Revision Capsule.

Class 12: PHYSICS.

Part- 1.

General Instructions to learners:

❖ This document contains important points to remember, formulas and mind maps for
the learners to have a quick revision that will enable them to have a smooth
preparation for their board exams.

❖ Getting accustomed to the CBSE Marking Scheme for Class 12 Physics and the
important topics will help you for a fruitful preparation. So the marking scheme is
provided below.

Unit-wise Weightage.
Time: 3 Hours
Maximum Marks for the Theory paper: 70 Marks

Unit No. Title Marks

Unit I Electric Charges and Fields. 16

Unit II Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance.

Unit III Current Electricity.

Unit IV Moving Charges and Magnetism

17
Unit V Magnetism and Matter.

Unit VI Electromagnetic Induction

Unit VII Alternating Current

Unit VIII Electromagnetic Waves 18

Unit IX Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Unit X Wave Optics

Unit XI Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 12

Unit XII Atoms

Unit XIII Nuclei

Unit XIV Semiconductor Electronics 7

Total 70
 CHAPTER-1 Electric Charges and Fields.

Basic Properties of Electric Charge:

● Quantization of charges: The total charge of the body is always an integral multiple of a basic
quantum of charge (e) i.e Q= ne where, n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, .....
The electric charge is measured using coulomb.
Mathematically Q = I.t
Q = electric charge,
I =electric current and
t = time

● Additivity of Electric Charges: Total charge of a system is the algebraic sum of all individual charges
in the system.
● Conservation of Electric Charges: The total charge of an isolated system remains unchanged with
time.

● Coulomb’s Law: Coulomb's law states that the electrostatic force between two charged objects is
directly proportional to the product of the quantity of charge on the objects and inversely proportional
to the square of the separation distance between the two objects.

Fe = 1/(4πεº) × [q1q2/ r2 ]
where Fe is the electrostatic force
q1 and q2 are electric charges
k is the Coulomb's constant 8.988×109 Nm2/C2
k=1/(4πεº)
r is the distance of separation.

● Principle of Superposition of Electrostatic Forces: The net electric force experienced by a given
charge particle q0 due to a system of charged particles is equal to the vector sum of the forces
exerted on it due to all the other charged particles of the system.
^r21 is the unit vector from q2 to q1 along the line joining the two charges

and r21 is the distance between the charges q1 and q2. The electrostatic force between two charges is
not affected by the presence of other charges in the neighbourhood.

The force on q1 exerted by the charge q3 is

● Electric field due to the system of charges: The total electric field at a point in space is equal to the
vector sum of individual fields present.

● Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines are a pictorial way of representing electric fields around an arrangement of
charges.

● An electric field line is a curve

● Tangent to it at each point gives the direction of the net field at that point.
● Electric field is inversely proportional to the square of the distance; hence electric field near
the charge is high and keeps on decreasing as we go farther from the charge. The electric
field lines, however, remain constant but are very far apart (at higher distances) as compared to
lesser distance.

● Properties of field lines:

(i) Field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges. If there is a single
charge, they may start or end at infinity.
(ii) In a charge-free region, electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves without any
breaks.
(iii) Two field lines can never cross each other.
(iv) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. This follows from the conservative
nature of electric field

● Electric flux:
It is the measure of flow of the electric field through a given area. Electric flux is proportional to the
number of electric field lines going through a normally perpendicular surface.

○ The orientation of the area element decides the amount of electric flux. Thus, the area element is
a vector.
○ The vector associated with every area element of a closed surface is taken to be in the direction
of the outward normal.
 ○ Area element vector ΔS = ΔSn̂ , ΔS is magnitude of area element and n̂ is unit vector in the direction of
outward normal.
○ Electric flux, Δφ = EΔS = E ΔScosθ, θ is the angle between E and ΔS.
○ Unit of electric flux is NC-1m2.
○ Total flux through a surface, φ ≈ Σ EΔS

● Electric Dipole:

● An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges q and –q, separated by a distance 2a .
The line connecting the two charges defines a direction in space.The direction from –q to q is the
direction of the dipole.
● Centre of the dipole is the mid-point of locations of –q and q
● Total charge of an electric dipole is zero .
● Since the charges are separated by some distance the electric field does not cancel out.

Electric Dipole Moment :

The strength of an electric dipole is measured by a vector quantity known as electric dipole moment (p) which
is the product of the charge (q) and separation between the charges (2a)

p=q.2a

Electric flux : Electric flux is defined as the total number of electric field lines passing normally through a
surface

Continuous Charge Distribution:

Charges on a body may be distributed in different ways according to the nature of the body. Depending upon
this distribution of charge, we deal with different types of charge densities,

1. Line charge density, λ

2. Surface charge density, σ or
3. Volume charge density, ρ

1. Linear charge density (λ): Charge per unit length is called linear charge density. If ΔQ is the charge
contained in a line element Δl,Linear charge density λ = ΔQ/Δl

2. Surface charge density (σ): Charge per unit area is called surface charge density. If ΔQ is the charge
contained in a area element Δs, surface charge density can be written as σ = ΔQ/ΔS
3. Volume charge density (ρ): Charge per unit volume is called volume change density. If ΔQ is the charge
contained in a volume Δv, volume charge density.ρ = ΔQ/Δv

Gauss’s Law: Gauss’s law states the total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed divided by the permittivity. The total electric flux through a closed surface is zero if no charge is
enclosed by the surface.

Electric flux through a closed surface S= q/e0

q = total charge enclosed by S.

● Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape or size.
● The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law includes the sum of all charges enclosed by the surface.
The charges may be located anywhere inside the surface.
● Gauss’s law is useful for the calculation of the electrostatic field for a symmetric system.

APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW

1. Field due to infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire

Flux through the Gaussian Surface= E*2πrl

2. Field due to a uniformly charged infinitely plane sheet

E=𝜎/2πε0

3. Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell

Electric field =0
 Chapter 2 -Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

● Electric potential at a point is defined as the work done to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to
that point.
V = W/q
W is the work done in moving a charge ‘q’ from infinity to a point
Potential difference: Electric potential difference between two points is the work done in moving a unit
positive charge from one point to another.
VAB = VA – VB

Work done by external force in bringing a unit positive charge from point R to P,

Work done by an external force in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to a point = electrostatic
potential (V ) at that point.

Electrostatic Potential due to a Point Charge

The electrostatic potential in bringing a unit positive test charge from infinity to a point P against repulsive
force of another positive charge is always positive.

○ If the charge Q is negative, the potential is also negative as the test charge will have a force of
attraction.
○ Electrostatic potential is inversely proportional to r and electrostatic field is inversely proportional
to square of r.

Electrostatic Potential due to an Electric Dipole

An electric dipole is an arrangement of two equal and opposite charges separated by a distance 2a. The
dipole moment is represented by p which is a vector quantity.

○ The potential due to a dipole depends on r (distance between the point where potential is
calculated and the mid-point of the dipole) and angle between position vector r and dipole
moment p.

○ Dipole potential is inversely proportional to square of r.

Electrostatic Potential due to a system of charges

For a number of charges present in space, the total potential at a point due to all those charges will be equal
to the sum of individual potential of each charge at that point.

Equipotential Surfaces

An equipotential surface is one where the potential is the same at every point on the surface.

Relation between electric field and potential

○ Electric field is in the direction in which the potential decreases steepest.

○ Its magnitude is given by the change in the magnitude of potential per unit displacement normal
to the equipotential surface at the point.
Potential Energy of a system of charges

The potential energy is characteristic of the current state of configuration and not the way how this
configuration was achieved.

The potential energy of a system of two charges q1 and q2 is

the potential energy of a system of two charges q1,q2,q3 is

Potential Energy In An External Field.

1. Potential energy of a single charge:

work done in bringing a charge q from infinity to the point O is,

W = Vq.
This work done is stored in the form of electrostatic potential energy (U) of the charge q.
U= Vq

2. Potential energy of a system of two charges in an electric field:

Potential energy of the charge q1 in the external field is, U1 = V1 q1

Potential energy of the charge q2 in the external field is, U2 = V2q2
Potential energy between the system of two charges q1 and q2 is

According to the principle of superposition, the potential energy of the system of two charges in an electric
field is
U = U1 + U2 + U12

3. Potential energy of a dipole in an external field:

The amount of work done by the external torque will be given by W= pE(cosӨ 0- cosӨ1)
ELECTROSTATICS OF CONDUCTORS

The electrostatic properties of conductors are given below:

1. Inside a conductor, the electrostatic field is zero:

In the static situation, there is no current found inside the conductor. Hence we conclude that the electric field
is zero inside the conductor The vanishing of the electric field inside the metal cavity is called electrostatic
shielding.

2. At the surface of a charged conductor, the electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at every point.

3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static situation.

4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has the same value (as
inside) on its surface.

5. Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor

where σ is the surface charge density and is a unit vector normal to the surface in the outward direction.

6. Electric field inside a metal cavity is zero. Vanishing of electricity inside a metal cavity is called electrostatic
shielding. Sensitive electrical instruments can be protected from external electric fields by placing it in a metal
cavity.

DIELECTRICS AND POLARISATION

Dielectrics are non-conducting substances having negligible number of charge carriers. In presence of an
external electric field, dipole moments are induced in dielectrics by stretching and re-orienting the molecules
of the dielectric.

Polar and Nonpolar Molecules

When multiple atoms are bonded to each other, a molecule is formed. These bonds or electron sharing
arrangements can be polar (when electrons are shared unequally) and non-polar (when electrons are shared
equally).

○ Various substances may have polar and nonpolar molecules depending upon the charge
configuration inside them.
○ A substance can be polarized from an external electric field which leads to development of
induced dipole moments inside them.
Polarization of dielectrics

A dielectric develops a net dipole moment in the presence of an external field.The dipole moment per unit
volume is called polarization and is denoted by P.

P = χe E

χe – electric susceptibility of the dielectric medium

Capacitance : is denoted by, C = Q/V. It depends on:

○ Geometrical configuration (shape, size, separation) of the system of two conductors.

○ Nature of insulator/dielectric separating

○ Maximum electric field which a dielectric medium can withstand without breakdown and prevent
leaking of charge is called dielectric strength. Air dielectric strength is 3 x 106 Vm-1.
○ SI unit of capacitance is F (Farad).

Parallel Plate Capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor is a capacitor with 2 large plane parallel conducting plates separated by a small
distance.

○ Electric field inside the capacitor has a direction from positive to negative plate.
○ For very small ‘d’, the electric field is considered as uniform. For large‘d’, the electric field is
non-uniform and it bends around the corners of the plate which is called the fringing of the field.

Effect of dielectric on Capacitance

When a dielectric is present between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor fully occupying the region, the
dielectric is polarized by the electric field. The surface charge densities are considered as σp and -σp.

Dielectric constant of a substance is the factor by which the capacitance increases from its vacuum value,
when the dielectric is fully inserted in between the plates of the capacitor.
Combination of Capacitors - Series

Capacitors are said to be connected in series when the second plate of a capacitor is connected to the first
plate of the next capacitor and so on.

Combination of Capacitors - Parallel

Capacitors are said to be connected in parallel when the first and second plate of a capacitor is connected to
the first and second plate of the next capacitor respectively.

Energy stored in a Capacitor

Energy is stored in the capacitor when work is done to move a positive charge from negative conductor
towards the positive conductor against the repulsive force.
VAN DE GRAAFF Generator

Van de graaff generator is used to generate high voltages of the order of a few million volts.

Principle: If two charged concentric hollow spheres are brought into contact, charge will always flow from the
inner sphere to the outer sphere.

Construction and working:

The van de Graff generator consists of a large spherical metal shell, placed on an insulating stand. Let p1 and
p2 be two pulleys. Pulley p1 is at the center of the spherical shell S. A belt is wound around two pulleys p1
and p2. This belt is rotated by a motor. Positive charges are sprayed by the belt. Brush B2 transfers these
charges to the spherical shell. This process is continued. Hence a very high voltage is produced on the
sphere.
 CHAPTER-3 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Ohm’s Law
At constant temperature, the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
between its ends.
VαI
V= RI
where R is the resistance of materials.

Factors Affecting Resistance of Resistor:

For a given material resistance is directly proportional to the length and inversely proportional to the area of
cross-section.

R∝L

R∝ 1/A

where ρ is the constant of proportionality and is called resistivity of material.

Resistivity (coefficient of specific resistance ρ ) of a Material:The resistance per unit length for the unit area of
the cross-section will be a constant and this constant is known as the resistivity of the material. The resistivity
or coefficient of specific resistance is defined as the resistance offered by a resistor of unit length and unit
area of cross-section.

Resistivity is a scalar quantity and its unit is Ω-m

Conductance and conductivity:

The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance .SI unit of conductance is seimen or Ω-1

Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity. Si unit of conductivity is seimen per meter.

Current density Current per unit area is called current density

current density j = I/A

Vector form

Drift Velocity (Vd)

The average velocity acquired by an electron under the applied electric field is called drift velocity.

Relaxation time (τ):

Relaxation time is the average of the time between two successive collisions of the free electrons with atoms.

Relation between electric current and drift speed:

I = neAvd

Current density J

J = nevd (J= I/A)

Electrical Energy, Power

Rate of work done is power, i.e. P= VI

using Ohm’s law V = IR; P=I2R = V2/R

Combination Of Resistors – Series And Parallel Combination

Resistors in series:

Consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series and a pd of V is applied across it.

In series combination current through each resistor will be the same

R=R1+R2+R3

Resistors in parallel:

Consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel across a pd of V volt. Since all
the resistors are connected across the same terminals, p.d across all the resistors are
equal.
Cells

Electrolytic cell:

An electrolytic cell is a simple device to maintain a steady current in an electric circuit. A cell has two
electrodes. They are immersed in an electrolytic solution.

E.M.F:

E.M.F. is the potential difference between the positive and negative electrodes in an open circuit. ie. when no
current is flowing through the cell.

current flowing through the circuit, I = Total e.m.f/ Total R

I= ε/ (R+r)

ε = V + IR

Kirchhoff's Rules

1. First law (Junction rule): The total current entering the junction is equal to the total current leaving the
junction.

Explanation:

Consider a junction ‘O’. Let I1 and I2 be the incoming currents and I1, I4 and I5 be the outgoing currents.

According to Kirchoff’s first law, I1+ I2= I3+ I4+ I5

. Second law (loop rule): In any closed circuit the algebraic sum of the product of the current and resistance in
each branch of the circuit is equal to the net emf in that branch.

Total emf in a closed circuit is equal to the sum of voltage drops

Wheatstone’s Bridge

Four resistances P, Q, R, and S are connected as shown in figure. Voltage ‘V’ is applied in between A and C. Let
I1, I2, I3 and I4 be the four currents passing through P, R, Q, and S respectively.

Meter Bridge

Meter Bridge is used to measure unknown resistance.

Principle: It works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge condition (P/Q=R/S)

Unknown resistance X’ is connected in between A and B. Known resistance (box) is connected in between B
and C. Voltage is applied between A and C. A100cm wire is connected between A and C. Let r be the
resistance per unit length. Jockey is connected to ‘B’ through galvanometer.Working: A suitable resistance R
is taken in the box. The position of jockey is adjusted to get zero deflection.

If ‘l’ is the balancing length from A, using Wheatstone’s condition,

knowing R and l, we can find X (resistance of wire)

Potentiometer

Potential difference between two points of a current-carrying conductor (having uniform thickness) is directly
proportional to the length of the wire between two points.

Circuit details: A battery (B1), Rheostat and key are connected in between A and B. This circuit is called the
primary circuit. Positive ends of E1 and E2 are connected to A and other ends are connected to a two-way key.
Jockey is connected to two keys through a galvanometer. This circuit is called a secondary circuit.
 CHAPTER-4-Moving Charges and Magnetism

MAGNETIC FIELD:
o Magnetic field is an effect around a permanent magnet or a moving charge due to which
ferromagnetic objects like some metals get attracted, and diamagnetic substances get repelled, when
placed in the magnetic field.
o Magnetic field at a point r is denoted by B(r). It is a vector quantity, just like electric field E(r)

Lorentz Force:

The force experienced by moving charge in electric and magnetic fields is called Lorentz force. The Lorentz
force experienced by charge ‘q’ moving with velocity ‘v’, is given by F = Felectric + Fmagnetic

The features of Lorentz Force:

1. The Lorentz force on positive charge is opposite to that on negative charge because it depends on
charge ‘q’.

2. The direction of Lorentz force is perpendicular to velocity and magnetic field. Its direction is given
by screw rule or right hand rule.

3. Only moving charge experiences magnetic force. For static charge (v = 0), magnetic force is zero.

MOTION OF A CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD:

For a charge q moving with velocity v in the presence of magnetic field B, force F B is given by:

FB = q(vxB) = qvB(sinθ)ȓ

MOTION IN A COMBINED ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD:

o When the electric field, the magnetic field , and the motion of charge are mutually perpendicular to
each, then they are called as crossed fields, and forces due to electric and magnetic fields will act in the
opposite directions. So, the Lorentz force F will be:

F = qEî+(qvî x Bk̂) = qEĵ - qVBî = q(E - vB)ĵ

o When the strength of electric and magnetic fields are varied to get the forces due to electric and
magnetic fields to be equal(FE = FB), then the charge can move in the field without any deflection.

qE = qvB

∴ v = E/B
o This special case shown above is used when we need charged particles of certain velocity (of value
E/B) to pass through the crossed fields undeflected, and this phenomenon is called a velocity selector.
 This concept of velocity selector is also used in mass spectrometers, where charged objects are
distinguished as per their charge to mass ratio.

CYCLOTRON:

o Cyclotron is a device used to accelerate charged bodies to very high velocities (or high kinetic
energies) using crossed (or mutually perpendicular) electric and magnetic fields
o Cyclotron is based on the independency of frequency (of rotation of charged particle) on the energy
(velocity) and radius (of revolution) of charged particle:
fc = 1/T = qB(sinθ)/(2πm) = qB/(2πm)

BIOT-SAVART LAW:
o Magnetic field dB due to current element idl, at a point P situated at distance r from the current
element idl,is:
dB∝idl (sinθ)/r2
dB = (μo/4π)×idl×(sinθ)/r2
dB = idl × r / r3
Here proportionality constant is μo/4π = 10-7Tm/A, and μois the permeability of free space (vacuum)

AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW:

o The line integral of the magnetic field forming a closed loop around the current(i) carrying wire, in the
plane normal to the current, is equal to the μo times the net current passing through the close loop.
Here μo = permeability of free space = 4π×10-15N/A2
Applications Of Ampere’s Circuital Law

THE SOLENOID:
A solenoid is actually a wire, twisted in many close circular turns, and when the length of solenoid is large
compared to the radius of circular turns, then, that solenoid is known as long solenoid.

B = μoni
o For magnetic field at the end (corner) of the solenoid (θ1 = 90°, θ2 = 0°)

∴ B = μoni/2

THE TOROID: A toroid is simply a solenoid bent into a closed circular loop.As toroid has no end points,
magnetic flux leakage (loss) is minimized, and hence flux linkage is maximized as compared to a solenoid.

MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER:

o Moving coil galvanometer is an electromagnetic device that can measure small values of current. It is
also known as Weston galvanometer.
o ItIt works on the principle that when a current loop is placed in an external magnetic field, it
experiences torque, and the value of torque can be changed by changing the current in the loop
o torque :ԏ = NiAB
 Chapter5 -Magnetism and Matter

Properties of a magnet

1. When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points in the north-south direction.

2. There is a repulsive force when north poles (or south poles) are brought close together.
3. We cannot isolate the north or south pole of a magnet.
4. It is possible to make magnets out of iron and its alloys.

Magnetic poles: They are the two points near the ends of a magnet at which the power of attraction of the
magnet is mostly concentrated are called its magnetic poles.

The magnetic field lines

Properties of magnetic field lines

1. The magnetic field lines of a magnet form continuous closed loops.

2. The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction of the magnetic field at
that point.
3. Flux density of magnetic fields represents the strength of magnetic fields.
4. The magnetic field lines do not intersect

Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid:

Magnetic field along the axis of a solenoid or bar magnet

Potential energy of a magnetic dipole: The work done in rotating a magnet in a magnetic field is stored in it as
its potential energy. This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy, i.e.

Magnetism And Gauss’s Law Gauss’s law in magnetism: The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is
zero.

The Earth’s Magnetism

1. Magnetic Declination (I)

Declination at a place is the angle between the geographic meridian and magnetic meridian at that place.
2. Dip or Inclination (θ):

The angle between the earth’s magnetic field and the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at a
place is called dip. Dip angle changes from place to place. On the equator, the dip is zero and at the poles, the
dip is 90°.

3. Horizontal Intensity Bh:

The horizontal intensity at a place is the horizontal components of the earth's field.

Relation between Dip, Horizontal intensity and Earth’s magnetic field

be the Earth’s magnetic field and θ be the angle of dip. Let Bh be the horizontal intensity and Bv the vertical
intensity of the earth’s magnetic field.

Bh = B cos θ

The vertical component, Bv = B sin θ

∴ Tanθ = Bv/BH

Magnetization and Magnetic Intensity

1. Intensity of magnetization (M)

 2. Magnetic intensity vector (H)

3. Susceptibility

4. Permeability

Intensity of magnetisation (M):

It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume. It is the measure of the extent to which a specimen is
magnetized.

Magnetisation= Magnetic Moment/Volume.

2. Magnetic Intensity Vector (Magnetising field):

It is defined as the magnetic field which produces an induced magnetism in a magnetic substance. If H is the
magnetising field and B the induced magnetic field in the material.

ie. H = B/ μ

where µ is the constant called the magnetic permeability of the medium.

3. Magnetic susceptibility (χ):

Magnetic susceptibility of a specimen is the ratio of its magnetization to the magnetising field,

ie. χ = M/H

4. Magnetic permeability (µ):

It is the ratio of magnetic field inside a specimen to the magnetising field.

ie. µ = B/H

µ = µ0µr

µ0 – Permeability of free space

µr – Relative permeability of a medium.

Relation between permeability and susceptibility is μ r=1+χ

Magnetic Properties Of Materials

Materials can be classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic or ferromagnetic in terms of the susceptibility χ. A

material is diamagnetic if χ is negative, para-if χ is positive and small, and Ferro-if χ is large and positive.

Diamagnetism:

Diamagnetic substances are those which have a tendency to move from stronger to the weaker part of the
external magnetic field.
Paramagnetism:

Paramagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetized in an external magnetic field. They get
weakly attracted to a magnet.

Curie’s law of magnetism:

Curie law of magnetism states that the magnetisation of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to
the absolute temperature T.

Ferromagnetism:

Ferromagnetic substances are those which get strongly magnetized in an external magnetic field. They get
strongly attracted to a magnet.

Vibration Magnetometer

It is used for comparison of magnetic moments and magnetic fields.

It works on the principle that whenever a freely suspended magnet in a uniform magnetic field, is disturbed
from its equilibrium position, it starts vibrating about the mean position.
It is based on simple harmonic oscillations of a magnet suspended in a uniform magnetic field.

Time period of vibrations is given by

T = 2π √I / MH

[ I = moment of inertia of the magnet,

M = magnetic dipole moment of the magnet and

H = horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field. ]

When two magnets of unequal size are placed one above the other and north poles of both magnets are
towards geographic north then time period of oscillations is given by

T1 = 2π√I1 + I2 / (M1 + M2) H

If north pole of first magnet and south pole of second magnet is towards geographic north, then time period
of oscillations is given by

T2 = 2π√(I1 + I2) / (M1 – M2) H

Then, M1 / M2 = T22 + T21 / T22 – T21

 CHAPTER 6 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.

Magnetic Flux

Magnetic flux through a plane of area A placed in uniform magnetic field B can be written as

Φ = BAcosθ

Faraday’s Law Of Induction

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal
to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit.
Mathematically, the induced emf is given by

If the coil contain N turns, the total induced emf is given by,

Lenz’s Law And Conservation Of Energy

Lenz’s law states that the direction emf (or current) is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux which
produces it,
Mathematically the Lenz’s law can be written as
Motional Electromotive Force

Consider a rectangular frame MSRN in which the conductor PQ is free to move as shown in figure. The
straight conductor PQ is moved towards the left with a constant velocity v perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field B. PQRS forms a closed circuit enclosing an area that changes as PQ moves. Let the length RQ
= x and RS = I.
The magnetic flux Φ linked with loop PQRS will be BIx.

Eddy Currents

Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a metal block changes, induced currents are produced. The induced
currents flow in closed paths. Such currents are called eddy currents.

Some important applications of Eddy Currents:

1. Magnetic braking in trains:

Strong electromagnets are situated above the rails. When the electromagnets are activated, eddy currents are
induced in the rails. This eddy current will oppose the motion of the train.
2. Electromagnetic damping:
Certain galvanometers have a core of metallic material. When the coil oscillates, the eddy currents are
generated in the core. This eddy current opposes the motion and brings the coil to rest quickly.
3. Induction furnace:
Induction furnace can be used to melt metals. A high frequency alternating current is passed through a coil.
The metal to be melted is placed inside the coil. The eddy currents generated in the metals produce heat that
melt it.
4. Electric power meters:
The metal disc in the electric power meter (analogue type) rotates due to the eddy currents. This rotation can
be used to measure power consumption.

Inductance
An electric current can be induced in a coil by two methods:

1. Mutual induction
2. Self-induction

1. Mutual inductance:

The phenomenon of production of an opposing e.m.f. in a circuit due to the change in current or magnetic flux
linked with a neighboring circuit is called mutual induction.

Explanation

Φ = MI
mutual inductance of two coils is numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked with one coil, when unit current
flows through the other.

induced e.m.f

● Self-inductance:
The phenomenon of production of an induced e.m.f in a circuit when the current through it changes is
known as self-induction.

Mathematical expression for self-inductance:

Consider a solenoid (air core) of length /, number of turns N and area cross-section A. let ‘n’ be the no. of
turns per unit length (n = N/l)
The magnetic flux linked with the solenoid,
Φ = BAN
Φ = µ0nIAN (since B = µ0nI)
but Φ = LI

∴ LI = µ0nIAN
L = µ0nAN
If solenoid contains a core of relative permeability µ r the L = µ0µrnAN.

Definition of self-inductance:
We know NΦ = LI
If I = 1, we get L = NΦ

Self-inductance (or) coefficient of self-induction may be defined as the flux linked with a coil, when a unit
current is flowing through it.

The relation between induced emf and coefficient of self-induction

Energy stored in an inductor

1.

1.

Ac Generator
An ac generator works on electromagnetic induction. AC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
 It consists of a coil. This coil is known as an armature coil. This coil is placed in between magnets. As the coil
rotates, the magnetic flux through the coil changes. Hence an e.m.f. is induced in the coil.

Expression for induced emf

Take the area of the coil as A and the magnetic field produced by the magnet as B. Let the coil be rotating
about an axis with an angular velocity ω.

Let θ be the angle made by the areal vector with the magnetic field B. The magnetic flux linked with the coil
can be written as

Φ = BA cosθ
Φ = BA cosωt [since θ = ωt)
If there are N turns
Φ = NBA cosωt
∴ The induced e.m.f. in the coil,

Let ε0 = NAB ω,
then s = ε0 sin ωt.

Expression for current:

When this emf is applied to an external circuit .alternating current is produced. The current at any instant is
given by
I = VR
(V = ε0 sin ω)
I = I0 sin ωt
Where I0 = ε0/R, it gives maximum value of current. The direction of current is changed periodically and hence
the current is called alternating current.

Motional EMF induced in a conductor moving in a uniform magnetic field.

● The above figure shows a straight conductor moving in a uniform and time-independent
magnetic field. In rectangular wire PQRS, the conductor PQ is free to move.

● Rod PQ is moved towards the left with a constant velocity v.

● PQRS forms a closed circuit enclosing an area that changes as PQ moves. It is placed in a uniform
magnetic field B perpendicular to the plane of our system.

● Let the length RQ =x and RS =l, the magnetic flux ϕB enclosed by the loop PQRS

ϕB= Blx

● X changes with time, ‘t’, the rate of change of flux ϕ B will induce an emf given according to
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

This is also referred to as motional emf.

 CHAPTER 7 Alternating Current

Alternating Current
AC current is commonly used in homes and offices. The main reason for preferring ac voltage over dc voltage
is that ac voltages can be easily converted from one voltage to the other and can be transmitted over long
distances.

Ac Voltage Applied To A Resistor

Consider a circuit containing a resistance ‘R’ connected to an alternating voltage.

Let the applied voltage be
V = Vo sinωt (1)
According to Ohm’s law, the current at any instant can be written as
I = V0sinωtR
Where I0 = Vo/R is the peak value of current. Comparing eq(1) and eq(2), we can understand that the current
and voltage are in the same phase.
Graphical variation of current and voltage:

R.M.S value

The r.m.s value or virtual value of an AC is the square root of the mean of the squares of the instantaneous
value of current taken over a complete cycle.
Irms = I02√ and Vrms = V02√
where I0 – maximum current, V0 – maximum voltage, (r.m.s.- root mean square).

Power dissipated in the resistor:

The average power consumed in one complete cycle,
Substituting current and voltage, We get

Representation Of Ac Current And Voltage By Rotating Vectors – Phasors

To represent the phase relation between current and voltage, phasors are used. Phasors rotates about the
origin with an angular speed ω. The vertical components of phasors of V and I represent instantaneous value
of V and I at a time t (see figure). The length of phasors gives maximum amplitudes of V and I.

Phasor diagram of v and i for the circuit containing resistor only

Figure (a) represents the voltage and current phasors and their relationship at time t1. Fig (b) shows the
graphical variation of V and I.
Ac Voltage Applied To An Inductor

Consider a circuit containing an inductor of inductance ‘L’ connected to an alternating voltage.

Let the applied voltage be

V = Vo sinωt (1)
Due to the flow of alternating current through coil, an emf, dI/dt is produced in the coil. This induced emf is
equal and opposite to the applied emf (in the case of ideal inductor)

Integrating, we get

Where Io = V0Lω,
The term Lω is called inductive reactance. Comparing eq(1) and eq(2), we can understand that the current
lags behind the voltage by an angle 90°.
Graphical variation of current and voltage:
Inductive reactance XL:
The resistance offered by an inductor to a.c. flow is called inductive reactance.
Inductive reactance

Power Consumed by an Inductor Carrying AC:

The instantaneous value of voltage and current in a pure inductor is
V = Vo sinωt
I = Io cosωt
The average power consumed per cycle.

The above expression indicates that the average power or net energy consumed by an inductor carrying ac for
a full cycle is zero.

Ac Voltage Applied To A Capacitor

Consider a circuit containing a capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ connected to alternating voltage.

Let the applied voltage be V = Vo sinωt (1)
The instantaneous current through capacitor
Substituting eq.(1) in eq.(2), we get

1/Cω is called capacitive reactance

Comparing eq(1) and eq(3), we can understand that, the current leads the voltage by an angle 90°

Graphical variation of current and voltage:

Phasor diagram:

Capacitive Reactance Xc:

The resistance offered by a capacitor to ac flow is called Capacitive reactance

capacitive reactance.
1. Power consumed by a capacitor carrying current:
The instantaneous value of voltage and current in a pure inductor is
V = Vo sinωt
I = Io cosωt
The average power consumed per cycle.

The above expression indicates that the average power or net energy consumed by a capacitor carrying ac for
a full cycle is zero.

Ac Voltage Applied To A Series Lcr Circuit

Consider a circuit containing an inductance L, resistance R and capacitance C connected in series. An

alternating voltage V = Vo sinωt is applied to the circuit.
Phasor Diagram:
Let VR be the voltage across R. This voltage is represented by a vector OA (since I and V R are in same
direction). Let VL be the voltage across L. This voltage is represented by a vector OB (since the voltage
VL leads the current by angle 90°).

Similarly, let Vc be the voltage across C. This voltage is represented by a vector OC (since the voltage Vc lags
the current by angle 90°).

The phase difference between VL and Vc is Φ(ie. they are in opposite directions). So the magnitude of net
voltage across the reactance is (VL – Vc). This is represented by a vector OD in phasor diagram.

The final voltage in the circuit is the vector sum of V R and (VL – Vc). The final voltage is represented by
diagonal OE.

1. Impedances of LCR circuit:

From the right angled triangle OAE,
Final voltage, V = V2R+(VL−Vc)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√

Where Z is called impedance of LCR circuit

Phase Difference: Let Φ be the phase difference between final voltage V and current I
From fig (2), we can write
Expression for current:
The eq(2) shows that there is a phase difference between current and voltage. The instantaneous current lags
the voltage by an angle (Φ).
If V = Vo sinωt is the applied voltage, the current at any instant can be written as
I = Io sin(ωt – Φ) (3)

Where Io is the peak value of current. It’s value can be written as

2. Analytical solution:
If we apply V = Vmsinωt to an LCR circuit, we can write
VL + VR + VC = Vm sinωt

Substituting these values in eq.(1), we get

The above equation (2) is like the equation for a forced, damped oscillator. Hence we can take the solution of
above equation as
q = qm sin(ωt + θ)
Substituting these values in eq.(2) we get

Multiplying and dividing by Z = R2+(X0−XL)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√, we have

Substituting these values in eq.(4), we get

qmωz[cosΦcos(ωt + θ) + sinΦsin(ωt + θ)] = Vmsinωt
qmωz cos(ωt + θ – Φ) = Vm sinωt (5)
(∴ cos(A – B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB)
Comparing the two sides of the eq.(5) we get
Vm = qmωz = imz
where i'm = qmω
and cos(ωt + θ – Φ) = sinωt
sin (ωt + θ – Φ + π/2) = sinωt (∵ sin(θ + π/2) = cosθ)
ωt + θ – Φ + π/2 = ωt
(θ – Φ) = -π/2
Therefore, the current in the circuit is
Thus, the analytical solution for the amplitude and phase of the current in the circuit agrees with that obtained
by the technique of phasors.

3. Resonance:
When ωL = 1ωC, the impedance of the LCR circuit becomes minimum. Hence current becomes maximum.
This phenomena is called resonance.
The frequency of the applied signal at which the impedance of LCR circuit is minimum and current becomes
maximum is called resonance frequency.
Expression for resonance frequency
Resonance occurs at ωL = 1ωC

Impedance at resonance: Resonance occurs at ωL = 1ωC. Substituting this condition in eq(1), in section 7.6,
we get
Impedance, Z = R
Current at resonance:
substituting ωL = 1ωC in eq(2) in section 7.6 we get,
TanΦ = 0, or Φ = 0
Substituting this value in eq(3) in section 7.6, we get
current I= Io sin ωt
Where Io = Vo/R

Power in AC circuit: The power factor

Power in AC circuits with LC and R: In ac circuits the Voltage varies continuously.
∴ The average power in the circuit for one full cycle of period,
(since sin 2A = 2sinACosA)
The mean value of sin2ωt over a complete cycle is 1/2 and the mean value of sin2ωt over a complete cycle is
zero.

True power = Apparent power × power factor

The term Pav called true power. Vrms × Irms is called the apparent power and cosΦ is called power factor.
power factor = True power apparent power
Power factor is defined as the ratio of true power to apparent power.
Case – 1 (In purely resistive circuit)
In this case, current and voltage are in the same phase. Hence Φ = 0
∴ Pav = Vrms IrmsCosO
True power, Pav = Vrms Irms

Case – 2 (In a purely inductive and purely capacitive circuit (no resistance)). In
this case, the angle between voltage and current is 90°.
∴ Pav = Vrms IrmsCos 90
True power, Pav = 0
Which means that the power consumed by the circuit is zero. The current in such a circuit (purely inductive
and purely capacitive) doesn’t do any work. A current that does not do any work is called wattles or idle
current.
Lc Oscillations

A capacitor can store electrical energy. An inductor can store magnetic energy. When a charged capacitor is
connected to an inductor, the electrical energy( of capacitor) transfers to magnetic energy (of inductor) and
vise versa. Thus energy oscillates back and forth between capacitor and inductor. This is called L. C.
Oscillations.
Expression for frequency:
Applying Kirchoff’s second rule, we get

Transformers
Principle: It works on the principle of mutual induction.
Construction:

A transformer consists of two insulated coils wound over a core. The coil, to which energy is given, is called
primary and that from which energy is taken is called secondary.
Working and mathematical expression :
Let V1 N1 be the voltage and number of turns in the primary. Similarly, let V2, N2 be voltage and number of turns
in the secondary.

When AC is passed, a change in magnetic flux is produced in the primary. This magnetic flux passes through
the secondary coil.

If Φ1 and Φ2 are the magnetic flux of primary and secondary, we can write Φ1 α N1 and Φ2 α N2.
Dividing Φ1 and Φ2
ϕ1ϕ2=N1N2
[since Φ is proportional to number of turns] or ϕ1=N1N2ϕ2
Taking differentiation on both sides we get

Step up Transformer:
If the output voltage is greater than input voltage, the transformer is called a step up transformer. In a step up
transformer N2 > N1 and V2 > V1.
Step down transformer:
If the output voltage is less than the input voltage, then the transformer is called a step down transformer. In a
step down transformer N2 < N1 and V2 < V1.

Efficiency of a transformer:
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input power.

For an ideal transformer, efficiency = 1

i.e, V1I1 = V2I2

1. Power losses in a transformer

(i) Joule loss or Copper loss:
When current passes through a coil heat is produced. This energy loss is called Joule loss. It can be
minimized by using thick wires.

(ii) Eddy current loss: This can be minimized by using laminated cores. Laminated core increases the
resistance of the coil. Thus, eddy current decreases.

(iii) Hysteresis loss: When the iron core undergoes cycles of magnetization, energy is lost. This loss is called
hysteresis loss. This is minimized by using a soft iron core.

(iv) Magnetic flux loss:

The total flux linked with the coil may not pass through the secondary coil. This loss is called magnetic flux
loss. This loss can be minimized by closely winding the wires.
 Chapter 8 Electromagnetic Waves

Displacement Current
Ampere's circuital law in ac circuit: Consider a capacitor connected to an AC source using conducting wires.
AC current can flow through a capacitor. Hence magnetic fields are produced around the conducting wire.
This magnetic field can be found using ampere's circuital law.

Maxwells correction in amperes circuital law:

To solve the above mistake, Maxwell introduced a term in the amperes circuital law. The modified ampere's
circuital law can be written as
B.dI = µ0(ic + id)
Where id is called displacement current. Its value is

Conduction current Ic is equal to displacement current id.

Capacitor is connected to ac voltage. Hence the charge on the plate also changes with time. Hence the flux
passing through the pot shape surface changes with time.
ie. the flux in between capacitor changes.
The change influx,

This means that the conduction current passing through the conduction wire is converted into displacement
current, when it passes in between plates of capacitor.
The total current i is the sum of the conduction current and the displacement current
So we have

Electromagnetic Waves.
oscillating charge is an example of accelerating charge
Oscillation produces an oscillating electric and magnetic field in space. The oscillating electric and magnetic
fields (EM Wave) propagates through space. The experimental production of electromagnetic wave was done
by Hertz’s experiment in 1887
Electromagnetic waves propagate in the form of mutually perpendicular magnetic and electric
fields. The direction of propagation of waves is perpendicular to both magnetic and electric field vectors.

Velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space

Speed of electromagnetic wave in a material medium is given by

The ratio of magnitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors in free space is constant

E and B are in same phase.

1. No medium is required for propagation of transverse waves.

2. Electromagnetic waves show properties of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization.

3. Electromagnetic waves have capability to carry energy from one place to another.

Mathematical Expression:

The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of wave motion.

electric field vector along the Y direction.

Ex = E0sin(kz – ωt)

and BY = B0sin(kz – ωt)

E0 is the amplitude of electric field vector, B0 is the amplitude of magnetic field vector, ω is the angular
frequency and k are related to the wavelength λ of the wave, k = 2π/λ.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves include visible light waves, X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet
and infrared waves. The classification is based roughly on how the waves are produced or detected.

1. Radio waves:

Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires. They are used in radio
and television communication systems. They are generally in the frequency range from 500 kHz to about
1000 MHz.

2. Microwaves:

Microwaves (short-wavelength radio waves), with frequencies in the gigahertz (GHz) range, are produced by
special vacuum tubes (called klystrons, magnetrons, and Gunn diodes). Due to their short wavelengths, they
are suitable for the radar systems used in aircraft navigation. Microwave ovens are the domestic application
of these waves.

3. Infrared waves:

Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules. Infrared waves are sometimes referred to as
heatwaves. Infrared lamps are used in physical therapy.

Infrared rays are widely used in the remote switches of household electronic systems such as TV, video
recorders etc. Infrared radiation also plays an important role in maintaining the earth’s warmth or average
temperature through the greenhouse effect.

4. Visible rays: It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye. It starts from 4 × 1014
Hz to 7 × 1014 Hz (or a wavelength range of about 700 – 400 nm).

5. Ultraviolet rays (UV):

Wavelengths ranging from about 4 × 10-7m to 6 × 10-10m (0.6 nm to 400 nm)). UV radiation is
produced by special lamps and very hot bodies. The sun is an important source of ultraviolet light.
 Ittion is

UV light in large quantities has harmful effects on humans. Exposure to UV radiation induces the
production of more melanin, causing tanning of the skin. UV radiation is absorbed by ordinary glass. Hence, one
cannot get tanned or sunburn through glass windows.Due to its shorter wavelengths, UV radiations can be
focussed into very narrow beams for high precision applications such as eye surgery. UV lamps are used to kill
germs in water purifiers.

6. X-rays:

It covers wavelengths from about 10-8m to 10-13m (4nm – 10nm). One common way to generate X-rays is to
bombard a metal target by high energy electrons. X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a
treatment for certain forms of cancer.

7. Gamma rays:

They lie in the upper-frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum and have wavelengths from about 10-10
m to less than 10-14 m. This high-frequency radiation is produced in nuclear reactions and also emitted by
radioactive nuclei. They are used in medicine to destroy cancer cells.