m/s , calculate his kinetic energy.
6. A stone of mass 10kg is dropped from rest to the ground 10m down. If it hits the ground with a velocity
of 20m/s. Determine its;
(a) Kinetic energy
(b) Potential energy
7.How much power is required to accelerate a 1000kg car from rest to 26.7m/s in 8seconds?
8. A truck for transporting sand is filled to capacity. If the digger has to move through
through a height of 2m and
the total load was 5000kg calculate;
(a) The work done in loading the sand
(b) The power in developed in 5seconds
5seconds
9. Rock A has a mass of 2kg and a speed of 1m/s. Another rock B has a mass of 1kg and a speed of 2m/s,
which rock has more kinetic energy?
10. A car with mass of 10 kg moves with kinetic energy of 2000J. Calculate the speed of the car.
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9. LIGHT PART I
Light is the form of energy which stimulated the sensation of vision.
Therefore light is an invisible form of energy that causes the sensation of vision in us through our eyes.
NATURE OF LIGHT
Light is a form
f orm of energy that can be distinguished from other forms of energy through its features or
characteristics namely;
(i) Light radiates (spreads out) from its source
(ii) Light travels in straight line
(iii) Light travels energy
(iv) Light travels in vacuum.
(v) Light travels at fastest speed. At speed speed limit of 3 x 10 8 m/s
SOURCE OF LIGHT
Light can come from a source in two ways;
(a) A source may give out its own light.
(b) It may
may reflect light from another object.
For example we see the sun because it emits light, where as we see the moon because it reflects light
from the sun.
Therefore sources of light can be classified as natural or artificial.
Examples of natur
natural al sources of light are;
(i) The sun
(ii) The stars
(iii) Lightings
Examples of ar tifi
tif i cial sour
source
cess of light are;
(i) Wood fire
(iii) Candles
(iii) Hurricane lamps
(iv) Gas lamps
(v) Electric lamps
LUMINOUS AND NON LUMINOUS BODIES
Luminous objects are those that emits (send out) their own light. Examples of luminous bodies are;
(i) The sun
(ii) Stars
(iii) Glowing TV
(iv) Glowing worms
(v) Fire flies (Bioluminiscence flies)
Non luminous
luminous objects are those that do not not emit their
their own light. They only become
become visible when
when they
reflect light from another source into our eyes.
Examples of non luminous bodies are;
(i) The moon
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1. REGULAR REFLECTION
Regular reflection occurs when light rays fall on a smooth surface, the light rays are reflected parallel to
each other.
2. IRREGULAR/DIFFUSE
IRREGULAR/DIFFUSE REFLECTION
Irregular reflection occurs when reflected rays from the surface are not parallel to each other. This
means that reflected rays are sent in different directions.
LAWS OF REFLECTION
When light is reflected two important laws must be obeyed, before stating the laws it is important to
know the terms used in the laws. These are;
1. I ncident
ncident ray:
ray: This is the ray that falls on the surface at the point of incidence.
incidence.
2. Norma
Normal: It is perpendicular
perpendicular line drawn to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence.
3. R eflec
flected ray:
ray: This is the ray that bounces back from the reflecting surface.
4. Po
P oi nt of
of i ncidence
ncidence:: This is the point on surface at which incidence ray strikes the reflecting surface.
5. Angle of incide
incidencncee: This is the angle between incident ray and the normal.
7.Angl
7.A ngle e of re
r efle
fl ection: This is the angle between the normal and reflected ray.
F i r st law
law of
of r eflection
flection states that, “The incident ray, the
ray, the normal and the reflected ray at the same point
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ₒ
= Ɵ ₒ
The number of images n formed by two plane mirrors at an angle Ɵ is given by;
– 1
1
If the mirrors are placed at to each other, and an object is placed between them the numbers of
images formed in the mirror is 3. When the mirrors are parallel to each other, the angle is zero and the
number of images of an object placed between them is undefined (infinite number of objects)
APPLICATION OF PLANE MIRRORS.
Mirrors are used at home for grooming and decorations purposes. In physics laboratory and marines
mirrors are used to make a periscope.
The peri
periscop
scope
e is made up of two mirrors fixed facing each other at inclined angle of
the periscope. Light is reflected by the two mirrors.
ₒ to the stem of
K alei
alei doscop
doscope
e is another instrument which uses plane mirrors. Three mirrors inclined at an angle of
ₒ to each other are fixed in an opaque tube. The ground glass plate at the bottom of the tube allows
light into the tube. Small pieces of colored glass are plane on the glass plate. These pieces act as an
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object.
These are reflected to form five images, Observing through the tube five images together with the
object are seen forming symmetrical pattern with six identical sectors. When the tube is shaken the
pieces rearrange themselves
themselves and new pattern is obtained.
obtained.
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