Mandir BOOK

ESSAYS
Dr Uday Dokras
Srishti Dokras-Architect

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Rama Mandir ready for the end of 2023
* Grand Palace at Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh
* The foundation of the palace is complete by the end of September or the first week of October of
the same year
* Rama Mandi ready for end of 2023, where worship: VAHP

RAM MANDIR

The foundation stone of the majestic palace being built in Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh will be
completed by the end of September or the first week of October this year, according to the Vishwa
Hindu Parishad.

Also, by December 2023, the statue of Ramallah will be installed in the sanctum sanctorum of the
temple. VHP national general secretary Milind Parande said that the shrine will be open for
devotees of Maha Sri Prabhu.
Speaking to journalists on Monday, Milind Parande said that the entire work of the temple needs
some time. However, by December 2023, work on the sanctum sanctorum will be completed and
will be open to devotees and pilgrims.
The responsibility for the construction of the Ram temple was entrusted to the Srirama
Janmabhoomi Pilgrimage Trust, and in August 2020, Prime Minister Narendra Modi had paid
homage to the temple.

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 CONTENTS
CHAPTER I-Ayodhya Ram Mandir: Symbol of 'Hindu pride' marks culmination of
colonial view of Hinduism, project of Partition page 7
Let Ayodhya Ram Mandir be a reminder: Indian ancestors died for it, up to us to
rebuild page 9
CHAPTERBI CHAPTER II-Vedic Architecture!-|| Science behind TEMPLES || page 12
CHAPTER III-Empty Spaces of Hindu Temples-All photos original by e authors page 22
CHAPTER IV-Forget Angkor Wat Temple Mountains of the BAPS-Photo Essay page 48

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BAPS Mandir, London-How It Was Made – In Detail page 88
CHAPTER V-The Architectural Element of Sri Chakra Yantra page 95
CHAPTER VI-STHAMB-Hindu Temple Pillars page 138
CHAPTER VII-From the Coromandel Coast to the Straits: Revisiting Our Tamil
Heritage- A Singapore Government Agency Website page 164
CHAPTER VIII Ancient Hindu Mantra for Victory in life (Aaditya Hridayam) page 186
CHAPTER IX-Design concepts of the Angkor wat temple page 194
CHAPTER XINCREASING IDOL TEMPLE OF SOUTH INDIA page 210
CHAPTER XI-Curvilinear Roof Temples page 232
CHAPTER XII-The Tortoise and Angkor Design page 248
CHAPTER XIII- Medieval temple architecture: North Indian style pge 267
ABOUT TGE AUTHOR Page 277

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 BUILDING of the Ram Temple at
AYODHYA,India is
The Most Important Event In HINDUISM in a
1000 years

CHAPTER I
Ayodhya Ram Mandir: Symbol of 'Hindu pride' marks culmination of colonial
view of Hinduism, project of Partition
The construction of the Ayodhya Ram Temple is a symbol of the return of Hindu power
in the direction of restoring a Bharat of yore — a Bharat that never actually existed.
SamratAugust 05, 2020 12:56:01 IST

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Joining the Dots is a weekly column by author and journalist Samrat in which he
connects events to ideas, often through analysis, but occasionally through satire

In a few days, India will complete 73 years of its existence since Independence and
Partition in August 1947. It has been a year of momentous events. On 5 August last
year, Home Minister Amit Shah introduced the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation
Act in the Rajya Sabha. It was passed by Parliament, and the map of Jammu and
Kashmir changed.
On 9 December, Shah introduced the Citizenship Amendment Act in the Lok Sabha. It
was passed the following day. The ensuing protests had descended into rioting in the
streets of Delhi when the coronavirus pandemic struck.

The 73rd year in the life of free India will begin a new era of Hindu Nationalism
When the project to build a Ram Mandir in Ayodhya started under the leadership of
LK Advani in 1990, it was pitched as a movement for restoration of Hindu pride after
centuries of subjugation and neglect. It came as a counter to the politics of caste
unleashed by Prime Minister VP Singh’s August 1990 decision to implement the
hitherto neglected recommendations of the Mandal Commission on reservations in
jobs. That itself may have had something to do with an earlier attempt at mobilising
Hindu communal politics from Ayodhya. VP Singh’s National Front coalition
government was propped up with support from both the BJP and the CPI(M), while
Rajiv Gandhi had launched the Congress party’s 1989 election campaign from
Ayodhya with a promise to restore Ram Rajya.

The vision of a Hindu India, or rather, a Hindi-Hindu Bharat — Hindu nationalists

would like the country’s name changed too — is based on notions of restoration of an
imagined past. Such imaginations of ancient Hindu glory contrast with the fallen state
of many of today’s Hindus, and of India in general. For this fall, they blame the
Muslim invaders of a thousand years ago, the Muslim rulers since, the colonial
British, and indeed, everyone but themselves. The construction of the Ayodhya Ram
Temple is a symbol of the return of Hindu power in the direction of restoring that
imagined Bharat of yore. It is a Bharat that never actually existed. From the time of
the Ramayana until the advent of Islamic rule, there was never a political unity
throughout the lands that today comprise India. Nor was there any unity among the
many Hindu kings. Indeed, even the tale of the Ramayana itself is a tale of war
between Lord Rama and the asura Ravana, a Brahmin Hindu king who was a devotee
of Shiva.
The creation of India as a politically unified territory is an achievement of the
British colonial rulers. So, to a significant degree, is the imagination of
Hindus as a single, unified community.
The internal diversity within any great world religion is immense. This is especially so
in the case of Hinduism. The term “Hinduism” itself is of fairly recent provenance,
dating back only to the early 1800s. The much older term “Hindu” was the Persian
name for the many peoples who lived east of the river Sindhu or Indus — it is not a
word that exists in the Vedas, Bhagwad Gita, or Ramayan. The equivalent name
derived from Greek roots for the residents of these lands would be Indian. Within
these lands, a very great diversity of social, cultural, spiritual and religious traditions
existed. There was a vast multiplicity of communities.
The consolidation of many of these diverse groups under umbrella terms owes much
to the colonial censuses that tried to impose order upon what the orderly western

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mind viewed as chaos. When the first censuses of India were put together, the people
were enumerated on the basis of caste and religion. The boundaries of the Hindu
identity, though, were far from clear. Census enumerators had to grapple with
questions such as whether tribal animists were Hindus, and if outcastes from the
Hindu fold should still be considered Hindus.

The Hindu nationalist project is an ongoing task of assimilation and consolidation that
attempts to complete the work started, perhaps inadvertently, by the British Raj. Ideas
of Hindus and Muslims as distinct ‘nations’ subsuming a variety of other identities
culminated in Partition in 1947. The resentments and injuries of Partition on the
minds of Hindu refugees and their descendants have contributed in the rise of the BJP
in the 30 years since a Sindhi refugee from Karachi, LK Advani, began touring India
on his Toyota ‘rath’. The temple at Ayodhya marks the end of that journey.

Let Ayodhya Ram Mandir be a reminder: Indian ancestors died for it, up to us to
rebuild
Rebuilding is a civilisational responsibility Indians owe to their ancestors, who were the only
ones among all pre-Bronze Age pagans who managed to protect their way of life.
https://theprint.in/opinion/let-ayodhya-ram-mandir-be-a-reminder-indian-ancestors-died-for-it-up-to-us-to-
rebuild/474213/
By AMISH TRIPATHI
As the reconstruction of the Ram Janmabhoomi temple begins in Ayodhya, I am drawn to another
piece of news, half a world away. The Hagia Sophia museum in Istanbul has just been converted
back into a mosque. It was a decision by Turkey’s Council of State, the country’s highest
administrative court, undoing the earlier move to secularise it by Kemal Ataturk, the founder of the
Republic of Turkey, in 1935.
I had travelled to Turkey two years ago, and could sense that this was an emotional
subject for the Turks. I saw their yearning to exclusively pray once again at their holy
place, without being surrounded by tourists (prayers had been allowed in the museum
in the recent past). From the perspective of most of the Turks, the decision to change
Hagia Sophia back into a mosque was understandably fair. However, I also
understand the pain of the Greek Orthodox Christians. Pope Francis said that he was
“deeply pained”. For the Hagia Sophia was once a church.
In 1453, the Turks conquered Constantinople — the centre of the Greek Orthodox
Church for a millennium — erased its very name, birthed the city of Istanbul,
and converted the Hagia Sophia church into a mosque. Don’t the Greek Orthodox
Christians yearn to pray there as well? And many Roman Catholic Christians too, for
the Hagia Sophia was also a Roman Catholic church once, albeit briefly? But I take my
brooding further.
The oppression of pagans
The mother of all ironies is that no one feels the pain of the pagan temple upon
the foundations of which the Hagia Sophia itself was constructed over 1,500 years
ago. So, are we being told that historical wrongs go only this far in time and no

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further? Why not? Because almost no pagan survives in Europe to feel the pain and
hurt from the historical wrong.
Pagan is a pejorative word, used to describe those who are not Abrahamic — that is,
those who do not follow either Judaism, Christianity or Islam. I embrace this
‘deprecatory’ term with responsibility. It is forgotten that practically the entire ancient
world was ‘pagan’ once; idol-worshipping, Goddess-worshipping, nature-worshipping
people who were comfortable with multiple truths and forms of the Divine; even
atheists were included. Many would follow multiple ‘religions’, something unthinkable
in strict Abrahamism.
All these cultures were wiped out, most of them violently. Judaism was rarely an
imperialist religion. But proselytising Christians and Muslims inflicted unprecedented
genocidal violence upon pagans, spoken poignantly of in Catherine Nixey’s The
Darkening Age, among many other books. But it must be strongly asserted that not all
Christians or Muslims were oppressors of the pagans. There were only a few groups
that carried out this violence: most prominently, European Christians and Turkic
Muslims. This violent expansionist urge was absent, for instance, in the African
Christians and Indonesian Muslims. And of course, modern Europeans and Turks
have nothing to do with what their ancestors did.
only survivors
Why is this historical sweep important for us Indians? Because we are among the few
‘pagan cultures’ to have survived. We are the only pre-Bronze Age civilisation with a
living, continuous culture — China, though a ‘pagan culture’, is not pre-Bronze Age.
And we suffered, as all pagans did. There were repeated invasions through the 2nd
millennium CE, first by various Turkic tribes, and then by European colonialists.
Establishment Indian historians from the old elite refer to the Turkic invasions as
Islamic invasions, but they do not call the European conquest the Christian conquest.
This reflects their bias. I believe that they should be referred to as Turkic and
European invasions; for the foreign invaders had nothing to do with Indian Muslims or
Indian Christians. But the foreigners were, self-declaredly, steeped in a deeply
iconoclastic doctrine. Thousands of temples were destroyed, and mosques or churches
built on the same ground, sometimes re-using the rubble of the destroyed temple.
Sita Ram Goel has recorded many instances in the seminal book Hindu Temples: What
Happened to Them, which he co-authored. Tens of universities were burnt to the
ground. Many tens of millions of people were massacred over the centuries. American
historian Will Durant had said that the Turkic invasions of India “is probably the
bloodiest story in history”. But the Europeans were no less brutal, as the true history
of the Goa inquisition shows. Notwithstanding, what happened to us was not unique.
It happened to almost every single ancient and classical culture in the world. What is
unique is that we survived. And one of the main reasons for that, is that our ancestors
did not surrender.
The Sun temple in Multan (in present-day Pakistan) was the first major ancient Indian
temple to be attacked by a foreign invader in the early 8th century CE. Thereafter,
thousands of Hindu and Jain temples, Buddhist viharas, and Sikh gurudwaras were
destroyed by invaders, including the holiest — such as Ram Janmabhoomi ji temple in
Ayodhya, the Vishwanath ji temple in Kashi, and the Keshav Deva ji temple in
Mathura.
Pagan attacks minuscule
Some say that pagan invaders also destroyed places of worship at times, most notably
the Romans, who destroyed the Jewish temple at Jerusalem. But history records show
that these were rare, and not theologically driven. Equivalences drawn look

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belaboured and disingenuous, in the face of the overwhelming preponderance of
numbers in favour of the iconoclasts. The pagan attacks on other places of worship
are less than minuscule when compared to the scale of what the pre-modern
Europeans, Turks, and few other invading groups did in the last one-and-a-half
millennia. A gruesome murder, heinous as it may be, cannot be equated with
wholesale massacre.
It has been theorised by some historians that these barbaric foreign invaders attacked
temples only for their riches, and the destruction was an unintended consequence. If
that were true, mere looting would have sufficed, and destroying the temples/viharas
and converting them into mosques or churches would not have been necessary. And
what monetary gain would destroying universities bring? Turkic invader Bakhtiyar
Khilji burned so many books at Nalanda University that the event is believed to be the
“main cause behind the decline of Buddhism in India”. The conquerors themselves
proudly recorded their destructive acts, along with their iconoclastic motives, in texts
such as Baburnama and Tarikh-i-Firishta.
Indian kings and queens took some time to understand the nature and character of
these invaders. Some discovered the hard way that classical codes of chivalrous
honour in battle were outdated against such foes (Prithviraj Chauhan, for example).
Many others fought heroically and won (King Suheldev, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj,
Lachit Borphukan, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, King Marthanda Varma, and Queen
Abbakka among many others). Many fought hard and lost (Raja Dahir of Sind,
Hindushahi Maharaja Jayapala of Kabul). But our ancestors never surrendered. They
were the only ones among all pre-Bronze Age pagans who succeeded in protecting that
which is most precious: their way of life.
Time to rebuild
I am reminded of these wonderful lines, ironically written by the bugbear of a few in
India, Thomas Babington Macaulay, “And how can man die better, Than facing fearful
odds, For the ashes of his fathers, And the temples of his Gods.”
Our ancestors did the dying. It is up to us to do the rebuilding.
As we rebuild, we must remember to not dishonour our ancients or their way of life.
We must act with dharma. We must speak the truth of what happened to our
civilisation, but without engendering hatred. We must act, but with calm collective
resolve, not with insecure aggression. We must understand that Indian Muslims and
Christians of today have nothing to do with what the pre-modern Europeans, Turks,
and other foreign invaders did.
We must rebuild our temples and viharas as one people. With mutual respect, love
and inclusion. We must recreate them as not just places of worship, but also as
centres of knowledge and social cohesion, as they were in ancient times. We must not
stop with the Ram Janmabhoomi ji temple. We should rebuild the Martand ji Sun
temple in Kashmir and the university of Vikramshila in Bihar, for instance.
Rebuilding is a civilisational responsibility we owe to ourselves – and more
significantly, to our ancestors, as well as to future generations. It is a statement to the
world that we will not die. We are sanatan. We are eternal. And most importantly, we
are united. All 1.3 billion of us.
Jai Shri Ram. Jai Maa Bharati.

Amish is the award-winning bestselling author of the Ram Chandra series, Shiva
trilogy, Legend of Suheldev, and Immortal India. Views are personal.

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 CHAPTER II
Vedic Architecture!
|| Science behind TEMPLES ||

Millions of temples of varied shapes, sizes and architecture homing different Gods and
Goddesses with or of various customs and worships are present throughout the world,
primarily in India. But all temples are not constructed in Vedic Way following our
Ancient Hindu Temple principles.

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In the modern world of ours, it’s difficult to find most suitable vacant location in cities
for construction of temples and in some places a lot of distance is to be travelled to
reach temples built in Vedic Ways. Out of respect, love and belief, construction of
temples started in localities so that devotees can visit temples frequently and worship
God.

~VEDIC RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF TEMPLES~

A temple should be constructed in a place where Earth’s magnetic wave path passes
through densely. These places could be in the outskirts of city or town or village or in
the centre of most populated residential location or on a hilltop, in a cave or on a
small island in the middle of a river.

Temples should be constructed in a place where positive energy is abundantly

available from the Magnetic and Electrical wave distribution of North to South Pole of

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Earth’s polar thrust. The main idol of God is placed in the centre of this location. This
core centre is known as Garbhagriha or Moolasthanam.

The core centre of temple is the place where the Magnetic waves of Earth are found to
be maximum. It is a well known fact that copper plates inscribed with Vedic Scripts or
Shlokas are buried beneath the main Idol. Purpose of these plates is to absorb the
Earth’s magnetic waves and radiate it to the surroundings.

Devotees or persons who regularly visits temples and walks clockwise around the
Main Idol or the Garbhagriha receives the Beamed Magnetic Waves and his or her
body absorbs it. Although it is a very slow process, yet regular and frequent visit to
temples helps in absorption of more positive energy and scientifically, it is the positive
energy which we all need for a healthy life.

Three essential elements in a temple

Three principal elements in every temple are Sthala (temple site); Teertha (Temple
tank) and Moorthy/ Murti (the deity or idol). A temple could also be associated with a

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tree, called the Sthala Vriksham as in many temples we can find sacred ashoka and
banyan trees.

Certain areas on earth are more sacred than others, some on account of their
situation, others because of their sparkling waters, and others because of the
association or habitation of saintly people. – Mahabharata, Anusanana Parva 108:
16-18

1. Temples are often located in a kshetra or an energy field which contains three
essential aspects for sustaining and transmitting powerful spiritual energies.

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2. The first of these aspects is the moorthy, the idol which contains the energy made
of a special material that can reflect and hold energy for sustained periods of time
without disintegrating.
3. The second is sthalam, the energy field. Certain locations serve as natural energy
centers depending on their geological positioning, presence of minerals in the earth
or underground running water. Other fields are those which have become energy
hubs because of the continuous worship and spiritual activities there over
prolonged periods of time. Any space which has been sanctified by prayer and
rituals eventually evolves into a sthalam.
4. The third is teertham, a sacred water body. Most kshetras are located by or near
rivers, the ocean or mineral water springs.
5. The best location for a temple is at a teertha as the water in a teertha, which is
continuously exposed to the powerful energies of a kshetra, is actually a
superconductor of cosmic energy.
6. A teertha is a holy place, a crossing place for the “upward journey of the soul and a
place for the downward crossing of higher entities, who sometimes descend to this
world for the good of humankind“. The Sanskrit word teertha comes from tri, to
cross. One meaning is to cross a ford or a shallow part of a body of water. Teertha
also symbolizes crossing over one’s karmas.

Crossing the water or crossing the ocean is an important symbol in Vedic literature for
attaining liberation. Many temples are located by or near rivers, oceans, or mineral
water springs, and if not, they will have a large water tank or pool. It is quite obvious
that sea-water and mineral water have powerful natural electrolytes acting as
catalysts for the process of energy transmission to happen. Interestingly, when water
is exposed to a high electric potential, it ionizes rapidly. So the water in a teertham or
tank, which is continuously exposed to the powerful energies of a kshetra, is actually
a superconductor of cosmic energy!

When entering such a water-body, negative energies are cleansed and our body is
made ready to absorb positive energy influences. Hence the practice of first taking a
dip in the healing water-body before visiting the sanctum of the temple.

Temples radiate energy

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A Japanese scientist, Dr. Emoto has carried out research on the power of thoughts
and has proved that thoughts have a tangible effect on material objects.

Dr. Emoto took samples of water from the same source, put it in different containers
and exposed it to different influences.
To one sample he spoke positive words of love and gratitude and recited Buddhist
chants. Over another he spoke negative words of anger, hatred and war. Then he froze
the water so that it could be photographed it in its crystalline form.
Beautiful clear crystals, like diamonds formed in the samples exposed to positive
energy. With the samples exposed to negative energies, the crystal structure appeared
dark, misshapen and ghost like.

Over three hundred experiments conducted by Emoto repeatedly proves the effect of
words and thoughts on water that are recorded in his book, Messages From Water.

Water can hold, radiate and respond to your thoughts. When simple water can
respond to our thoughts, our vibrations, why not a structure? Why not a temple, why
not a stone? It can become alive with our thoughts, our emotions. Our Masters have
created so many methods and techniques to hold the positive energy, so that
humanity can be helped by that positive energy. The mechanisms or techniques which
they created to hold that positive energy and radiate it are Temples.

The mantras, when chanted continuously, the very air vibrates with the pure
vibrations
The Masters have installed the energy in the earth elements, in the stone. These are
the idols or moorthies. They have installed the same energy in the water. That is
teerthas. That is why every Indian temple will have a tank or a river as a teertha. Third
they installed the same energy in the fire. Every Indian temple will have a lamp which
is never switched off, is never put off. It will have a lamp or an agni (fire) which will be
continuously burning. Next is the air. The very air is filled with the vibrations of
mantras. The mantras, when chanted continuously, when they are repeated, the very
air vibrates with the pure vibrations. Above all is the space, the ether.

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It can be seen in the temple architecture that a dome structure is always created.
Whether it is a south Indian or north Indian temple, there is a dome structure.
Temples are batteries to radiate energy~~

The dome structure (of a temple) is created to hold the ether. It is almost like a
battery. They say if you can hold one lightning bolt, if you can store one lightning bolt
in a battery, if you have some battery or method to store one lightning, you can supply
electricity for any city for more than one year. For more than one year you can supply
electricity for any city, for any big city. But we don’t have such a system or method; we
don’t have that type of batteries.
Temples are the batteries in which enlightened Masters have stored their energy.
Temples are created just to hold enormous energies. When enlightened Masters come
to earth, they will install their energy. Our Masters have designed a beautiful battery
which can hold this energy and radiate it for thousands of years. Temples are the
batteries in which they have stored their energy.

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Repetition of mantras charges the whole energy and hence when you go and stand in
front of this energy field, when you offer your thoughts, simply the whole thing
becomes reality.
The garbha mandirs or temples are high intense energy, potential energy which is
created by an enlightened Master and maintained by regular poojas and mantras.
Continuous repetition of mantras charges the whole energy, the whole space is kept
alive. When you go and stand in front of this energy field, when you offer your
thoughts, simply the whole thing becomes reality.

For example, if you are continuously repeating a particular thought, again and again,
you will see your body and mind, everything will be directed towards that thought.
Same way if you go and stand in front of an energized moorthy, in front of energy
space in the temple and create a wish, your whole body and mind will be tuned to that
thought. Naturally it will become reality in your lives.

In the temples, two things will happen. You will have the shakti (energy) to make your
dreams into reality. You will have the buddhi (wisdom) to realize what you think as
reality itself is a dream. Both will happen when you are in energy space. Temples are

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created to replace an enlightened Master’s presence. When enlightened Masters leave
the planet earth, when they leave their body, they wanted a space which can
continuously inspire people, which can continuously heal, which can give them the
experience of spirituality, which can give them a sacred feeling. That is why they have
created these structures.”

Why deities?…loving devotion to the Divine is used as a technique to purify our

common emotions of lust..

The question may arise: If all that is required is a structure which will hold and
transmit energy, why do we need the form of a particular deity?

There are two reasons for this: One, most of us are not yet so evolved that we can
relate directly to the formless cosmic energy. That is why the ‘Personal Divine’ is a
concept close to the heart of every devotee. On the Bhakti Marga (the path of
devotion), which is one of the four major paths to enlightenment, loving devotion to the
Divine is used as a technique to purify our common emotions of lust, jealousy and
selfishness. The devotee withdraws the energies wasted in such emotions, and turns
them upon the object of his devotion. When the Divine is present before him in a form
he can see, touch and relate to, the transmutation becomes an easy and joyful
process.
Second, deities in a real kshetra are always carved in the form of ancient masters and
enlightened beings. Even though no longer in the body, they can be invoked through
the name or form they used while in the physical plane. When we pray to the deity or
chants its name, the corresponding divine vibration is automatically awakened, and
becomes available on the energy plane to guide and bless us.

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Prana Pratishta ~> How temples get energized:-
When the energy is installed inside the vigraha, you can’t call it a statue, it becomes a
deity.
There is a beautiful sloka in Taitreya Upanishad. They say from akasha came the vayu,
from vayu came the agni. Agniyar apaha, apap pruthvi, prathibyor annam.
From agni came the water, from the water came the earth. From the earth came other
things. In the same way, energy is also brought. Energy exists beyond the ether,
beyond the space as Atman, atma shakti. Through the visualization or through
meditation, the energy is brought to the Akasha shakti or the space.
From there through verbalization or chanting of mantras, it is brought to the air.
From there through the fire rituals, through the homas it is brought to the fire.
From there it is brought to the kumbha, the water.
From there it is brought to the bimba and installed in the idol.
When the energy is installed inside the vigraha, you can’t call it a statue, it becomes a
deity.
A moorthy or deity is made of a special material that can reflect and hold energy for
sustained periods of time without disintegrating.

The moorthies in a temple are always sculpted or molded from such materials. Such
an idol, in which the Cosmic energy has been invoked and ‘bolted in’ through prana
pratishta, is called a moorthy. Just as the energy of the sun can be focused through a
lens and powerful energy transmission can happen, the consecrated moorthy becomes
the lens to focus and radiate intense cosmic energy.

Acting as a ‘spiritual reactor’, the moorthy can radiate this energy over prolonged
periods of time, sometimes even centuries!

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The importance of Temples•°∆°•..Temples are much more important than any other
comfort..

Our ancestors knew the importance of temples. A temple is the place where the
culture is alive, where you can relate with others. This is the space in which you can
rejuvenate yourself.

Temples are much more important than any other comfort, any other worldly thing. It
is much more basic need for our life than anything else. That is why if you see the
Indian villages, it will be very funny. The houses will be constructed with ordinary
mud and ordinary material. But the temples will be constructed with granite stone. If
you go to every village of India, the costliest structure of that village will be the temple.

Temples have played a major role in keeping the social structure alive. It is temples which kept
our whole culture alive and our whole structure alive.
https://thespiritual.wordpress.com/tag/garbhagriha/

CHAPTER III
Empty Spaces of Hindu Temples
All photos original by the authors

INTRODUCTION

The idea of empty space captures the sensibility that recognises emptiness itself as an important and
defining aspect of obsolete space. The idea of the negativity of Temple, building or industrial architecture

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is based on the contrast between a functioning Temple housing the diety, residential building where we
live or factory and its current state of obsolescence. We are not talking about the empty space around the
Temple which may just like it does in a building has the significance to  provides recreational areas for
devotees to sit and contemplate/meditate as well as for religious functions and helps to enhance the
beauty and environmental quality of temple as well as its neighborhoods.

Thus in temple layout- Positive space refers to areas where the subject is positioned. Negative space is
the area surrounding the subject. Or in other words, positive space is the main focus area whilst negative
space is the background. Basically, negative space – or white space, as it's often called – is the area of the
layout that is left empty. It may be not only around the objects you place in the layout but also between
and inside them. Negative space is a kind of breathing room for all the objects on the page or screen .

Positive and negative space can form an important part of your overall composition. You can use positive
and negative space to create a sense of balance and rhythm. Balance is one of the basic principles of
design and refers to how well all the elements are balanced with each other .

The the extreme right is the silhouette of a Balinese Hindu temple which is OPEN to the shy
completely. Negative space is the space between, within and surrounding an object in an image, often to
form another image or symbol. The positive space is the focus of the image, the object itself, but the
negative space is just as important. Gutters, margins, and the space between columns are all examples of
negative space within a graphic design context.

Garbagriha of a Jain temple showing the mandapa space and the Garbagriha where the idol is lodged

25
Just as in art, in Temple Design, empty spaces accentuate the main element thus putting a focus on the
Idol. The opposite of negative space is positive space. In drawing and painting, negative spaces are actual
shapes that share edges with the positive shape -- the object or objects you are drawing or painting --
thereby creating the outline of your subject. ... Learning to draw negative shapes demands a whole new
way of seeing

The initial principle of the temple architecture was openness: it broke the dark cave( the earlier temples
were either in Caves or as just a house or dwelling structure( building) . It opened vistas through no-
walls, but this will for balance with the outside world came doubtlessly too early. The open door, the wide
open window frees the temple from being a fortress if not the catacombs. The wide areas that are filled
with a noisy outside world needs an outside full of attractive strangers znd the wide open spaces between
the mandapa pillars give a glimpse of the Divinity of the Lord within.

Vastushastra the manual of temple building and indeed the manual of all buildings- refers to
the ancient Indian ( HINDU) science (shastra) of architecture (vastu), dealing with topics such
architecture, sculpture, town-building, fort building and various other constructions. Vastu also
deals with the philosophy of the architectural relation with the cosmic universe.
Shilpashastra (iconography)

Shilpashastra represents the ancient Indian science (shastra) of creative arts (shilpa) such as
sculpture, iconography and painting. Closely related to Vastushastra (architecture), they often
share the same literature.
Discover the meaning of garbhagriha or garbhagrha in the context of Shilpashastra from
relevant books on Exotic India 

In Shaivism (Shaiva philosophy)

Shaiva represents a tradition of Hinduism worshiping Shiva as the supreme being. Closely
related to Shaktism, Shaiva literature includes a range of scriptures, including Tantras, while the
root of this tradition may be traced back to the ancient VedasIt is only the physical structure. It
is transformed into sannidhi after the invoking of the Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva
Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space where the deity is invited to reside in
the garbhagṛha. The temple’s spiritual energy can be sustained only if the

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deity’s sāniddhya remains unsullied. Therefore the most important dharma of the Ādiśaiva priest
is to maintain the “presence” and sanctity of the deity by offering regular pūjā as prescribed.
Only then can the temple be a storehouse of energy for the public. Only then can the devotees
find their God in the sanctum. This he does through pūjā.

A Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs,

values, and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man,
deities, and the Universal Purusa in a sacred space. It represents the triple-
knowledge (trayi-vidya) of the Vedic vision by mapping the relationships
between the cosmos (brahmanda) and the cell (pinda) by a unique plan that is
based on astronomical numbers. Subhash Kak sees the temple form and its
iconography to be a natural expansion of Vedic ideology related to recursion,
change and equivalence.

The 9x9 (81) grid "Parama Sayika" layout plan (above) found in large ceremonial Hindu Temples. It
is one of many grids used to build Hindu temples. In this structure of symmetry, each concentric
layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil;
while inner Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. In between the good and evil is the
concentric layer of Manusha padas signifying human life; All these layers surround Brahma
padas, which signifies creative energy and the site for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at
the very center of Brahma padas is Garbhagriha (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle
present in everything and everyone. BELOW PIC

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 VOID in CENTER
The 8×8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the
most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron centre, where diagonals intersect above,
represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.

In ancient Indian texts, a temple is a place for Tirtha – pilgrimage. It is a

sacred site whose ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the
ideal tenets of Hindu way of life. All the cosmic elements that create and
sustain life are present in a Hindu temple – from fire to water, from images of
nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from the fleeting sounds
and incense smells to the eternal nothingness yet universality at the core of the
temple.

The underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief that all
things are one, everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-
grid or 81-grid mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with
carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and
necessary principles of human life – the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth),
the pursuit of kama (pleasure, sex), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life)
and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge).

VOID AT THE CENTER represents the Vastu PURUSHA MANDALA

At the center of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to
the deity, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically
representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without
form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of

28
everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate
purification of one's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization within
the devotee. The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The
primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual
spectrum.

In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing line between the secular and the

lonely sacred. In the same spirit, Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces,
they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and purpose have extended
beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus a social
meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate
arts through dance and music, to get married or commemorate marriages,
commemorate the birth of a child, other significant life events, or mark the
death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples have served
as a venue for the succession within dynasties and landmarks around which
economic activity thrived.

Vastu Purusha and Vastu Purusha Mandala – How He Came To Existence &
Became the Basis of Vastu Shastra

Vastu Purusha Mandala is a fascinating story from ancient Indian texts depicting the
birth of Vastu Purusha, the chaos he caused and how he was overpowered by
collective efforts of different Gods.This story also elaborates Vastu Purusha Mandala
(the basis of Vastu Shastra).

Vastu Purusha: The Fascinating Story

It all started when Lord Brahma created The Universe and was experimenting to make
some creatures.
He thought that a ”man” would be the best option for this and so he created a man.
But this was no ordinary man, he was huge and had enormous powers to grow.
Soon after his creation the man started growing.
As time passed, he became extremely huge and with his size, his hunger also
increased.
He started to eat anything and everything that came his way.
In no time he became so big that his shadow had cast a permanent eclipse on earth.
This whole episode was enough for Gods(Shiva and Vishnu) to press the panic
button.They immediately rushed to God Brahma and requested him to stop the man
from spreading chaos.
God Brahma understood that he has made a terrible mistake and he needs to rectify
it.
But the man was too powerful for God Brahma, hence he requested the Gods of eight
directions (Astha Dikapalakas) to come and help him.

Upon hearing his request, Gods came for rescue, they grabbed the man and
overpowered him.

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They pinned the man against ground with his head in North-East and legs in South-
West direction.
During all this event God Brahma jumped into the center and held the man down.
Going through all this the “Man” started crying and asked God Brahma, “Why are you
doing this to me?”,
“You have created me and now why this treatment is done to me?”
As soon as the”man” realized that he has been pinned down he started to cry and
asked God Brahma “You created me, and now you are doing this treatment to me?
What’s my fault?”
Hearing his question God Brahma thought for a moment and answered “I know its not
your fault, but you have become a threat to everyone.
I don’t want to destroy what I have created and hence you have to remain like this
forever.”
“But what’s my benefit in all this?” the man asked.
Brahma said “I will make you immortal and all mortal people who build any sort of
structure on earth will worship you.
You can tease, devour and trouble these people if they don’t worship you and don’t
keep you happy.
You will be present in all the land and you are from now onwards known as Vastu
Purusha”.
To this deal, the man ( Vastu Purusha) agreed and became an inseparable part of
earth forever.
This was the interesting story about Vastu Purusha, but you might be wondering
about Vastu Purusha Mandala?
From the story of Vastu Purusha you can recollect that Gods have pinned down
Vastu Purusha to ground, hence the section of the ground where Vastu Purusha was
pinned down is called as Vastu Purusha Mandala.Since God Brahma said that Vastu
Purusha will be worshiped all over earth hence any plot or land used for construction
is automatically a Vastu Purusha Mandala.

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Temples Vastu Shastra
Indian temples should be adhered to Vastu because it is the place of peace and
harmony where people generally seek God’s grace to fulfill their wishes. There are
many temples which are constructed with Vastu non-adherence and even it has been
observed that such temples never prosper in terms of peace and other manner. Any
improper orientation and construction of temple or shrine could bring mishaps with
adverse effects. Vastu provides some prominent features that must be considered
while constructing a temple.

 Every shrine must be constructed facing East direction with entrance in the
same. East direction is sacred in Vastu because sun rises from here which
the sole energy giver and symbol of light. Therefore according to Vastu shrine
should always be constructed East facing and entrance while the idols of God
facing the appropriate direction as well.
 Ensure that the plot of temple is regular shaped and avoid irregular shapes
while constructing a shrine because shapes like triangular, circle or oval are
prohibited & considered inauspicious.
 Shoes keeping point in the temple should be best located in Southern side
while drinking or water resource can be arranged in Eastern side.
 A temple can have four main gates out of which two are ideal towards East
and two in North. However if there is only one gate to the temple then best to
have in East direction.
 Avoid entrance gate in the South direction and main door must be huge and
stronger than other gates of temple.
 Provision for window should be made on Eastern side only.
 Place for God’s idol must be higher than the ground and all the idols must
placed in such way facing East while only Lord Hanuman, Lord
Dakhinamurti and Goddess Kali can Face South.

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  Avoid building other residential o commercial places near or front of temple.
The shadow of temple should not fall on the places around the temple.
 Water storage must be located in North-east corner if under ground and over-
head tank must be situated in South-west.
 Kitchen in temple must be situated in South-east corner as this is the place
for element Fire.
 Charity box must be kept in East or North direction.
 Temple best on the site where there is hill, sea, mountain lies in East or
North direction.

We have to take care of the following points while studying about the vastu of the
temples. Vastu consultation of temple involves a thorough analysis.
The ideal place for the consecration of the temple.
The direction and placement of main entrance
The direction and placement of god's idol which is
very important
The direction and placement of the windows
The direction and placement of the worshiping place
The direction and placement of place where the
religious activities will take place.

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The plan
The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the
sanctum or shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala.
The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important
components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at
the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure.
[32]
 Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu temple in a
symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths,
cardinality and mathematical principles.
The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around
which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala
circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and
as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is
considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon,
water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.

The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is often a
8×8 or 64-grid structure. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81
sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’. The square is symbolic and

33
has Vedic origins from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction,
similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also
found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In
Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49,
64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat
for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with
Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at
the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design
has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple.
Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but
64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also
called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each
pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of
a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to
the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.

In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each

concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas,
signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next inner concentric layer is Manusha
padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and
good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory. [2] The devotees, as
they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to
complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil
on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not part of the
temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the temple or just
symbolically represented.

The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma
padas, which signifies creative energy and serves as the location for temple's
primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very centre of Brahma padas
is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the centre of the house)
(Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and
everyone. The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and
Vimana in south India, is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s).

34
A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically
above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and
shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism.
One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and
turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows
from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.

Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless
all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is
sometimes referred to as garbha-griya (literally womb house) – a small, perfect
square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents
universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti. This is the main
deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a
local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana
temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple,
Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It is this garbha-griya which
devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision).

Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a high superstructure called

the shikhara in north India, and vimana in south India, that stretches towards
the sky.[32] Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the superstructure may be
replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical
dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other
mountain-like shape, once again using principle of concentric circles and
squares (see below). Scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape is
inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode
of gods according to its ancient mythology.

Pic not mine

Mandapa of a temple in South India. Much temple sculpture was originally painted.

In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings,
paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these
images or wall reliefs may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be
Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they may be
idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also
have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits
of life—kama, artha, dharma, and moksa. This walk around is
called pradakshina.

35
Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side,
serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a
separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is
integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main
temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged
by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important
principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating
fractal-like design structure,[37] each unique yet also repeating the central
common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of
repeating cells”.

Exceptions to the square grid principle

Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid
principle. However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka
Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is a
rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number
of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios
are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and
the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other
examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of
Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael
Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for
temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility
in expression and aesthetic independence.
The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples of
which the following are found in other derivative
literature: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra 
(rectangular), Ayata Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata
Vritta (elliptical), Hasti Prishta (apsidal), Dwayasra Vrita (rectangular-circular
fusion); in Tamil literature, the Prana Vikara (shaped like a Tamil Om sign, ) is
also found. Methods of combining squares and circles to produce all of these
plans are described in the Hindu texts.

Sanctum sanctorum” or Garbagrha

Garbhagṛha, “sanctum” is the nucleus of the temple. It is the place where the
main deity of the temple is installed. The Canons prescribe that the shape of
the garbhagṛha may be (on plan):
1. caturaśra (square),
2. āyata (rectangular),
3. vṛtta (cicular),
4. āyatavṛtta (elliptical)
5. or vṛttāyata (ovoid).

36
The square and circular garbhagṛhas are constructed for the installation of the
deities in sthāṇaka (standing) or āsīna (seated) postures. While in the other
varieties, deities in śayana (reclining) posture or group of deities standing or
sitting in a row are to be installed.
Mānasāra mentions that if the plan of the garbhagṛha is square or circular, it
is called puruṣa (Male) and if it is rectangular it is called vanitā (Female). Male
deities can be installed in a square, circular or rectangular garbhagṛha, while
the female deity should always be installed in a rectangular garbhagṛha.

Garbhagṛha (“womb-house”)—When combined the two words [garbha (womb)

and gṛha (accommodation)] become garbhagṛha (womb-house). It denotes
the sanctum sanctorum, or shrine of a sacred space, especially that of a Hindu
temples. The sanctum sanctorum is the most central and fundamental
component of any sacred architecture. What garbha (womb) is to the human
body gṛha (accommodation) and guhā (cave) are to the world of habitation.
What gṛha is to the world of habitation garbhagṛha is to the sacred
architecture. In garbha resides the foetus, the genesis of a being. In gṛha,
resides the gṛhastha, the family man—the microcosm, a unit, of which the
multiples make a society, and which is opposed to the macrocosmic sphere of
civilization. In the microcosmic sphere of the garbhagṛha, the God resides, who
is referred to as the macrocosm in religions, the omnipresent, all-pervading
entity.

Garbhagṛha refers to the “sanctum sanctorum”, a common concept found in

the ancient Indian “science of architecture” (vāstuvidyā).—Garbhagṛha is
the sanctum sanctorum, where the presiding deity is installed.

Garbhagṛha is also known as Mūlasthāna which actually means the MAIN

PLACE of the Temple.—Each temple has a mūlasthāna or garbhagṛha and
many subsidiary sanctums. The temples here selected for the study of
the mūla beras are temples specially dedicated to Śiva, Viṣṇu, Subrahmaṇya,
and Pārvatī. In these garbhagṛhas, there are icons of gods and goddesses,
namely, Śiva and His manifestations like Naṭarāja; Pārvatī and the Śakti
avatāras; Viṣṇu and His other forms and incarnations; Brahmā, Lakṣmī,
Sarasvatī, Subrahmaṇya, Valli, Deivāṇai (also known as Deviyāni or Devasena),
and Gaṇapati.

Location: It is the location in the temple where the primary form of a deity
resides) is only the physical structure. It is transformed
into sannidhi (Sanctum Sanctorum) after the invoking of the Lord. This
explains why, in the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a
space where the deity is a special guest invited to reside in the garbhagṛha .

37
.

Girbhagriha in Tamil: In Tamil language Girbha griha is

called karuvarai meaning the interior of the sanctumnsanctorum. It is the iner-
most of the sanctum and focus of the temple, where the image of the primary
deity resides. The word karuarai means "womb chamber". The word' karu'
means foetus and arai means a room. Only the priests are allowed to enter this
innermost chamber.

Female Deities: temples of feminine deities, the garbagriha is rectangular. For

example, in the temple of Varahi Deula in Chaurasi.The present structure of
most of these temples is a two-storeyed vimana with a square garbhagriha and
a surrounding circumambulatory path, an ardha-mandapa and a narrower
maha-mandapa.

The Latin word sanctum is the neuter form of the adjective "holy", and
sanctorum its genitive plural. Thus the term sanctum sanctorum literally means
"the holy [place/thing] of the holy [places/things]", replicating in Latin the
Hebrew construction for the superlative, with the intended meaning "the most
holy [place/thing]". The Latin phrase sanctum sanctorum has wrongly been
considered the translation of the Hebrew term Qṓḏeš HaQŏḏāšîm (Holy of
Holies) which generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of the
Tabernacle of the Israelites and later the Temples in Jerusalem, but also has
some derivative use in application to imitations of the Tabernacle in church
architecture.
The correct translation is the plural form sancta sanctorum, arguably as a
synecdoche, used also to refer to the holy relics contained in the sanctuary.
The Vulgate translation of the Bible uses sancta sanctorum for the Holy of
Holies.[1] Hence the derivative usage to denote the Sancta Sanctorum chapel in
the complex of the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome.
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In Hinduism, a temple's innermost part where the cult image (Murti) of the
deity is kept forms the Garbha griha, also referred to as a sanctum sanctorum.

The Enclosed House: The garbhagriha in Hindu temple architecture (a shrine

inside a temple complex where the main deity is installed in a separate
building by itself inside the complex) has also been compared to a "sanctum
sanctorum" in texts on Hindu temple architecture, though the Sanskrit term
actually means "enclosed house" or "the deep interior of the house". However,
some Indian English authors seem to have translated the Sanskrit term
literally as "womb house".

sanctum sanctorum, Garbhagriha is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost

sanctuary of a Hindu and Jain temples where resides the murti (idol or icon) of
the primary deity of the temple. In Jainism, the main deity is known as
the Mulnayaka. Literally the word means "womb chamber", from
the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house. Generally in
Hinduism only 'priests' (pujari) are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the
term is often associated with Hindu temples, it is also found
in Jain and Buddhist temples. Jain temple architecture is generally close to
Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist architecture.
Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions, and regional
and period styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years the basic layout of
a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or
sanctuary for the main murti or cult images, over which the high
superstructure rises, then one or more larger mandapa halls.

39
Architecture: The Garbagriha has a single entrance, normally facing east to
be accessed by the rising sun, and no windows. It is normally square, and at
least approximately a cube, with the representation of the temple's deity placed
in the centre, so that it can be seen by worshippers outside. Relative to the size
of the temple, and especially the large tower arising over it, it is a rather small
room, and there is no view from below up into the shikhara or tower, which is
treated as completely solid, although in fact for structural reasons it very often
includes a hollow space.
In the great majority of temples with a tower superstructure, a shikhara (in the
north) or vimana (in the south), this chamber is placed directly underneath it,
and the two of them form the main vertical axis of the temple. These together
may be understood to represent the axis of the world through Mount Meru. The
garbha griham is usually also on the main horizontal axis of the temple which
generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-
axis, the garbha gṛha is generally at their intersection.
Generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber,
intentionally created thus to focus the devotee's mind on the tangible form of
the divine within it. Entrance to the Hindu garbhagrha is very often restricted
to priests who perform the services there, and in temples in active worship (as
opposed to historic monuments) normally to Hindus at the least. In Jain
temples all suitably bathed and purified Jains are allowed inside. In
the Dravida style, the garbhagriha took the form of a miniature vimana with
other features exclusive to southern Indian temple architecture such as the
inner wall together with the outer wall creating a pradakshina around the
garbhagriha. The entrance is highly decorated. The inner garbhagriha or shrine
became a separate structure, more elaborately adorned over time.[5]

The garbhagriha is normally square and sits on a plinth, its location calculated
to be a point of total equilibrium and harmony as it is representative of a
microcosm of the Universe. In the centre is placed the image of the deity.

In some early temples it is not quite square, and in some later ones may be
rectangular where more than one deity is worshipped and has an image
there.There are a very few examples of larger variance; the chamber
at Gudimallam is both semi-circular at the rear, and set below the main floor
level of the temple. The famous 7th-century Durga temple, Aihole has a
rounded apse at the garbagriha end, which is echoed in the shape of the
chamber.

40
In any Hindu temple, this is the most important and the most sacred area as it
hosts the deity itself. All the puja i.e. offerings like flowers, fruits etc are made
inside this area.
In some of the temples, it is strictly forbidden to enter this area. Examples are
the temples in Kerala like guruvayur, temples in dakshina kannada and udupi
districts of Karnataka etc. In other temples, one can enter this area up to a
certain extent, but is not allowed to go near or touch the idols. Most of the
temples in India follow this. The third category is where one can enter this area
and even touch the idols. Examples are temple like vittala temple in
pandharpur.

Garbagriha- Nirmaljhar temple

41
Sanctum Generally the garbhagrihas are square in shape. Some garbhagrihas,
which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen.
Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one
worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic
shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of single cell
shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture, which are
mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush.
The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and
housed.

The structural involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the
principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna describes that the sanctum
is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone
structure, square in shape and simply plain with some projected slabs in the
wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The
sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually
help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay
windows were provided to the sanctum. The sanctum represented then by an
empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a
sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a
seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of

42
the divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone,
but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that while
the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden
sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the
worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before
construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as 'impregnating'
(Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves
letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones,
several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants),
symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is
said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-sila)
is placed over the spot.

The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul.
This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house' 8 .
Texts like Silparatna, Tantra-Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give
an elaborate account of this ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha
is more than one in some temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala,
Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches
are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has
projecting slabs and in Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional
aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for
worship. These niches and projected slabs are provided according to their
convenience and orientation of the temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in
Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western wall of the sanctum
(rear wall), while a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at
Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum. Some garbhagrihas will have a
stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching the image kept at the
centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height.
The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards 86 away from the centre
because the weight of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of
the front portion of the image. Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting
projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled
out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level
from the rear wall (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and
Sangameswar at Kurdi in Raichur district of Karnataka). Most of the temples in
Goa have the main deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala.

Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also
can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could
admit only one worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public
and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of
single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture,
which are mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or
gramapurush. The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to
be installed and housed. The structural involvements nearby the temple are
43
also essential for the principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna
describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul
(Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with
some projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in
the sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with windows for air and
light, which eventually help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the
wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the sanctum. The sanctum
represented then by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper
vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used
to be placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering
besides the mystery of the divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was
usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka
mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next
best. The wooden sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be
considered the worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple must be constructed
first. Before construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as
'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This
ritual involves letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine
precious stones, several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by
ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the
womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab
(Adhara-sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb
and the icon symbolizes the soul. This is the significance of the sanctum,
which is called the 'womb-house' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, Tantra-
Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this
ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in some
temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In
a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of
garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has projecting slabs and in Mahadeva
Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional aspects of these are for providing
space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and projected
slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the temple
entrance e.g. projected slabs in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in
the western wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while a recessed niche was
provided in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum
9* Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of
sanctum touching the image kept at the centre.

The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height. The centre
of gravity of such images falls backwards 86 away from the centre because the
weight of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front
portion of the image. Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting
tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled out. Under
these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level from the rear
wall (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at

44
Kurdi in Raichur district of Karnataka) 11)Most of the temples in Goa have the
main deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala.
Pradakshinipatha: All around the sanctum a passage is kept often narrow,
permitting the devotees to pass round the sanctum in the customary act of
devotion. This circumambulatory path (Pradakshinirpath or hhrama)
subsequently became a structural involvement as the temple grew in size; it
was more open naturally, as it was in the early phase. The temple, which has
the circumbulatory passage, is known as Sandhara temple, e.g. Jain temple at
Kudne and the temples of Ponda and Bardez talukas have this feature. The
temple, which doesn't have pradakshinapatha is known as Niradhara temple
e.g. Mahadeva temples of Curdi and Tambdi Surla, Saptakoteswar temple at
Opa, Agasthipur temple etc.". 87 Sikhara Sikhara or superstructureis the top
member of a shrine. A flat roof stone slab that covers the sanctum is also
called as Kapota. Flat roof (Kapota) of the sanctum on which the tower rests
and rises is over-laid by a single stone slab, known in the texts as 'Brahma
randra sila' (the stone). This serves as the base (adhisthana) for the
superstructure that rises above the sanctum known as Vimana or Sikhara',
which forms the important part of the temple.

The SECOND EMPTY PLACE is the MANDAPA

Mandapa (also spelled mantapa or mandapam) in Indian architecture,
especially Hindu temple architecture, is a pillared hall or pavilion for public

45
rituals. Mandapa, a Sanskrit term, means a pillared outdoor hall or a pavilion
for public rituals in Indian architecture. The architecture of mandapa in
Southeast Asia also shares similarities to that in India, for
instance mandapas in Cambodia and Vietnam. These had a rectangular floor
plan, were the site of ritual ceremonies, and were located to the front of an
image shrine called garbha griha or garbha grha. However, in Sukhothai
a mandapa referred to a small building enshrining a Buddha image or
sometimes multiple images. Its role was parallel to an image shrine (garbha
griha) of Hindu and Buddhist architecture in India and Sri Lanka. A
Sukhothai mandapa or mondop was often located to the back of
a vihara which corresponded to a mandapa in India where ceremonies were
held. This paper aims to understand the term mandapa and compares the
architecture of mandapas in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and
Sukhothai, Thailand. Sukhothai mondops represented a pavilion where the
Buddha resided, and its function was equivalent to a gandakuti, a perfumed
chamber, or a karerikuti where the Buddha dwelled in Jetavana
monastery, India. The vihara to its front corresponded to a reception
area. Mondop and its attached vihara of Sukhothai were also like
a dhammasala or dhammamandapa in Pagan, Myanmar. The comparison
of mandapas in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand will provide
indigenous architectural characteristics as well as links to the
history, culture, and religion of the people.Mandapas are described as "open"
or "closed" depending on whether they have walls. In temples, one or more
mandapas very often lie between the sanctuary and the temple entrance, on
the same axis. In a large temple other mandapas may be placed to the sides, or
detached within the temple compound.1
The mandapis a design item of Indian and Hindu social and cultural context..
A fabric thrown over 4 beams beomes a mandap. The temple design tgakes
inspiration from this structrural emphasis. Use of a mandap is an ancient
custom and is described in texts like Ramacharitamanas and various Sanskrit
texts. A wedding Mandap is a mandap (covered structure with pillars)
temporarily erected for the purpose of a Hindu or Jain wedding. The main
wedding ceremonies take place under the mandap.

46
In the Hindu temple the mandapa is a porch-like structure through the
(gopuram) (ornate gateway) and leading to the temple. It is used for religious
dancing and music and is part of the basic temple compound. The prayer hall
was generally built in front of the temple's sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha). A
large temple would have many mandapa.
If a temple has more than one mandapa, each one is allocated for a different
function and given a name to reflect its use. For example,
a mandapa dedicated to divine marriage is referred to as a kalyana mandapa.
Often the hall was pillared and the pillars adorned with intricate carvings. 

When a temple has more than one mandapa, they are given different
names.
 Ardhamandapa (Artha Mandapam or Ardh Mandapam) – intermediary
space between the temple exterior and the garba griha (sanctum sanctorum)
or the other mandapa of the temple
 Asthana Mandapam – assembly hall
 Kalyana Mandapam – dedicated to ritual marriage celebration of the Lord
with Goddess
 Maha Mandapam – (Maha=big) When there are several mandapa in the
temple, it is the biggest and the tallest. It is used for conducting religious
discourses. Sometimes, the maha mandapa is also built along a transversal
axis with a transept (bumped-out portions along this transversal axis). At

47
 the exterior, the transept ends by a large window which brings light and
freshness into the temple.
 Nandi Mandapam (or Nandi mandir) – In the Shiva temples, pavilion with
a statue of the sacred bull Nandi, looking at the statue or the lingam of
Shiva.
 Ranga Mandapa or rangamandapa - a larger mandapa, which can be
used for dance or drama, with music
 Meghanath Mandapa
 Namaskara Mandapa
 Open Mandapa

PORCH: In the Hindu temple the mandapa is a porch-like structure

through the (gopuram) (ornate gateway) and leading to the temple. It is used
for religious dancing and music and is part of the basic temple compound The
prayer hall was generally built in front of the temple's sanctum sanctorum
(garbhagriha). A large temple would have many mandapas.
 
If a temple has more than one mandapa, each one is allocated for a different
function and given a name to reflect its use. For example, a mandapa dedicated
to divine marriage is referred to as a kalyana mandapa. Often the hall was
pillared and the pillars adorned with intricate carvings. In contemporary terms,
it also represents a structure within which a Hindu wedding is performed. The
Bride & Groom encircle a holy fire lit by the officiating priest in the center of
the Mandapam.

PRADAKSHANA

48
49
Parikrama or Pradakshina is clockwise circumambulation of sacred entities,
and the path along which this is performed, as practiced in the Indian-origin
religions - Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. In Buddhism, it refers
only to the path along which this is performed. Typically, in Indic-religions the
parikrama is done after completion of traditional worship (puja) and
after paying homage to the deity. Parikrama must be done
with dhyāna (spiritual contemplation and meditation).
In Hinduism, parikarma of religious deities in a temple, sacred rivers, sacred
hills and a close cluster of temples as a symbol of prayer is an integral part
of Hindu worship. Hindu temple architecture include various Pradakshina
paths. There could a parikarma path surrounding the chief deity, and several
other broader paths concentric to main path through it is not uncommon to
find non-concentric parikrama paths. At times the outermost parikrama path
covers the whole village, town, city, thereby implying that the length of the path
can stretch. Parikrama is also done around the sacred Peepal tree, tulsi (Indian
basil plant), and agni (sacred fire or the fire God), and agni parikrama is a part of
the Hindu wedding ceremony. This walking around in a 'circle' as a form of worship
in Hindu ceremonies in India where the devotees walk around the sanctum
sanctorum, the innermost chamber of the shrine housing the temple deity is

50
sometimes done around sacred fire (Agni), trees and plants as well. Thus Pradakshina
is done around Tulsi plant and Peepal tree. Pradakshina or Parikrama is done in
pilgrimage centres also. Parikrama around the Govardhana mount near Mathura (UP)
is very famous. This parikrama involves a walk of 26 miles around Govardhana hillock
which is related to Shri Krishna's life as a child.

The circumambulation is done usually in a clockwise direction except in the Shiva

temples. The clockwise direction is followed since the devotees should have their
rightside towards the object of worship. For this, the devotees will have to walk
towards their lefthand side from the front of the object of
worship. Pradakshina literally means: to the right (Dakshina means right). The Bali
stones should be included in the Pradakshina purview. So in Pradakshina, one goes
to the left hand direction to keep the deity as also the Bali Stones around the Sanctum
Sanctorum on one's right side.1

Chowki and Torana RIGHT PIC 1. The cover of the book, depicting a Vaisnava
head from Bhitrī, Uttar Pradesh, now in the British Museum, London. Jacket
designed by Alice Soloway.

51
 CHAPTER IV
Forget Angkor Wat Temple Mountains of the BAPS
Photo Essay

( With over 100 DAZZLING Color Pics) AUTHOR- Dr Uday Dokras PhD
Stockholm.
All pics of Robbinsvilie N.J.USA BAPS Mandir except when specifically mentiones

Mandirs have been part of the Hindu tradition for thousands of years. They are
Hindu places of worship. A mandir is where the mind becomes still and spiritual
aspirants worship God. Mandirs also serve as a hub for the community’s spiritual,
social, cultural, and humanitarian activities. About 200 years ago, Bhagwan
Swaminarayan renewed this ancient Hindu tradition by building 5 majestic
mandirs. Today, Pramukh Swami Maharaj has built over 1100 mandirs in diverse
communities around the world. BAPS mandirs are architectural masterpieces
which preserve language, customs, and the ancient art and science of traditional
architecture and construction. They are an ambassador of Indian culture. Mandirs
serve as a center for language, literature, music, and culinary instruction and
activities. Hundreds of thousands of children and adults celebrate their heritage at
3,850 BAPS mandirs and cultural centers worldwide.
Traditional mandirs are architectural wonders. They uphold an ancient style of
construction and creation mentioned in the Shilpa and Sthapathya Shastras,
Hindu scriptures which describe the art for mandir design and construction. They
are constructed with stone and not reinforced with any steel or metal. The BAPS
Swaminarayan Sanstha has created the Swaminarayan Akshardham in

52
Gandhinagar and New Delhi and shikharbaddha mandirs in India, the United
Kingdom, North America, and Africa according to the guidelines given in these
texts. Not only do these mandirs revive the ancient architectural methods of Indian
culture, they introduce these techniques to millions of people around the world.

In Sanskrit, Mandir means a place where the mind becomes still and experiences
inner peace. Since Vedic times, India's sages have been enlightened with profound
spiritual truths that served as basis of their rituals, philosophies, scientific
discoveries and religious faith. As an expression of their spiritual faith, the yogis
evolved and created beautiful Mandirs to uphold these traditions.  In a similar
token, this Mandir aims to serve as a place of understanding and appreciation of
India art, culture and religion for generations to come. It will stand as a sanctuary
for countless men and women, who will be able to sustain their culture and
heritage in the form of arts, language, music, and spiritual learning. The Mandir
will provide a platform to encourage the act of giving back to our communities
through various charitable efforts like Walkathons, Health Fairs, Blood Drives, and
more. The BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in Robbinsville, NJ will inspire the
onlookers through its divinity, architecture, and humanitarian efforts for
generations to come.
Temple is also known as BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Or Akshardham. Being a
follower of Sanatan Dharma, I cannot review any temple. I'll just explain what I felt
and about its architecture. This temple is in Robbinsville, easy to reach. Ample
parking space, no issues in that. The moment you 'll enter the temple, you get struck
by their architecture, minute details in carving the pillar or wall. It's stunning. And
when you ll know about how this is constructed, you 'll be like “wow”.

The process behind building a magnificent Mandir such as this one is multifaceted.
The stone marble was quarried in Europe and sent to India through sea cargos. their
hundreds of talented artisans would begin the work of hand carving the stones. From
Europe to the USA, each stone travelled a distance of 21,500 miles. A total of 4.7
million man-hours were required by craftsman and volunteers to complete the Mandir.
Encasing the Mandir is a beautiful protective Mandap standing 55 feet tall and 135
feet wide. The Mayur Dwar, or main gate, of the Mandap, is adorned with 236 carved
peacocks, and various other carved elephants, devotees and paramhansas. And there
are many more details which you will see upon visit.

A prototype of temple design made by Sompura Brahmins and executed by Dalit and
Adivasi stone carvers.The Ram Mandir in Ayodhya is also being designed by
an influential family of Sompuras which has self-admittedly been involved in this line

53
of work for 600 years. This Gujarat-based Sompura family has been closely associated
with the Birlas for whom they have been doing temple construction work for
generations. The Birlas, in fact, got them involved with the far-right Vishva Hindu
Parishad that has been at the forefront of the temple construction project in Ayodhya.
Chandrakant Sompura, the patriarch of the influential Sompura family, has been at
the head of multiple temple construction projects such as the Gujarat Somnath temple
that he designed with his great-grandfather. Both of Chandrakant’s sons are now
involved in the same line of work and attend meetings with trusts such as the Shri
Ram Janmabhoomi Theertha Kshetra Trust that oversees the construction project in
Ayodhya. 
Sompuras have far-reaching connections with people in power and hold a monopoly
over temple construction. Although the nikashi is,
According to their traditions, the Sompura Brahmin are so named because they were
created by the god Chandra to perform sacred ceremonies called Som Yajna for the
god Shiva. They are concentrated in the town of Prabas Patan and form one of the
oldest Brahmin communities in Gujarat; they speak Gujarati. Skand puran gives
reference for the creation of Sompura Brahmins wide its chapter 21/22/23/24 The
agnihotri brahmins from chandra lok came to prabhas with hemgarbha -the chief
secretary of moon god to conduct-perform a pratishtha yagya of the first temple of lord
somnath and after the yagya the moon god requested these Brahmins to stay there.
These Brahmins stayed near somnath so they are called Sompura brahmins.
Generally the civilisations develops and moves with the source of water worldwide, but
the sompura brahmin is the only class who are stable near somnath for at least 2000
years.
Like other Brahmin communities, they consist of gotras which are exogamous.
The Sompuras have 18 gotras. Eleven of them are spread all over Gujarat and
Rajasthan and practice temple architecture with shilp-shastra. Most of the other seven
gotras stay near Prabhas/Somnath; their main profession was and still is yajman
vrutti (priestly services) in the temples, particularly in and around Somnath. Sompura
Brahman are priest in Somnath Temple. The community is moving very highly in
society in both business and education. They are strict vegetarians.
Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS ) is a
socio-spiritual Hindu organization with its roots in the Vedas. It was revealed by
Bhagwan Swaminarayan (1781-1830) in the late 18th century and established in
1907 by Shastriji Maharaj (1865-1951).

54
Founded on the pillars of practical spirituality, the BAPS reaches out far and wide
to address the spiritual, moral and social challenges and issues we face in our
world. Its strength lies in the purity of its nature and purpose. BAPS strives to care
for the world by caring for societies, families and individuals. Its universal work
through a worldwide network of over 3,850 centers has received many national and
international awards and affiliation with the United Nations.
Today, a million or more Swaminarayan followers begin their day with puja and
meditation, lead upright, honest lives and donate regular hours in serving others.
No Alcohol, No Addictions, No Adultery, No Meat, No Impurity of body and mind are
their five lifetime vows. Such pure morality and spirituality forms the foundation of
the humanitarian services performed by BAPS.

Bhagwan Swaminarayan’s life and work has not only influenced communities in
Gujarat, India but has affected change throughout the world.  He reestablished
Hindu Sanatan Dharma, cleansing traditions and rituals of the impurities that had
seeped in over time.  His contributions have been hailed by Hindus and dignitaries
of other faiths as truly transforming the lives of millions of individuals.  He
improved societal standards and, most importantly, the innate nature of people,

55
eradicating them of lust, anger, greed, and envy.  Bhagwan Swaminarayan was not
a mere social worker; He was God incarnate.  Bhagwan Swaminarayan did not
simply reform society; He spiritually charged it with faith, virtue, and integrity.  His
life and work speak for themselves.

During one of Gunatitanand Swami’s first encounters with Bhagwan

Swaminarayan, Bhagwan Swaminarayan introduced him as His ideal devotee, the
embodiment of Aksharbrahman. Born as Mulji Sharma in Bhadra, Gunatitanand
Swami met Bhagwan Swaminarayan when he was 15 years old in Piplana.

Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha

BAPS Akshar Deri Logo/Swaminarayan Akshardham (New Delhi)

Abbreviation BAPS

56
 Formation 5 June 1907 (114 years ago)

Founder Shastriji Maharaj

Type Religious organization

Headquarters Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India

3,850 Centers
Location

Area served Worldwide

Leader Mahant Swami Maharaj

Website www.baps.org
www.pramukhswami.org

It is a Hindu denomination within the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. It was formed in

1905 by Yagnapurushdas (Shastriji Maharaj) following his conviction that
Swaminarayan remained present on earth through a lineage of gurus starting
with Gunatitanand Swami.
Since 1971, under the leadership of Pramukh Swami Maharaj, the BAPS has grown
strongly. As of 2019, BAPS has 44 shikharbaddha mandirs and more than
1,200 mandirs worldwide that facilitate practice of this doctrine by allowing followers
to offer devotion to the murtis of Swaminarayan, Gunatitanand Swami, and their
successors. BAPS mandirs also feature activities to foster culture and youth
development. Many devotees view the mandir as a place for transmission of Hindu
values and their incorporation into daily routines, family life, and careers.
BAPS also engages in a host of humanitarian and charitable endeavors through BAPS
Charities, a separate non-profit aid organization which has spearheaded a number of
projects around the world addressing healthcare, education, environmental causes,
and community-building campaigns.[9]

57
Formation and early years (190-1950)

Shastriji Maharaj/Murtis of Akshar Purushottam, Bochasan

The Gunatit Guru

The basis for the formation of BAPS was Shastriji Maharaj's conviction that
Swaminarayan remained present on earth through a lineage of Gunatit Gurus (perfect
devotee), starting with Gunatitanand Swami, one of Swaminarayan's most prominent
disciples, and that Swaminarayan and his choicest devotee, Gunatitanand Swami,
were ontologically, Purushottam and Akshar, respectively. According to the BAPS-
tradition, Shastriji Maharaj had understood this from his guru, Bhagatji Maharaj, who
had Gunatitanand Swami as his guru.
Followers of BAPS believe that the Ekantik dharma that Swaminarayan desired to
establish is embodied and propagated by the Ekantik Satpurush ("a most sublime
saint"the Gunatit Guru.  According to Shastriji Maharaj, Swaminarayan had
"expressly designated" the Gunatit Guru to spiritually guide the satsang (spiritual
fellowship) while instructing his nephews to help manage the administration of the
fellowship within their respective dioceses. As Kim notes, "For BAPS devotees, the dual
murtis in the original Swaminarayan temples imply that Swaminarayan did install a
murti of himself alongside the murti of his ideal bhakta or Guru".
Shastriji Maharaj sought to publicly reveal his ideas, and to worship Gunatitanand as
the abode of Purushottam, c.q. Swamiarayan.However, his views were rejected by the
sadhus of the Vadtal and Ahmedabad dioceses. The idea that Swaminarayan had
appointed Gunatitanand as his spiritual successor, instead of the two acharyas, was a
new and "most radical idea," and for the sadhus of the Vadtal diocee, this was a
heretical teaching, and they "refused to worship what they considered to be a human
being." Shastriji Maharaj left Vadtal with five swamis and the support of about 150
devotees.
Mandirs to facilitate doctrinal practice
Paralleling Sahajand Swami's building of temples to propagate his teachings, Shastriji
Maharaj then set out to build his own mandir to "house the devotional representations
of Bhagwan and Guru" and propagate his understanding of Swaminarayan's
teachings. On 5 June 1907, Shastriji Maharaj consecrated the murtis

58
of Swaminarayan and Gunatitanand Swami in the central shrine of the
shikharbaddha mandir he was constructing in the village of Bochasan in the Kheda
District of Gujarat. This event was later seen to mark the formal establishment of the
Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha, which was later
abbreviated as BAPS. The Gujarati word Bochasanwasi implies hailing from Bochasan,
since the organization's first mandir was built in this village.
Shastriji Maharaj spent the majority of 1908–15 discoursing throughout Gujarat,
while continuing construction work of mandirs in Bochasan and Sarangpur, gaining a
group of devotees, admirers, and supporters. [42] Over the next four decades, Shastriji
Maharaj completed four more shikharbaddha mandirs in Gujarat (Sarangpur – 1916,
Gondal – 1934, Atladra – 1945, and Gadhada – 1951).
Successors
On 12 August 1910 Shastriji Maharaj met his eventual successor, Yogiji Maharaj, at
the house of Jadavji in Bochasan. Yogiji Maharaj was a resident swami at Junagadh
Mandir (Saurashtra), where Gunatitanand Swami had served as mahant. [39]: 17  Yogiji
Maharaj regarded Gunatitanand Swami as Akshar and also served the murti of
Harikrishna Maharaj which had previously been worshiped by Gunatitanand Swami.
As he already believed in the doctrine being preached by Shastriji Maharaj, Yogiji
Maharaj left Junagadh on 9 July 1911 with six swamis to join Shastriji Maharaj's
mission.
On 7 November 1939, 17-year-old Shantilal Patel (who would become Pramukh Swami
Maharaj) left his home and was initiated by Shastriji Maharaj into the parshad order,
as Shanti Bhagat, on 22 November 1939, and into the swami order, as
Narayanswarupdas Swami, on 10 January 1940. Initially, he studied Sanskrit and
Hindu scriptures and served as Shastriji Maharaj's personal secretary. In 1946, he
was appointed administrative head (Kothari) of the Sarangpur mandir.[
In the early part of 1950, Shastriji Maharaj wrote several letters to 28-year-old Shastri
Narayanswarupdas expressing a wish to appoint him as the administrative president
of the organization. Initially, Shastri Narayanswarupdas was reluctant to accept the
position, citing his young age and lack of experience and suggesting that an elderly,
experienced swami should take the responsibilityHowever, Shastriji Maharaj insisted
over several months, until, seeing the wish and insistence of his guru, Shastri
Narayanswarupdas accepted the responsibility. On 21 May 1950 at Ambli-Vali Pol in
Amdavad, Shastriji Maharaj appointed Shastri Narayanswarupdas as the
administrative president (Pramukh) of BAPS.  
 He instructed Shastri
Narayanswarupdas, who now began to be referred to as Pramukh Swami, to ennoble
Satsang under the guidance of Yogiji Maharaj.
In the last few years of his life, Shastriji Maharaj took steps to preserve the growth and
future of BAPS by registering BAPS as a charitable trust in 1947 under India's new
legal code.
Development and organizational formation (1950–1971)
After the death of Shastriji Maharaj on 10 May 1951, Yogiji Maharaj became the
spiritual leader, or guru, of the organization while Pramukh Swami continued to
oversee administrative matters as president of the organization. Yogiji Maharaj carried
Shastriji Maharaj's mission of fostering the Akshar-Purushottam Upasana doctrine by
building temples, touring villages, preaching overseas and initiating weekly local

59
religious assemblies for children, youths and elders. In his 20 years as guru, from
1951 to 1971, he visited over 4,000 cities, towns and villages, consecrated over 60
mandirs and wrote over 545,000 letters to devotees.
Youth Movement
This period of BAPS history saw an important expansion in youth activities. Yogiji
Maharaj believed that in a time of profound and rapid social ferment, there was an
imminent need to save the young from 'degeneration of moral, cultural and religious
values'. To fill a void in spiritual activities for youths, Yogiji Maharaj started a regular
Sunday gathering (Yuvak Mandal) of young men in Bombayin 1952. Brear notes, "His
flair, dynamism and concern led within ten years to the establishment of many yuvak
mandals of dedicated young men in Gujarat and East Africa". In addition to providing
religious and spiritual guidance, Yogiji Maharaj encouraged youths to work hard and
excel in their studies. Towards realizing such ideals, he would often remind them to
stay away from worldly temptations. [51] A number of youths decided to take monastic
vows. On 11 May 1961 during the Gadhada Kalash Mahotsav, he initiated 51 college-
educated youths into the monastic order as swamis. Mahant Swami Maharaj initiated
as Keshavjivandas Swami was one of the initiates.
East Africa
Satsang in Africa had started during Shastriji Maharaj's lifetime, as many devotees
had migrated to Africa for economic reasons. One of Shastriji Maharaj's senior
swamis, Nirgundas Swami, engaged in lengthy correspondence with these devotees,
answering their questions and inspiring them to start satsang assemblies in Africa.
Eventually, in 1928, Harman Patel took the murtis of Akshar-Purushottam Maharaj to
East Africa and started a small center.   Soon, the East Africa Satsang Mandal was
established under the leadership of Harman Patel and Magan Patel.
In 1955, Yogiji Maharaj embarked on his first foreign tour to East Africa. The prime
reason for the visit was to consecrate Africa's first Akshar-Purushottam temple in
Mombasa. The temple was inaugurated on 25 April 1955. He also travelled
to Nairobi, Nakuru, Kisumu, Tororo, Jinja, Kampala, Mwanza and Dar es salaam. His
travels inspired the local devotees to begin temple construction projects. Due to the
visit, in a span of five years, the devotees in Uganda completed the construction of
temples in Tororo, Jinja and Kampala and asked Yogiji Maharaj to revisit Uganda to
install the murtis of Akshar-Purushottam Maharaj. The rapid temple constructions in
Africa were helped by the presence of early immigrants, mainly Leva Patels, who came
to work as masons, and were particularly skilled in temple building.
As a result, Yogiji Maharaj made a second visit to East Africa in 1960 and
consecrated hari mandirs in Kampala, Jinja and Tororo in Uganda. Despite his failing
health, Yogiji Maharaj at the age of 78 undertook a third overseas tour of London and
East Africa in 1970. Prior to his visit, the devotees had purchased the premises of the
Indian Christian Union at Ngara, Kenya in 1966 and remodeled it to resemble a three-
spired temple.Yogiji Maharaj inaugurated the temple in Ngara, a suburb of Nairobi in
1970.
England
In 1950, disciples Mahendra Patel and Purushottam Patel held small personal services
at their homes in England. Mahendra Patel, a barrister by vocation, writes, "I landed
in London in 1950 for further studies. Purushottambhai Patel...was residing in the

60
county of Kent. His address was given to me by Yogiji Maharaj". Beginning 1953, D. D.
Meghani held assemblies in his office that brought together several followers in an
organized setting. In 1958, leading devotees including Navin Swaminarayan, Praful
Patel and Chatranjan Patel from India and East Africa began arriving to the UK. They
started weekly assemblies at Seymour Place every Saturday evening at a devotee's
house.[57] In 1959, a formal constitution was drafted and the group registered as the
"Swaminarayan Hindu Mission, London Fellowship Centre".D.D. Megani served as
Chairman, Mahendra Patel as Vice-Chairman and Praful Patel the secretary. On
Sunday, 14 June 1970, the first BAPS temple in England was opened at Islington by
Yogiji Maharaj. In this same year he established the Shree Swaminarayan Missionas a
formal organization.
United States
Yogiji Maharaj was unable to travel to the United States during his consecutive foreign
tours. Nonetheless, he asked Dr. K.C. Patel, to begin satsang assemblies in the United
States. He gave Dr. Patel the names of twenty-eight satsangi students to help conduct
[satsang] assemblies.
In 1970, Yogiji Maharaj accepted the request of these students and sent four swami to
visit the U.SThe tour motivated followers to start satsang sabhas in their own homes
every Sunday around the country.] Soon, K.C. Patel established a non-profit
organization known as BSS under US law. Thus, a fledgling satsang mandal formed in
the United States before the death of Yogiji Maharaj in 1971.
Growth and further global expansion (1971–2016)

Mahant Swami Maharaj/Pramukh Swami Maharaj

After Yogiji Maharaj's death, Pramukh Swami Maharaj became both the spiritual and
administrative head of BAPSin 1971. He was the fifth spiritual guru of the BAPS
organization. Under his leadership, BAPS has grown into a global Hindu organization
and has witnessed expansion in several areas. His work has been built on the
foundations laid by his gurus – Shastriji Maharaj and Yogiji Maharaj.
Personal outreach (1971–1981)
Immediately upon taking helm, Pramukh Swami Maharaj ventured on a hectic
spiritual tour in the first decade of his role as the new Spiritual Guru. Despite health
conditions—cataract operation in 1980—he continued to make extensive tours to more
than 4000 villages and towns, visiting over 67,000 homes and performing image
installation ceremonies in 77 temples in this first decade. [66] He also embarked on a
series of overseas tours beginning in 1974 as the guru. Subsequent tours were made
in 1977, 1979, and 1980.

61
Overall, he embarked on a total of 28 international spiritual tours between 1974 and
2014. His travels were motivated by his desire to reach out to devotees for their
spiritual uplift and to spread the teachings of Swaminarayan.
Festivals and organization (1981–1992)

Mahant Swami Maharaj performing the arti/Swamis of BAPS with Pramukh Swami

Maharaj in Sarangpur, Gujarat, India (2016)

The personal outreach (vicharan) of the earlier era (1971–81) by Pramukh Swami
Maharaj through traveling to villages and towns, writing letters to devotees, and giving
discourses contributed to sustaining a global BAPS community.
The Gujarati migration patterns in the early 1970s, globalization factors and economic
dynamics between India and the West saw the organization transform into a
transnational devotional movement. Organizational needs spanned from transmitting
cultural identity through spiritual discourses to the newer much alienated generation
in the new lands, temple upkeep and traveling to regional and local centers to
disseminate spiritual knowledge. As a result, this era saw a significant rise in the
number of swamis initiated to maintain the organizational needs of the community –
both in India and abroad. Furthermore, having access to a greater volunteer force and
community enabled the organization to celebrate festivals on a massive scale which
marked the arrival of a number of milestone anniversaries in the history of the
organization, including the bicentenary of Swaminarayan, bicentenary
of Gunatitanand Swami, and the centenary of Yogiji Maharaj. Some effects of the
celebration included a maturation of organizational capacity, increased commitment
and skill of volunteers, and tangentially, an increased interest in the monastic path.
The Swaminarayan bicentenary celebration, a once in a life-time event for
Swaminarayan followers, was held in Ahmedabad in April 1981. On 7 March 1981,
207 youths were initiated into the monastic order. In 1985 the bicentenary birth
of Gunatitanand Swami was celebrated. During this festival, 200 youths were initiated
into the monastic order.
The organization held Cultural Festivals of India in London in 1985 and New Jersey in
1991. The month-long Cultural Festival of India was held at Alexandra Palace in
London in 1985. The same festival was shipped to US as a month-long Cultural
Festival of India at Middlesex County College in Edison, New Jersey.

62
Migrational patterns in the 70s led to a disproportionate number of Hindus in the
diaspora. Culturally, a need arose to celebrate special festivals (Cultural Festival of
India) to reach out to youths in the diaspora to foster understanding and appreciation
of their mother culture in a context accessible to them. To engage the youths, festival
grounds housed temporary exhibitions ranging from interactive media, dioramas,
panoramic scenes and even 3D-exhibits.
By the end of the era, owing to the success of these festivals and the cultural impact it
had on the youths, the organization saw a need to create a permanent exhibition in
the Swaminarayan Akshardham (Gandhinagar) temple in 1991.
In 1992, a month-long festival was held to both celebrate Yogiji Maharaj's centenary
and to inaugurate a permanent exhibition and temple called Swaminarayan
Akshardham (Gandhinagar). The festival also saw 125 youths initiated into the
monastic order bringing the total number of swamis initiated to more than 700 in
fulfillment to a prophecy made by Yogiji Maharaj.
Mandirs and global growth (1992–2016)
In the third leg of the era, the organization saw an unprecedented level of mandir
construction activities taking place in order to accommodate the rapid rise of
adherents across the global Indian diaspora. Initially, beginning with the inauguration
of Swaminarayan Akshardham (Gandhinagar) in 1992. A number of shikharbaddha
mandirs (large traditional stone mandirs) were inaugurated in major
cities; Neasden (1995), Nairobi (1999), New Delhi (2004), Swaminarayan Akshardham
(New
-Delhi) (2005), Houston (2004), Chicago (2004), Toronto (2007), Atlanta (2007), Los
Angeles (2012), and Robbinsville (2014).
Mahant Swami Maharaj as Guru (2016 – present)
On 20 July 2012, in the presence of senior swamis in Ahmedabad, Pramukh Swami
Maharaj revealed Keshavjivandas Swami (Mahant Swami) as his spiritual successor.
Following the death of Pramukh Swami Maharaj on 13 August 2016, Mahant Swami
Maharaj became the 6th guru and president of BAPS. [76] In 1961, he was ordained as a
swami by Yogiji Maharaj and named Keshavjivandas Swami. Due to his appointment
as the head (mahant) of the mandir in Mumbai, he became known as Mahant Swami.
He continues the legacy of the Aksharbrahma Gurus by visiting BAPS mandirs
worldwide, guiding spiritual aspirants, initiating devotees, ordaining swamis, creating
and sustaining mandirs, and encouraging the development of scriptures.
In his discourses, he mainly speaks on how one can attain God and peace through
ridding one's ego (nirmani), seeing divinity in all (divyabhav), not seeing, talking, or
adapting any negative nature or behavior of others (no abhav-avgun), and keeping
unity (samp).
In 2017, he performed the ground-breaking ceremony for shikharbaddha mandirs
in Johannesburg, South Africa, and Sydney, Australia, and in April 2019, he
performed the ground-breaking ceremony for a traditional stone temple in Abu Dhabi.
In May 2021, six workers involved in the construction of a New Jersey temple filed suit
against the temple administrators resulting in a government investigation of potential
labor law violations.] Spokespersons for BAPS said that the claims were without merit.

63
Akshar-Purushottam Upasana

Swaminarayan Bhashyam

Akshar
The philosophy of BAPS is centered on the doctrine of Akshar-Purushottam Upasana,
in which followers worship Swaminarayan as God, or Purshottam, and his choicest
devotee Gunatitanand Swami, as Akshar. The BAPS concurs that Akshar is the divine
abode of Purushottam, and "an eternally existing spiritual reality having two forms,
the impersonal and the personal.Followers of BAPS identify various scriptures and
documented statements of Swaminarayan as supporting this understanding of Akshar
within the Akshar-Purushottam Upasana. Through this lineage of the personal form of
Akshar Swaminarayan is forever present on the earth. These gurus are essential in
illuminating the path that needs to be taken by the jivas that earnestly desire to be
liberated from the cycle of rebirth.
According to BAPS, Swaminarayan refers to Akshar in the Vachanamrut, with
numerous appellations such as Sant, Satpurush, Bhakta and Swami, as having an
august status that makes it an entity worth worshipping alongside God. In all BAPS
mandirs the image of Akshar is placed in the central shrine and worshipped alongside
the image of Purushottam. Furthermore, BAPS believes that by understanding the
greatness of God's choicest devotee, coupled with devotion and service to him and
God, followers are able to grow spiritually.
Moksha
According to BAPS doctrines, followers aim to attain a spiritual state similar to
Brahman which is ultimate liberation. To become an ideal Hindu, followers must
identify with Brahman, separate from the material body, and offer devotion to god.   As
per the Akshar-Purushottam Upasana, each jiva attains liberation and true realization
through association with the manifest form of Akshar, in the form of the God-realized
guru, who offer spsirtual guidance. Jivas who perform devotion to this personal form
of Brahman can, despite remaining ontologically different, attain a similar spiritual
standing as Brahman and then go to Akshardham. It is only through the performance
of devotion to Brahman that Parabrahman can be both realized and attained.

64
Ekantik dharma
Devotees aim to follow the spiritual guidance of the manifest form of Akshar
embedding the principles of righteousness (dharma), knowledge (gnan), detachment
from material pleasures (vairagya) and devotion unto God (bhakti) in to their lives.
Followers receive gnan through regularly listening to spiritual discourses and reading
scriptures in an effort to gain knowledge of God and one's true self. [105]
Dharma encompasses righteous conduct as prescribed by the scriptures. [105] The ideals
of dharma range from practicing non-violence to avoiding meat, onions, garlic, and
other items in their diet. Swaminarayan outlined the dharma of his devotees in the
scripture the Shikshapatri. He included practical aspects of living life such as not
committing adultery and respecting elders, gurus, and those of authority. [107]
Devotees develop detachment (vairagya) in order to spiritually elevate their soul (jiva)
to a Brahmic state. This entails practices such as biweekly fasting (on the eleventh day
of each half of each lunar month) and avoiding worldly pleasures by strongly attaching
themselves to God.
The fourth pillar, devotion (bhakti) is at the heart of the faith community. Common
practices of devotion include daily prayers, offering prepared dishes (thal) to the image
of God, mental worship of God and his ideal devotee, and singing religious hymns.
[105]
 Spiritual service, or seva, is a form of devotion where devotees serve selflessly
"while keeping only the Lord in mind."
Followers participate in various socio-spiritual activities with the objective to earn the
grace of the guru and thus attain association with God through voluntary service.
 
 These numerous activities stem directly from the ideals taught by Swaminarayan, to
find spiritual devotion in the service of others. By serving and volunteering in
communities to please the guru, devotees are considered to be serving the guru. This
relationship is the driving force for the spiritual actions of devotees. The guru
is Mahant Swami Maharaj, who is held to be the embodiment of selfless devotion.
Under the guidance of Mahant Swami Maharaj, followers observe the tenets of
Swaminarayan through the above-mentioned practices, striving to please the guru and
become close to God.
The mandir, known as a Hindu place of worship, serves as a hub for the spiritual,
cultural, and humanitarian activities of BAPS. As of 2019, the organization has 44
shikharbaddha mandirs and more than 1,200 other mandirs spanning five continents.
In the tradition of the Bhakti Movement, Swaminarayan and his spiritual successors
began erecting mandirs to provide a means to uphold proper devotion to God on the
path towards moksha, or ultimate liberation. BAPS mandirs thus facilitate devotional
commitment to the Akshar-Purushottam Darshan, in which followers strive to reach
the spiritually perfect state of Aksharbrahman, or the ideal devotee, thereby gaining
the ability to properly worship Purushottam, the Supreme Godhead.
Mandir rituals
The offering of bhakti, or devotion to God, remains at the center of mandir activities.
In all BAPS Swaminarayan mandirs, murtis, or sacred images
of Swaminarayan, Gunatitanand Swami, BAPS gurus and other deities, are enshrined
in the inner sanctum. After completion of prana pratishta or life-force installation
ceremonies, the deities are believed to reside in the murtis, and are thus subjects of

65
direct worship through sacred daily rituals. In many mandirs, murtis are adorned with
clothes and ornaments and devotees come to perform darshan, the act of worshiping
the deity by viewing the sacred image. Aarti, which is a ritual of waving lit lamps in
circular motions to illuminate the different parts of the murti while singing a song of
praise, is performed five times daily in shikharbaddha mandirs and twice daily in
smaller mandirs. Additionally, food is offered to the murtis amidst the singing of
devotional songs three times a day as part of the ritual of thaal, and the sanctified
food is then distributed to devotees. Daily readings of and discourses on various
Hindu scriptures also take place in the mandir. [118] Many mandirs are also home to
BAPS swamis, or monks. On weekends, assemblies are held in which swamis and
devotees deliver discourses on a variety of spiritual topics. During these assemblies,
bhakti is offered in the form of call-and-response hymns (kirtans) with traditional
musical accompaniment. Religious assemblies also take place for children and
teenagers of various age ranges. Throughout the year, mandirs celebrate traditional
Hindu festivals. Assemblies with special discourses, kirtans, and other performances
are arranged to commemorate Rama Navami, Janmashtami, Diwali, and other major
Hindu holidays. Members of the sect are known as Satsangis. Male Satsangis are
generally initiated by obtaining a kanthi at the hands of a swamis or senior male
devotee while females receive the vartman from the senior women followers.
Mandir activities
In addition to being focal points of religious activity, BAPS mandirs are also centers of
culture. Many forms of traditional Indian art have their roots in Hindu scriptures and
have been preserved and flourished in the setting of mandirs. Many BAPS mandirs
outside of India hold Gujarati classes to facilitate scriptural study, instruction in
traditional dance forms in preparation for performances in festival assemblies, and
music classes where students are taught how to play traditional instruments such
as tabla. Devotees view the mandir as a place for transmission of knowledge of Hindu
values and their incorporation into daily routines, family life, and careers.
Apart from classes teaching about religion and culture, mandirs are also the site of
activities focused on youth development. Many centers organize college preparatory
classes, leadership training seminars and workplace skills development workshops.
Centers often host women's conferences aimed at empowering women. They also host
sports tournaments and initiatives to promote healthy lifestyles among children and
youth.[131] Many centers also host parenting seminars, marriage counseling, and events
for family bonding.
BAPS mandirs and cultural centers serve as hubs of several humanitarian activities
powered by local volunteers. Mandirs in the US and UK host an annual walkathon to
raise funds for local charities such as hospitals or schools. Centers also host annual
health fairs where needy members of the community can undergo health screenings
and consultations.[137] During weekend assemblies, physicians are periodically invited
to speak on various aspects of preventative medicine and to raise awareness on
common conditions.[138] In times of disaster, centers closest to the affected area
become hubs for relief activity ranging from providing meals to reconstructing
communities.
Notable Mandirs

66
BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in London, United Kingdom/ BAPS Shri
Swaminarayan Mandir Toronto, CanadaBAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Los
Angeles, United States/BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Houston, United States

BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Atlanta, United States/BAPS Shri Swaminarayan

Mandir Chicago, United States/Swaminarayan Akshardham (New Delhi)

Swaminarayan Akshardham (Gandhinagar)

1. The founder of BAPS, Shastriji Maharaj, built the first mandir

in Bochasan, Gujarat, which led the organization to be known as
"Bochasanwasi" (of Bochasan).
2. The organization's second mandir was built in Sarangpur, which also hosts a
seminary for BAPS swamis.
3. The mandir in Gondal was constructed around the Akshar Deri, the cremation
memorial of Gunatitanand Swami, who is revered as a manifestation of
Aksharbrahman.
4. Shastriji Maharaj constructed his last mandir on the banks of the River
Ghela in Gadhada, where Swaminarayan resided for the majority of his adult
life.

67
 5. Yogiji Maharaj constructed the mandir in the Shahibaug section of Ahmedabad,
which remains the site of the international headquarters of the organization.
6. Under the leadership of Pramukh Swami Maharaj, over 25 additional
shikharbaddha mandirs have been built across Gujarat and other regions of
India and abroad.
7. As a consequence of the Indian emigration patterns, mandirs have been
constructed in Africa, Europe, North America, and the Asia-Pacific region.
The BAPS mandir in Neasden, London was the first traditional Hindu mandir
built in Europe.[147] The organization has six shikharbaddha mandir's in North
America in the metro areas of Houston, Chicago, Atlanta, Toronto, Los Angeles,
and in the New Jersey suburb of Robbinsville Township, near Trenton, New
Jersey.
BAPS has constructed two large temple complexes dedicated to Swaminarayan
called Swaminarayan Akshardham, in New Delhi and Gandhinagar, Gujarat, which in addition
to a large stone-carved mandir has exhibitions that explain Hindu traditions and
Swaminarayan history and values.
BAPS is constructing a Hindu stone temple in the Middle East, in Abu Dhabi, the capital city of
United Arab Emirates, on 55,000 square metres of land. Projected to be completed by 2021,
and open to people of all religious backgrounds, the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi
participated in the foundation stone-laying ceremony in the UAE, which is home to over three
million people of Indian origin.[150]
BAPS Charities

BAPS Charities is a global non-religious, charitable organization that originated from the
Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS) with a focus on serving
society.[9] Their history of service activities can be traced back to Swaminarayan (1781-1830),
who opened alms houses, built shelters, worked against addiction, and abolished the practice
of sati and female infanticide with the goals of removing suffering and effecting positive social
change. This focus on service to society is stated in the organization's vision, that "every
individual deserves the right to a peaceful, dignified, and healthy way of life. And by improving
the quality of life of the individual, we are bettering families, communities, our world, and our
future.”.
BAPS Charities aims to express a spirit of selfless service through Health Awareness,
Educational Services, Humanitarian Relief, Environmental Protection & Preservation and
Community Empowerment. From Walkathons or Sponsored Walks that raise funds for
local communities to supporting humanitarian relief in times of urgent need or from
community health fairs to sustaining hospitals and schools in developing countries,
BAPS Charities provides an opportunity for individuals wishing to serve locally and
globally.

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Mandir - For A Better Tomorrow....

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Written By: Sadhu Amrutvijaydas- BAPS
In man's search for eternal happiness, the
progress of science and technology has endowed
him with innumerable amenities, making life
easier, more comfortable and enjoyable. Man has
developed such power and precision in the last
forty years as has not been accomplished in the
previous 4000!
Man has produced an awesome array of
discoveries and inventions: from automobiles to
airliners, luxury ships to space shuttles, bullets
to missiles, the internet to mobile phones, remote
surgery to genetic engineering - the list is
endless. However, in reality, man has merely
transformed his lifestyle but has not changed his
attitude. He has bridged his journeys but has not
decided his destiny. He has prolonged life but
has forgotten death. By nature, man has not
changed - cavemen fought with their hands,
sticks and stones; modern man fights with sophisticated weapons and bombs.
Thus, the mind of man remains unchanged. He has increased his means of
enjoyment, but is still chasing the elusive eternal happiness.
Having experienced the futility of materialism, man is desperately searching for a
solution. And the answer, already well known to man, is as eternal as the
happiness he craves.

Swami Vivekanand has said, "The greatest source of strength for any society is its
faith in God. The day it renounces such faith will be the day that society begins to
die." Indeed, faith in God is man's greatest strength. Thus, it is not that man does
not know the solution to his problems, but that he has failed to sincerely apply it.
Charles Steinmetz, one of the world's foremost electrical engineers, stated, "I think
the greatest discoveries will be made along spiritual lines. Someday, people will
learn that material things do not bring happiness and are of little value in making
men and women creative and powerful. When scientists turn their laboratories over
to the study of God and prayer, the world will see more advancement in one
generation than it has in the last four."
This was a fundamental truth revealed thousands of years ago by the ancient,
spiritually enlightened sages of India. They taught the necessity of devotion, prayer
and meditation. They realised the need for a suitable place of worship - laboratories
in modern terms - to divert man's mind from materialism to spirituality. And it was
they who inspired the construction of vibrant mandirs, with the sanctified murtis
therein, which have till today remained an integral part of society. Those who have
faithfully and sincerely used mandirs have experienced their spiritually elevating

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effects. Even today, mandirs remain Vedic India's most priceless gift to mankind.
They are an effective remedy against the rising tide of materialism. As Pramukh
Swami Maharaj says, "Mandirs preserve the cleanliness of the soul and keep it from
becoming diseased. Some diseases cannot be seen, only experienced. Our
scriptures have shown the medicine to be mandirs."
India is home to 3.5 million mandirs - big and small, ancient and recent - which
have helped generations of Hindus to successfully absorb and adapt to the shocks
and turbulence of daily life and progress spiritually.
Hindu mandirs make all-encompassing contributions towards personal and social
harmony and happiness. Pramukh Swami Maharaj reveals, "A mandir stabilises the
mind; a mandir inspires nobler living; a mandir teaches mutual respect; a mandir
preserves and protects culture and tradition; a mandir strengthens belief in our
true identity; a mandir gives ultimate peace; and a mandir takes us to God."
In the early nineteenth century, Bhagwan Swaminarayan built six monumental and
majestic mandirs, which even today, continue to serve society in a multitude of
ways.
The tradition of building mandirs has been continued by Bhagwan Swaminarayan's
successors - especially Shastriji Maharaj, who established the BAPS, Yogiji Maharaj
and, presently, Pramukh Swami Maharaj. BAPS mandirs in India and abroad are a
source of inspiration and guidance to all and exemplify the characteristics of a
mandir specified by Pramukh Swami Maharaj.
They have revived the tradition in which the mandir is the centre of the community,
providing not only spiritual comfort, but also meeting the basic material needs of
the community members.

A Mandir Stabilises The Mind

Caught in the merry-go-round of materialism, the mind of man fluctuates between
a multitude of turbulent thoughts which often derail his life and cause misery. It is
not physical comforts man lacks, nor is there a shortage of material pleasures - he
lacks the stability of mind to lead a purposeful, peaceful and productive life. This
stability of mind is provided by mandirs. Countless have experienced the steadying
influence of mandirs in their lives. The divine vibrations and energy radiating in its
vicinity have quelled many such turbulent minds.
John, from East Ham in London, visited the BAPS Mandir in Neaseden, London,
and commented, "I am not a Hindu, but I am in love with this mandir. I would visit
everyday if I could. I am only 15 and I visited once with my school and recently
visited on my own. It was so amazing that I actually cried during the arti. I can still
picture it now and hear it in my head, 'Jay sadguru Swami....' I have no doubts
that there is a force field of tranquility around this mandir. Words cannot begin to
describe how having this mandir in my country makes me feel. Not a day goes by
when I do not think of this mandir."
A mandir is the house of God. Darshan of the murtis enshrined within calms the
wandering and confused mind and gives it direction. The regular discourses,
prayers, devotional singing and meditation also have a powerful soothing effect.
Many aimless lives have been rejuvenated and given a true purpose. People have
attained a satisfying balance amid the turmoil of daily problems. Such is the power

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of mandirs that they convert a person's negative, destructive and destabilising
habits and emotions, such as, addictions, anger, ego, hatred, etc. into positive,
constructive and stabilising feelings of honesty, love, humility, compassion,
tolerance and others.
Yet, people still ask, "Why spend so much money on mandirs? Why not build more
hospitals and schools?" Such questions, however, do not reflect sound reasoning. A
more appropriate question would be, "Why spend so many billions of dollars on
films and cinemas? Why not spend that money on hospitals and schools?"
The amount people spend on watching films can be gauged by the following list
which shows the box office receipts of some recent films:
1. Titanic (1997): $1,835,300,000

2. The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003): $1,129,219,252

3. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone (2001): $968,600,000

4. Star Wars: Episode I - The Phantom Menace (1999): $922,379,000

5. The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002): $921,600,000

6. Jurassic Park (1993): $919,700,000

7. Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2002): $866,300,000

8. Finding Nemo (2003): $865,000,000

9. The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001): $860,700,000

10.Shrek 2 (2004): $818,671,036

Apart from the fleeting enjoyment of watching a film, has any film ever given any
life-long inspiration or rescued anyone from the miseries of life? Despite all the
investment in time, money, manpower and resources, the entertainment industry
has made no significant contribution to the long-term mental well-being of man.
So, it is fairly obvious that if cuts are necessary (and they are) then they should be
in other areas. And, conversely, if spending is to be increased, then more should be
made available for mandirs. The long-term benefits to mankind are proof that the
investment is justified and worthwhile.
For, to repeat, mandirs consolidate man's faith in God and strengthen society
morally, culturally and socially. Schools will educate the mind, but who will
educate the spirit? Hospitals will mend a broken arm, but who will mend a broken
heart? Cinemas, amusement arcades and discotheques will excite the mind, but
where will one go for peace of mind? Need the answer be given?
This does not mean that schools and hospitals are not needed. They are, and the
BAPS has built many schools and hospitals. But so are mandirs - perhaps, even
more so. Man has both body and soul. Both should be nurtured.
A mandir Inspires Nobler Living
Today, man faces a crisis of character and the turmoil of widespread crime.
Newspaper and TV headlines daily reveal the extent of the problem faced by society.

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 US Department of Justice statistics for 2001 shows the extent of crime throughout
America:
 A violent crime every 20 seconds

 A murder every 33 minutes

 A rape every 6 minutes

 A robbery every 75 seconds

 An aggravated assault every 35 minutes

 A burglary or theft every 3 seconds

 A suicide every 17 minutes - 1 in 8 deaths were due to suicide

Even in India, available figures reveal:

 A violent crime every 2 minutes

 A murder every 14 minutes

 A rape every 33 minutes

 property crime every 1.5 seconds

Other surveys also reveal the shocking state of society in America:

 In 18-24 year olds, 60.8 % males and 41.7 % females drink alcohol more
than five times a day. In 25-44 years old, 49.9 % males and 25.7 % females drink
alcohol more than five times a day.

 At any one time, more than a million teenagers and youths have left or have
been thrown out of their home.

 Over 300,00 children are sexually active.

 5,000 teenagers die on the streets annually.

 Americans gamble $600 billion every year - more than is spent on food.
Other countries, too, are not exempt from the menace of crime.

 In Germany, a crime is committed every 5 seconds

 In the UK a crime is committed every 6 seconds; a rape occurs every hour

 In South Africa a crime is committed every 9 seconds; a rape occurs every 10

minutes; a murder occurs every 24 seconds

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 Figures published in the United Nations Human Development Report 2004 reveals
the percentage of the population victimised by crime in various countries as
follows:
Australia 30.1 %
Belgium 21.4 %
Canada 23.8 %
Denmark 23.0 %
England and Wales 26.4 %
Finland 19.1 %
France 21.4 %
Japan 15.2 %
Netherlands 15.0 %
Poland 22.7 %
Scotland 23.2 %
Sweden 24.7 %
Switzerland 18.2 %

The problems of crime, suicide, drugs, alcoholism, gambling are other disturbing
features of society are similar for all countries - developed or developing.
Hence, the need of the hour is to arrest man's moral decline and set him back onto
the track towards eternal happiness. Mandirs inspire the values and virtues
necessary for a noble life. The qualities of honesty, humility, self-control, tolerance,
patience, etc. free people from the bondage of material pleasures and their
consequences. Mandirs teach a life which is pure in diet and habits; a life free of
addictions and other vulgar tendencies.

 BAPS mandirs worldwide organise deaddiction campaigns and exhibitions.

As a result, hundreds of thousands of people have been freed from addictions to
alcohol, smoking, drugs, gambling and other vices. Countless people, families and
communities have been saved from the dire consequences of such addictions.
Having experienced the life-transforming benefits of mandirs, many readily
volunteer to promote the message of nobler living and rescue others trapped in the
prison of harmful habits and character.
A Mandir Teaches Mutual Respect
In a world of increasing conflicts between individuals, communities and nations,
mandirs teach man to respect each other's ways and beliefs. Mandirs are open to
all, regardless of background or status. But to reap the maximum benefit, one must
approach with a genuine and pure heart. Mandirs provide Hindus with an interface
to interact with members of other faiths and thus cultivate a genuine
understanding and respect for each other.
Since its inauguration by Pramukh Swami Maharaj in August 1995, the BAPS Shri
Swaminarayan Mandir in Neasden, London, has played such a harmonising role in
the community. Over 4,000,000 people from 120 countries have visited the mandir;
and over 225,000 schoolchildren from over 4,500 schools throughout the UK have
made special study tours to the mandir. Even spiritual leaders of other faiths have
visited the mandir. All these factors help to promote understanding and harmony
between individuals, communities and nations.
A Mandir Preserves And Protects Culture And Traditions

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The onslaught of secular and materialistic philosophies has blunted man's respect
for his own culture and traditions. But through mandirs, this culture and tradition
has been revived and preserved.
Many Hindus living in the USA, UK, Australia, New Zealand and other countries
have become reattached to Indian culture and traditions as a result of their
involvement in the mandirs built there.
Mandirs built many decades ago by Hindus living in Guyana, Fiji and Mauritius
have helped to preserve traditional values in their descendants.

For thousands of years, upto the present day, Vedic architectural science has
guided the layout, design and construction of thousands of magnificent mandirs,
both in India and outside: the Surya Rath Mandir of Konark on the Wheels of Time,
the soaring shikhar of Tirupati, the charming robustness of Kedarnath, the delicate
forms of Belur-Somnathpuri, the majesty of the Sarangpur Swaminarayan Mandir,
the stupendous pradakshina of Rameshwar, the stunning gateway of the Madurai
Minakshi Mandir, the romantic Dwarka Mandir, the intricately and artistically
sculpted BAPS Swaminarayan Mandirs in London, Houston and Chicago and the
hi-tech Akshardham Complexes in Gandhinagar and New Delhi - all represent the
millennia-old culture and traditions of India enshrined in stone.

As marvels of art and architecture, mandirs enhance the local landscape.

Mandirs are also centres of performing arts. BAPS mandirs provide opportunities
for development of skills in dance, drama, and vocal and instrumental music.
Training in traditional art, craft and cuisine is also arranged.In recent years, the
construction of BAPS mandirs in London, Nairobi, Houston, Chicago and other
places, has revived the haveli style of wood architecture - a tradition which had
been lost for over a century. The use of intricate and profusely sculpted stone and
marble has also helped to preserve these skills.

Thus, mandirs are the tangible links between India's rich ancient traditions and the
present. They serve to remind every generation of Indians - past, present and future
- of their eternal connection with God, and their duty to preserve and nourish
India's unique cultural and spiritual legacy.
 

A Mandir Strengthens Belief In Our True Identity

Each person's identity exists at both physical and spiritual levels. Physical identity
is determined by the circumstances of one's birth, but spiritually, everyone is the
same. The individual atma which resides in the body is one's true identity. It is
eternal and indestructible. Mandirs teach us that this life is one of countless the
atma has lived in its search for eternal happiness. By understanding the atma's
true spiritual nature and attaching it to God, the atma attains ultimate liberation,
eternal happiness and freedom from the cycle of births and deaths.

When this understanding is developed, one's life is seen in its true perspective -
that physical existence is merely temporary. This understanding helps one to cope
with the circumstances of one's life - one is not carried away in times of happiness
and is able to tolerate and adjust in times of difficulty. This understanding also

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helps one to rise above the barriers of race, religion and nationality and to
contribute to the development of a peaceful world.

This is the message of mandirs.

 A Mandir Gives Ultimate Peace

Even after centuries of endeavour in the materialistic realm in his search for
eternal happiness and peace, man remains empty-handed. He is nowhere near his
goal. Yes, man has progressed and become more modern, but he has become less
civilised and less spiritual. He is going in the wrong direction at breakneck speed.
Mandirs, through the messages they teach, draw his attention to his plight and
encourage him to revive his lost spirituality. For it is only spirituality which can
rescue man from his miserable predicament and bring peace to his life. Through
devotion to God and active participation in the numerous activities coordinated
from mandirs, one can halt the misery of materialism and enjoy the ultimate peace
and bliss of God.
 

A Mandir Takes Us To God

The highest attainment of human life is to experience the divine bliss of God.

Hindu scriptures define two paths that man must follow in life. The preyas path in
which man endeavours honestly for material prosperity is necessary for his
physical survival. The shreyas path is the spiritual path which, when sincerely
followed, enables man to keep God as the focus of his life and not be overawed by
material temptations.

The various forms of worship, devotion, prayer and meditation practiced in mandirs
takes man nearer to God. The murtis of God to whom devotion is offered carry the
actual presence of God, since they have been consecrated by a God-realised Sadhu
according to Vedic traditions. This presence can be experienced if one approaches
with a pure heart.

Thus, through the mandir, the murtis enshrined within and the vast gamut of
activities centred around the mandir, one can serve society and step closer to God.

It is with these pure and selfless motives that Bhagwan Swaminarayan and His
spiritual succession of God-realised Sadhus - in particular Shastriji Maharaj, Yogiji
Maharaj and Pramukh Swami Maharaj - have given fresh impetus to the building of
mandirs.

From the remote tribal areas of Gujarat to the metropolitan cities of England and
America, mandirs are an indispensable and integral organ of society, essential for
its smooth, effective and harmonious functioning.

By using mandirs in their true sense, man will complete his quest for eternal
happiness and enjoy a better tomorrow.

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Sadhu Amrutvijaydashttps://www.baps.org/Article/2011/Mandir-For-A-Better-Tomorrow-2196.aspx

BAPS Mandir, London-How It Was Made – In Detail

Not in modern times had a traditional stone mandir of this scale and intricacy been created
outside of India. It was the first time ever in the western world.
Presented here is the fascinating account of its creation – from conception to consecration.
History
Underlying the Mandir in London is a long and arduous history stretching back almost 60
years – from the gatherings of new immigrant devotees in a Baker Street office (early 1950s), to
the first mandir in a converted church in Islington (1970), moving to a rundown warehouse on
Meadow Garth in Neasden (1982), and finally to the creation of BAPS Shri Swaminarayan
Mandir on Brentfield Road (1995).
To learn more about the history of BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha in the UK, please click here.
Vision
The Mandir was first envisioned by His Holiness Yogiji Maharaj, the predecessor of His
Holiness Pramukh Swami Maharaj.
On his visit to England in 1970, Yogiji Maharaj consecrated a small Swaminarayan mandir at
the site of a disused church on 77 Elmore Street in Islington, north London. It was the first
such Hindu mandir in the UK.
During his stay in London, on 26 May 1970, Yogiji Maharaj expressed his vision that a
traditional mandir be built in London in the future. After the passing away of Yogiji Maharaj
the following year, Pramukh Swami Maharaj took it upon himself to materialise his guru’s
vision.
Site
As the congregation began to outgrow the Meadow Garth mandir after its opening in 1982, the
search began for a suitable site to accommodate a larger, traditional mandir.
After scouring some 23 sites around London over the coming years, the search ended – quite
literally – across the road from the existing mandir in Neasden itself. On the corner of Meadow
Garth and Brentfield Road, an obsolete garage and warehouse was put up for sale in 1990. On
his visit to London that year, Pramukh Swami Maharaj asked devotees to enquire. The 3.85-
acre plot was eventually acquired later that summer on the instructions of His Holiness.

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Ground-Breaking Ceremony
During the autumn of 1990, a small team of architects and engineers from India arrived in
London to ascertain the feasibility of the project on this site. After a few checks and tests, it
was given the all-clear, triggering the process for acquiring the necessary planning permission.
After the local authorities granted their approval in June 1991, Pramukh Swami Maharaj
performed the traditional ground-breaking ceremony soon afterwards, on 7 July.
Planning, Research & Design
A traditional stone mandir of this size and intricacy in London posed its own unique set of
challenges.
Architects, engineers and scholars from BAPS – both in the UK and India – teamed up with
Sompuras (traditional temple architects) in India along with experts and consultants from
London to create a project team.
The Mandir had to conform to India’s ancient architectural texts, the Vastu Shastras, and yet
also meet the requirements of Britain’s stringent building code. For further insights on how to
satisfy both, members of the project team embarked on an 18-day study tour of Swaminarayan
mandirs and other traditional Hindu temples in India in late 1991.
After much research, consultation, deliberation, testing, and guidance from Pramukh Swami
Maharaj, detailed plans were drawn up for the Mandir and submitted in early 1992.
The Stone
A key question for the engineers was that of material. While it was granted that the Mandir
would be made of stone, which type would be able to withstand the harsh, wet and wintry
British climate? Added to this was the Vastu Shastra tradition of temple masonry being self-

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load-bearing – with no steel reinforcements or structural support. But while it had to be
durable and sturdy, the stone also needed to be receptive to intricate carving.
Many worthy candidates were considered – from various types of marble to Rajasthani pink
sandstone and Portland limestone.
Eventually, after much travelling around Europe and rigorous testing in the UK – tests
included checking against atmospheric pollutants and for density, compression, flexure,
rupture, water absorption, abrasion, freeze-thaw reaction and cement compatibility – it was
decided to opt for a combination: Bulgarian limestone on the outside, and Italian and Indian
marble on the inside.
Bulgarian limestone was selected after stone experts made numerous trips to the remote town
of Vratza in the Balkan Mountains foothills in north-west Bulgaria. They studied the stone in
quarries, and examined old buildings made from the Vratza limestone to assess long-term
effects of the environment. Finding it to be remarkably impervious to the country’s harsh
weather – temperatures range there from -15°C to 30°C – and with minimal degradation of
exposed carvings, the dense, creamy-white and finely grained stone was deemed ideal for the
Mandir’s exterior.
For the interior with its intricate carvings, marble was the preferred choice. It is relatively soft
and easy to work, refine and polish, and is said to become harder and more durable as the
sculpted stone ages. And with marble’s notable surface translucency, figurative works would be
given a certain visual depth and realism not possible with other materials.
Ambaji marble from northern Gujarat, India was chosen for its snow-white colour and pure,
vein-free finishing. But with the large quantity required within the tight construction schedule,
marble also had to be sourced from Italy’s popular stone-city of Carrara in Tuscany. Famed for
its consistent white colouration, smooth texture and considerable strength, it proved ideal for
load-bearing columns, beams, walls, and internal flooring.
In addition, granite from the Mediterranean island of Sardinia was selected for its particularly
water-resistant and durable qualities, to be used for the upper foundation and moat around
the Mandir.
Shipment to India
The finest Hindu craftsmanship can be found only in India. But getting the raw materials there
was another logistical challenge.
The Bulgarian limestone was transported from Vratza to the Black Sea port of Varna, from
where it was shipped to Kandla port on the west coast of Gujarat. The first of three
consignments departed on 5 December 1992. The 315 blocks weighing 1,351 tonnes made the
3,800-mile voyage in almost 2 months. A further 343 blocks weighing 1,604 tonnes and 9
blocks weighing 40 tons reached Gujarat in January 1994 and March 1995, respectively.
The Italian marble had a slightly longer route, reaching Kandla from La Spezia via Dubai. Over
2 years, 25 consignments carrying a total of 1,200 tonnes were shipped more than 4,800 miles.
Workshops in India
To save time, a 15,000 square metre-plot was acquired in Kandla where workshops were set up
to craft the stones once they arrived from Bulgaria and Italy. A mini-township was developed
around the workshops to cater for the 650 artisans who would be working at the site.
Yet the tight timescale soon demanded that further sites be developed.
For the convenience of the artisans and their families, workshops were set up in their own
villages, some of which had been sites of stone-carving for generations if not centuries. For
example, 125 craftsmen worked on the Ambaji marble in Ambaji itself. A further 250 and 150
craftsmen worked at Pinwada and Dungarpur, respectively, in Rajasthan.
At peak, a total of 1,526 stone-carvers were involved at 14 different sites in Gujarat and
Rajasthan.
Crafting
The process to transform rough blocks of stone into intricately carved pieces for the Mandir
was a long, patient and meticulous affair.
Cutting: It began with ‘roughing out’, or cutting the raw blocks of stones that had arrived from
the quarries into the rough shape of whatever they were destined to be. High-powered precision
circular saws were used, and it was at this stage that each piece was numbered.

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The roughing out process typically results in about 15-20% of wastage. However, diagrams of
each piece were carefully configured onto each block, leading to eventually only 2% of unusable
stone.
Smoothening: The surface of each piece then had to be smoothened to allow work to begin.
Drawing: Architectural designs of the Mandir now had to be transferred from paper onto stone.
For each carved piece, a full-scale drawing was created, from which a metal stencil was
prepared.
Contouring: Based on the metal stencil, the designs for each piece were etched onto the stone
with approximate contours.
Carving: Now the specialised craftsmen took over. With their innate skill, concentration and
patience, they diligently chipped away to create the intricate designs and figures. Although
pneumatic hammers and other power tools were available, they mostly preferred their
generations-old chisel and mallet.
To get an idea of the work involved: a deep-carved column would take 4 full-time craftsmen
each working on one side of the column about 60 days to complete.
Polishing: After the finishing touches from the craftsmen, the carved stone would be patiently
polished using successive grades of rough to fine emery paper. Water would also be used in the
final stages, to give the stone a burnished lustre.
Checking: Before being packed, each piece underwent a quality check by an expert to ensure
all its details were correct along with a confirmation of its numbering and adjoining pieces.
Packing: For its long journey to London, each piece had to be carefully packed to protect its
detailed carvings. Any piece damaged in transit would critically delay the rest of the
construction. Special cushioning and wrapping was applied before each piece was carefully
enclosed in made-to-measure wooden boxes.
Shipment to England
From each of the 14 workshop sites around Gujarat and Rajasthan, the boxes of stone would
make their way to the port at Kandla, before being loaded onto ships destined for England over
6,300 miles away. The 26,300 pieces were transported in about 40 consignments to
Southampton and occasionally Felixstowe.
The first consignment left the dock on 15 April 1993; the last on 16 June 1995.
Construction & Assembly
Meanwhile on the site in London, demolition of the old garage and warehouse had begun in
August 1992 soon after detailed planning permission had been granted by the local authorities.
Foundation: Now the foundations needed to be laid before the winter freeze.
In October, work on the mass piling began. A total of 194 piles – each 2 feet in diameter – were
driven between 23 to 36 feet into the ground.
At 6.30am on 24 November 1992, work started on laying the foundation. A 6 feet-thick
concrete raft covering 240 feet by 80 feet was laid layer by layer as 11 tipper trucks made 225
trips, incessantly pouring 4,500 tonnes of concrete in 24 hours. It was one of the UK’s largest
concrete pours in a single day.
Normal concrete could not be used for the foundation because of the weight it was to support –
some 8,000 tonnes – and the size of the raft itself; the first layer would begin to set before the
second layer had been applied. Instead, a special cement replacement containing customised
pulverised fuel ash was used to ‘cook’ the slab over a 4-month period, thus avoiding the
stresses normally associated with rapid setting – especially necessary for buildings that need to
stand the test of time.
Assembly: Once the deep concrete foundation had set, the building blocks could be assembled.
On 12 June 1993, the first granite stone was ceremoniously laid. A further 1,500 cubic feet of
granite was laid across the base as water-proofing for the lower layers of limestone.
Earlier, the first consignment of carved stones had arrived. After unpacking the boxes and
preparing the base, the first carved stone was placed on 29 September 1993.
Over the next two years, the Mandir began to rise from the ground – piece by piece, layer by
layer – as each successive consignment of carved stones arrived from India.
Remarkably, of the 26,300 pieces, not one had been missing, damaged or delayed; they all
arrived intact, in order, on time.

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Volunteers
Around 80 specialist stonemasons worked on the site in London applying the finishing
touches. Helping them assemble and fix the pieces was a pool of local BAPS volunteers.
In total, a hundred full-time volunteers and over a thousand part-time volunteers offered their
time and talent over the two years, many taking extended holidays or a gap year, and some
even leaving their jobs and businesses. Those who were qualified offered their services in
electrical wiring and fitting, insulation work, plumbing and drainage, window fixing,
landscaping, and other tasks. Others helped in the final polishing and cleaning, and arranging
for the 6-day opening ceremony festival. Professionals such as doctors and lawyers along with
shopkeepers, students and pensioners all worked together in this extraordinary labour of love.
Inspirer
The volunteers’ inspiration and driving force was His Holiness Pramukh Swami Maharaj. From
the Mandir’s inception and planning to its construction and long-term management, he had
provided invaluable guidance, encouragement, support and blessings to everyone involved.
During the summer of 1994, he also spent 2 months in England personally overseeing the
progress and planning ahead for its operational infrastructure.
He arrived again in London on 15 July 1995 just as work was reaching its climactic end.
Click here to see a gallery of photos revealing Pramukh Swami Maharaj’s role in the Mandir’s
creation.
Consecration
In the end, everything was ready by the morning of Sunday 20 August 1995. On that
auspicious day, Pramukh Swami Maharaj performed the Vedic murti-pratishtha (invocation)
ceremony and brought the Mandir to life with the presence of God.
Fundraising
The Mandir was and continues to be funded entirely by the local community of worshippers
and well-wishers.
During the construction, some of their fundraising initiatives included the following:
Aluminium Can Recycling: More than 7 million aluminium cans were collected for recycling –
one of the largest such recycling projects in the UK. (See also the 1995 Brent Green Leaf
Award received from the local council soon after the Mandir’s opening.)

"The story of the Neasden mandir could have come from scripture, illustrating the triumph of the
human spirit. It is humbling and inspiring that a group of ordinary Londoners could join forces
and – using only their faith, hard work and business nous – pull together the money, land,
materials and skills to build something so spectacular.[quoteLineRef]Time Out city
guides[/quoteLineRef]"
Sponsored Walks: Over 3,000 walkers participated in sponsored walks at 6 centres around the
UK in 1993 and 1995.
Cultural Shows: A troupe of 100 youths and children gave 40 performances around the UK of
10 folk dances and 2 ballets. 
CARE Campaign: An educational campaign allowed well-wishers to support five inspiring
programmes:
 CARE for Ourselves – discouraging substance abuse
 CARE for Our Earth – raising environmental awareness
 CARE for Our Family – fostering family values
 CARE for Our Society – supporting education
 CARE for Our Humanity – promoting interfaith and inter-cultural harmony

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 CHAPTER V
The Architectural Element of Sri Chakra Yantra
“Sri Yantra, in its formal content, is a visual masterpiece of abstraction, and must have been
created through revelation rather than by human ingenuity and craft”.

A religious symbol is an iconic representation intended to represent a

specific religion, or a specific concept within a given religion.
Religious symbols have been used in the military in many different countries, such as
the United States military chaplain symbols. Similarly, the United States Department
of Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers recognize 57 symbols
(including a number of symbols expressing non-religiosity).
The belief that a god created the universe according to a geometric plan has ancient
origins. Plutarch attributed the belief to Plato, writing that "Plato said god geometrizes
continually" (Convivialium disputationum, liber 8,2). In modern times, the
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss adapted this quote, saying "God arithmetizes".

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) believed in the geometric underpinnings of the cosmos

Harvard mathematician Shing-Tung Yau expressed a belief in the centrality of
geometry in 2010: "Lest one conclude that geometry is little more than a well-
calibrated ruler – and this is no knock against the ruler, which happens to be a
technology I admire – geometry is one of the main avenues available to us for probing
the universe. Physics and cosmology have been, almost by definition, absolutely
crucial for making sense of the universe. Geometry's role in this may be less obvious,
but is equally vital. I would go so far as to say that geometry not only deserves a place
at the table alongside physics and cosmology, but in many ways it is the table.
The study of sacred geometry has its roots in the study of nature, and
the mathematical principles at work therein. Many forms observed in nature can be
related to geometry; for example, the chambered nautilus grows at a constant rate and
so its shell forms a logarithmic spiral to accommodate that growth without changing
shape. Also, honeybees construct hexagonal cells to hold their honey. These and other
correspondences are sometimes interpreted in terms of sacred geometry and
considered to be further proof of the natural significance of geometric forms.
Mathematics and architecture

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Vastu, crafts and architecture are traditionally attributed to the divine Vishwakarma
in the Hindu pantheon.[19] Theories tracing links of the principles of composition
in vastu shastra and the Indus Valley Civilization have been made, but scholar Kapila
Vatsyayan considers this as speculation as the Indus Valley script remains
undeciphered. According to Chakrabarti, Vastu Vidya is as old the Vedic period and
linked to the ritual architecture. [21] According to Michael W. Meister,
the Atharvaveda contains verses with mystic cosmogony which provide a paradigm for
cosmic planning, but they did not represent architecture nor a developed practice. [
Vastu sastras are stated by some to have roots in pre-1st-century CE literature, but
these views suffer from being a matter of interpretation. For example, the
mathematical rules and steps for constructing Vedic yajna square for the sacrificial
fire are in the Sulba-sutras dated to 4th-century BCE. However, these are ritual
artifacts and they are not buildings or temples or broader objects of a lasting
architecture. Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita dated to about the sixth century CE is
among the earliest known Indian texts with dedicated chapters with principles of
architecture. For example, Chapter 53 of the Brihat Samhita is titled "On architecture",
and there and elsewhere it discusses elements of vastu sastra such as "planning cities
and buildings" and "house structures, orientation, storeys, building balconies" along
with other topics.[22] According to Michael Meister, a scholar of Indian architecture, we
must acknowledge that Varahamihira does mention his own sources on vastu as older
texts and sages. However, these may be mythology and reflect the Indian tradition to
credit mythical sages and deities.
Ancient India

What is Meru Chakra?

The Meru chakra is a three-

dimensional Shree yantra. It
can be effectively used for
correcting defects of the north
(direction of health, fortune and
money) and northeast
(energetically most important
and most valuable area of the
house).

Plan of Meenakshi Amman Temple, Madurai, from 7th

century onwards. The four gateways (numbered I-IV) are
tall gopurams./Gopuram of the Hindu Virupaksha
Temple has a fractal-like structure where the parts resemble the whole.

Vaastu Shastra, the ancient Indian canons of architecture and town planning,

employs symmetrical drawings called mandalas. Complex calculations are used to
arrive at the dimensions of a building and its components. The designs are intended to
integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the
structure, and ancient beliefs utilizing geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry
and directional alignments. However, early builders may have come upon

100
mathematical proportions by accident. The mathematician Georges Ifrah notes that
simple "tricks" with string and stakes can be used to lay out geometric shapes, such
as ellipses and right angles.
The mathematics of fractals has been used to show that the reason why existing
buildings have universal appeal and are visually satisfying is because they provide the
viewer with a sense of scale at different viewing distances. For example, in the
tall gopuram gatehouses of Hindu temples such as the Virupaksha
Temple at Hampi built in the seventh century, and others such as the Kandariya
Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho, the parts and the whole have the same character,
with fractal dimension in the range 1.7 to 1.8. The cluster of smaller towers (shikhara,
lit. 'mountain') about the tallest, central, tower which represents the holy Mount
Kailash, abode of Lord Shiva, depicts the endless repetition of universes in Hindu
cosmology. The religious studies scholar William J. Jackson observed of the pattern of
towers grouped among smaller towers, themselves grouped among still smaller towers,
that:
The ideal form gracefully artificed suggests the infinite rising levels of existence and
consciousness, expanding sizes rising toward transcendence above, and at the same
time housing the sacred deep within.

The Meenakshi Amman Temple is a large complex with multiple shrines, with the
streets of Madurai laid out concentrically around it according to the shastras. The four
gateways are tall towers (gopurams) with fractal-like repetitive structure as at Hampi.
The enclosures around each shrine are rectangular and surrounded by high stone
walls.

This "science of architecture" comprises of and is derived from texts on the traditional
Indian system of architecture. These texts describe principles of design, layout,
measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement, and spatial geometry.  The
designs aim to integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of various
parts of the structure, and ancient beliefs utilising geometric patterns (yantra),
symmetry, and directional alignments.
Vastu Shastra are the textual part of Vastu Vidya - the broader knowledge about
architecture and design theories from ancient India. Vastu Vidya is a collection of
ideas and concepts, with or without the support of layout diagrams, that are not rigid.
Rather, these ideas and concepts are models for the organisation of space and form
within a building or collection of buildings, based on their functions in relation to each
other, their usage and the overall fabric of the Vastu. [8] Ancient Vastu Shastra
principles include those for the design of Mandir (Hindu temples),[9] and the principles
for the design and layout of houses, towns, cities, gardens, roads, water works, shops
and other public areas.
In contemporary India, states consultants that include "quacks, priests and
astrologers" fueled by greed are marketing pseudoscience and superstition in the
name of Vastu-sastras. They have little knowledge of what the historic Vastu-sastra
texts actually teach, and they frame it in terms of a "religious tradition", rather than
ground it in any "architectural theory" therein. [
Geometric ratios, and geometric figures were often employed in the designs of
ancient Egyptian, ancient Indian, Greek and Roman architecture. Medieval European

101
cathedrals also incorporated symbolic geometry. Indian and Himalayan spiritual
communities often constructed temples and fortifications on design plans
of mandala and yantra.
Many of the sacred geometry principles of the human body and of ancient architecture
were compiled into the Vitruvian Man drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. The latter
drawing was itself based on the much older writings of the Roman architect Vitruvius.
Sacred geometry ascribes symbolic and sacred meanings to certain geometric shapes
and certain geometric proportions.[1] It is associated with the belief that a god is the
geometer of the world. The geometry used in the design and construction of religious
structures such as churches, temples, mosques, religious monuments, altars,
and tabernacles has sometimes been considered sacred. The concept applies also to
sacred spaces such as temenoi, sacred groves, village greens, pagodas and holy wells,
and the creation of religious art.
In Hinduism

The Ag
amas are a collection of Sanskrit, Tamil, and Grantha[7] scriptures chiefly constituting
the methods of temple construction and creation of idols, worship means of deities,
philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires, and four
kinds of yoga.
Elaborate rules are laid out in the Agamas for Shilpa (the art of sculpture) describing
the quality requirements of such matters as the places where temples are to be built,
the kinds of image to be installed, the materials from which they are to be made, their
dimensions, proportions, air circulation, and lighting in the temple complex.
The Manasara and Silpasara are works that deal with these rules. The rituals of daily
worship at the temple also follow rules laid out in the Agamas.
Hindu temples, the symbolic representation of cosmic model is then projected onto
Hindu temples using the Vastu Shastra principle of Sukha Darshan, which states that
smaller parts of the temple should be self-similar and a replica of the whole. The
repetition of these replication parts symbolizes the natural phenomena of fractal
patterns found in nature. These patterns make up the exterior of Hindu temples. Each
element and detail are proportional to each other, this occurrence is also known as the
sacred geometry.
The Shri Yantra, Sri Yantra, or Shri Chakra is a form of mystical diagram (yantra)
used in the Shri Vidya school of Hinduism. It consists of nine interlocking triangles
that surround a central point known as a bindu. These triangles represent the cosmos

102
and the human body. Because of its nine triangles, Shri Yantra is also known as
the Navayoni Chakra. When the two-dimensional Shri Yantra is represented in three
dimensions, it is called a Mahameru. Mount Meru derives its name from this shape. In
addition to Mount Meru, all other yantras derive from the Shri Yantra.
In the 2009 issue of Brahmavidya (the journal of the Adyar Library), Subhash
Kak argues that the description of Shri Yantra is identical to the yantra described in
the shrisukta in veda.
The Shri Yantra's 9 constituent triangles vary in size and shape and intersect to form
43 smaller triangles, organized in 5 concentric levels. Together they represent the
totality of the cosmos and express Advaita or non-duality. In the middle, the power
point (bindu) represents the cosmic center. The triangles are circumscribed by two
concentric circles composed of 8 and 16 petals, representing the lotus of creation and
reproductive vital force. The entire configuration is framed by the broken lines of an
earth square, representing a temple with four doors open onto the regions of the
universe.

The Lalita Sahasranama in diagrammatic form, showing how its nine interlocking triangles form a total of
43 smaller triangles./Shri Yantra engraved in metal/The Shri Yantra shown in the three-dimensional
projection called Mahāmeru

There exist many Vāstu-Śastras on the art of building houses, temples, towns and
cities. By 6th century AD, Sanskrit texts for constructing palatial temples were in
circulation in India. Vāstu-Śastras include chapters on home construction, town
planning, and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water
bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature. While it is unclear,
states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical
studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice, these texts suggest
that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral
part of Hindu social and spiritual life.
Six of the most studied, complete and referred to Indian texts on Vastu Vidya that
have survived into the modern age, states Tillotson, are – the Mayamata,
the Manasara, the Samarangana Sutradhara, the Rajavallabha,
the Vishvakarmaprakasha and the Aparajitaprccha. Numerous other important texts
contain sections or chapters on aspects of architecture and design.
The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramachandra Bhattaraka Kaulachara
sometime in ninth or tenth century CE, is another Vāstu Śastra. [29] Silpa Prakasa
describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such
as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles

103
were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in the eastern states of India. Other ancient
texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of
India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example,
in Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine
form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Nataka-stri compared to 16
types described in Silpa Prakasa.[29] Silpa Prakasa provides brief introduction to 12
types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada
[30]
Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith  and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada
Sankara[31] provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types.
Sanskrit texts for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region
of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's Prasadamandana (literally, planning and
building a temple) with chapters on town building. Manasara shilpa and Mayamata,
texts of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century AD, is
a guidebook on South Indian Vastu design and construction. Isanasivagurudeva
paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of building
in India in south and central India. In north India, Brihat-samhita by Varāhamihira is
the widely cited ancient Sanskrit text from 6th century describing the design and
construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples.
These Vāstu Śastras, often discuss and describe the principles of Hindu temple
design, but do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. [37] They describe
the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a
diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple,
gardens, water bodies and nature.
SYMBOLISM
The worship of the Shri Yantra is central to the Shri Vidya system of Hindu worship. It
represents the Goddess in the form of Devi Tripura Sundari, the natural beauty of the
three worlds: Bhu Loka (Physical Plane, Consciousness of the Physical Plane), Bhuvar
Loka (Antariksha or Intermediate Space, Sub-Consciousness of the Prana) and Swar
Loka (Svarga or Heaven or Super-Consciousness of the Divine Mind). The Shri Yantra
is the symbol of Hinduism, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of the vedas. The
Shri Yantra is the object of devotion in Shri Vidya.
The Shri Yantra represents the evolution of the multiverse as a result of the
natural Divine Will of the Godhead Aadi Paraa Shakti. The four upward-
pointing isosceles triangles represent the Goddess's masculine embodiment Brahm,
while the five downward-pointing triangles symbolize the female embodiment Jagat
jannani.[5] The 12 and 15 sides of the four upward and five downward triangles also
correspondingly symbolise, on the physical plane, the 12 sidereal zodiac signs of the
Sun and 15 'nityas' phase-signs of the Moon.
The Shri Yantra is also known as the nav chakra because it can be seen to consist of
nine concentric layers that radiate outward from the bindu. ("Nau" or "nava" means
"nine" in Sanskrit.) Each level corresponds to a mudra, a yogini and a specific form of
the deity Tripura Sundari along with her mantra. The various deities residing in the
nine levels of the Shri Yantra are described in the Devi Khadgamala Mantra. These
levels, listed from outermost to innermost, are:

1. Trailokya Mohana, the outermost square, traced in three lines and interrupted
by four recessed portals;

104
 2. Sarvasaa Paripuraka, the outer lotus, consisting of 16 petals;
3. Sarva Samkshobahana, the inner lotus, consisting of 8 petals;
4. Sarva Saubhagyadayaka, the outermost ring of small triangles (14 in total);
5. Sarvarthasadhaka, the next ring of triangles (10 in total);
6. Sarva Rakshakara, a smaller ring of 10 triangles;
7. Sarva Rogahara, a ring of 8 small triangles;
8. Sarva Siddhiprada, one small triangle containing the bindu at its center;
9. Sarva Anandamaya, the bindu.

The Sri Yantra, the symbol of California Institute of Integral Studies, comes from
India. A yantra, in the Indian tradition, is a literally a "device" for spiritual
advancement. The Sri Yantra is, in fact, the central object of worship in at least one
important Indian cult, but beyond its specific context, the Sri Yantra embodies
profound philosophical understandings, which make it a powerful source of
inspiration. Each design element of the Sri Yantra has special philosophical
significance. The dot in the very center is representative of the Source of the universe;
this dot, or bindu, is the "singularity" from which all manifest reality emerges. From
one point of view, the design is representative of the evolution of the universe itself
from its mysterious beginnings, charting its many levels.

The Sri Yantra in its central portion contains nine triangles. Four of them point
upward and represent the unmanifest power of the universe; all that is beyond our
quotidian sense perceptions. They are thought of as being masculine and represent
the masculine aspect of divinity. The five downward-pointing triangles represent the
divine feminine and the manifest aspects of the world.Because the Sri Yantra forms a
unity, the divine masculine and divine feminine in erotic embrace, as it were (this is
exactly how the Indian tradition understands them!), we must realize that the
transcendent Reality, whether we call it God, Goddess, or Perfect Emptiness (as in
Mahayana Buddhism), is always intimately intertwined in everything that we see. God
or Goddess is not a sacred beyond, but the very fiber and life of our existence here.
Haridas Chaudhuri chose this symbol when he founded the Institute because it is a
visual representation of his Integral philosophy.

This world is not to be seen as separate from the transcendent Truth, but as an
expression of that Truth in phenomenal form. What is sacred then, is not merely what
is beyond our perception, but everything that is present here in this world, all our
actions, our emotions, our thoughts. The notion of the integration of body, mind and
spirit are symbolized and indicated by the Sri Yantra, making it a perfect visual
representation of the Institute's vision.It should be mentioned that from another point
of view the Sri Yantra is understood to be the Mother of the Universe Herself, the
incarnate Goddess Who both embodies and transcends time. In a world where the
male divinity, and all that is male has had primacy for a very long time, this design
can be seen as the very embodiment of a challenge to patriarchy and to the
masculinist world we live in.

105
Sri Yantra (pronounced Shri Yantra) is a sacred diagram of Tantric Hinduism. Its symbolismas explained
in Zimmer [18,20]. It consists of three concentric parts:

1. An inner figure of interpenetrating triangles. This figure, symmetric in its vertical centr al axis,
contains both upward-pointing triangles (vahni), symbolizing the male element (“Purusha”, the
Cosmic Person), and downward-pointing triangles (sakti # ), symbolizing the female aspect
(“Prakr. iti”, i.e. energy) of divinity. There are 4 male triangles, and 5 female ones. Their inter-
penetration symbolizes the complementarity of the opposite principles in creating the illusion of
duality through ignorance, whereas the general symmetry and balance of the whole 2gure
symbolizes the more profound reality of Unity of God through its various unfoldings.
H. Zimmer, Kunsform und Yoga im indischen Kultbild, Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, Berlin, 1926. H. Zimmer, (ed. by J. Campbel)
Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization, Bollingen Series,

2. Two concentric rings, holding a regular lotus (padma) design. The inner pattern bears 8 lotus
petals, the outer one 16. These patterns symbolize the sanctity of the inner diagram, used as
instrument (yantra) in yoga meditation.

3. A triple Greek-like key-pattern, the bhupura symbolizes the ground-plan of a temple with 4
square openings, in the 4 directions of space. This sanctuary is the seat of the chosen deity,
representing one’s Higher Self.

The Sri Yantra diagram is a sacred symbol of Tantric Hinduism, and it is traditionally used in yoga
meditation exercises.

Sr ! Yantra Geometry Gerard Huet INRIA-Rocquencourt, B.P. 105, 78153 Le Chesnay Cedex, France. Theoretical Computer
Science 281 (2002) 609 – 628

Solving the Sri Yantra

106
The Quest for the Optimal Configuration

If you have ever attempted to draw this figure you already know that it is a lot more
difficult to draw than you might have thought at first. The reason for this is mainly
because the triangles are interconnected. If you move one, you need to move all the
others so that they will intersect properly. With enough time or with the aid of
computers and mathematics it is possible to draw a figure where the intersections
match perfectly.

But it turns out that this is not enough to fully define the figure. This criteria in itself
is not enough to produce a unique figure. This is the reason why there are so many
different versions of the Sri Yantra in circulation.

Surprisingly the methods that we have found in the Indian literature are far from
satisfactory. They often lead to very imprecise and crude figures. They only provide a
rough idea of what the figure should look like. Contemporary methods can lead to
more precise figures but they are all slightly or greatly different.

This begs the question: what is the proper configuration of the Sri Yantra? The goal of
this article is to investigate the geometry of the Sri Yantra and see if we can find out
more about this fascinating sacred figure. Join us on the quest for the optimal Sri
Yantra.

Questions that will be answered in this article:

 What is the Sri Yantra?

 Why is it so difficult to draw?
 Why are there so many different versions?
 What are the characteristics that define an optimal figure?
 What is a Meru (pyramidal) Sri Yantra?
 What is a Kurma (spherical) Sri Yantra?
 How can I get an optimal Sri Yantra figure?

Nine Triangles in a Circle

Four Five Centr Compl

triangl triang al ete Sri
es les figure Yantr

107
 pointi
pointi
ng a
ng up.
down
Figure 1

The Sri Yantra is composed of a central figure that is surrounded by two circular rows
of petals and then by a rectangular enclosure called the bhupura. In this study we will
be focusing mainly on the central figure which is composed of nine overlapping
triangles and a bindu point. Four of the triangles point up, the other five point down.
In the most popular configuration the two biggest triangles (green triangles in figure 1)
touch the outer circle on all three points. In some other versions there are either one
or two more triangles that touch the outer circle (See figure 5).

Interconnections

Figure 2
Triple intersections. Figure 3 False Sri Yantra

As with everything else there is a tendency When looking at the figure we notice that
there is a high degree of interconnectedness between the nine triangles. This the main
reason why it is so difficult to draw. This means that every triangle is connected to one
or more of the other triangles via common points. Changing the location of one of the
triangle usually requires changing the size and position of many other triangles.

Figure 2 shows where the triple intersection points are located. These are the points
that lock together the triangles. You can't move one without also moving the others.

108
Notice also that the two biggest triangles are touching the outside circle on three
points and that the apex of every triangle is connected to the base of another triangle.

to simplify and/or distort things , so that over time knowledge gets eroded. In the case
of the Sri Yantra this has led to what some call the "false Sri Yantra". It's a version
that is so far from the original figure that it is missing some of the most basic
characteristic of a Sri Yantra. An example of such a false Sri Yantra is shown in figure
3. Here we see that the apex of most triangle is not connected with the base of another
triangle as indicated by the red arrows. This reduces greatly the difficulty of drawing
the figure and leads to something that looks like a Sri Yantra but isn't.

The First Key: Concurrency

Figure 4 Errors in the drawing will lead to extraneous secondary triangles.

The obvious challenge when drawing a Sri Yantra is to achieve near perfect
concurrency. Meaning that all the triple intersection meet at the same point rather
than crisscrossing.

Figure 4 shows a detail of a Sri Yantra with the error circled in red. The lines should
intersect at the same point but instead they crisscross each other and form an
extraneous triangle. Using the right sequence to draw the Sri Yantra will ensure that
there will be errors only in two of the triple intersections.

Very few Sri Yantras achieve perfect concurrency. Mathematically speaking it is not
possible. But practically speaking a satisfactory level of precision can be achieved. It is
difficult to achieve this when doing the drawing by hand but not impossible. Often the
lines are made thicker to hide the errors at the intersections. A good level of accuracy
can be achieved with a pencil and ruler and a lot of patience. A better accuracy can be
achieved with a drawing program such as AutoCAD or Visio. The greatest amount of
accuracy will be achieved by using a mathematical program such as Mathematica to
compute the figure.

The One and the Many

109
Figure 5
Three different
configurations of the Sri
Yantra.

It would seem at this point that all one needs to do is to make sure that the lines
match precisely at the triple intersections (concurrency) and our job is done. Not so!

Why are there so many different versions of the Sri Yantra out there? Figure 5 shows a
few examples of Sri Yantras. In these examples the differences are obvious. The
differences are usually more subtle and require closer examination. Like snow flakes
there seems to be an infinite number of different Sri Yantras. Why is that? How can
that be? Isn't there a precise and complete method that would tell us how this famous
sacred figure should be drawn? If there is one we haven't found it yet.

The reason is simple. The criteria of concurrency (precise intersections) is not enough

to fully define the Sri Yantra. Over time people have assumed that being able to
produce a figure where the lines meet precisely at the intersections will produce a
unique figure. This has lead to the current multiplicity of figures available.

Let us take the simple example of drawing a triangle. If the only criteria required is
that the figure must have three sides then you can draw a infinite number of different
triangles with three sides. If on the other hand you are asked to draw a triangle where
the sides are of equal length then there is only one way to draw such a triangle (not
taking size into account).

The Sri Yantra is a geometry with five degrees of freedom, which means that up to five
different criterion can be used to define it. This is why we have to decide on the
location of five lines when drawing the figure. Five degrees of freedom is not a lot
considering that there is a total of nine triangles. This is because of the high degree of
interconnectedness between the triangles. This effectively limits the possibilities and
variations that can be achieved.

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The Second Key: Concentricity

Figure 6
Concentricity: the center of the innermost
triangle coincide with the center of the
outer circle.

Lets now take a look at the bindu point; the small point located in the central triangle.
It should be located in the center of the innermost triangle. This can be achieved
precisely by placing the bindu at the center of a circle that fits inside this triangle (see
figure 9). This is known in mathematics as the incenter of a triangle.

To achieve a perfectly centered figure however, the bindu should also be located at the
center of the outer circle. This is illustrated in figure 6. The red cross shows where the
center of the outer circle is located. The small red circle shows where the center of the
innermost triangle is. As we can see in this figure they coincide. This is not the case
for most Sri Yantras.

Figure 7

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Sri Yantra that doesn't meet the
concentricity criteria.

Figure 7 shows an example of a Sri Yantra where the center of the innermost triangle
doesn't match perfectly with the center of the outer circle. The green dot (center of the
innermost triangle) is not aligned with the center of the red cross (center of the outer
circle).

The Third Key: Equilateral Inner Triangle

Figure 8
R. Buckminster Fuller stands in front of
his geodesic dome.

The equilateral triangle is a perfect and minimal structure. It is the simplest, strongest
and most fundamental structure in geometry and computer graphics. It has the
highest degree of tensegrity for a minimum amount of structural elements. That is
why it is so prevalent in the structural designs created by Buckminster Fuller. This is
also why the geodesic dome, a spherical structure composed of small triangles is the
only man-made structure that becomes proportionally stronger as it increases in size.

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Figure 9
Equilateral triangle as the expression of Rishi, Devata, Chanda.

The Sri Yantra symbolizes, among other things the unfoldment of creation. The bindu
represents the unmanifest, the silent state. The next level in the expression of the
Universe is represented by the innermost triangle. This level represents the trinity of
rishi, devata, chanda, or the observer, the process of observation and the object being
observed. At this point the symmetry of creation is still intact and will be broken when
it reaches the next level which represent the grosser aspects of the relative.

This reflects the unfoldment from unity to trinity as expounded in the Vedic literature.
According to the Veda the Universe becomes manifest when unbounded awareness
becomes aware of itself. The spark of self awareness ignites creation. At this point
Unity divides into the trinity of rishi (the observer), devata (process of knowing) and
chanda (the object of perception). The same idea is also found in the bible as the
principle of the holy trinity.

The central triangle is the central lens of the Sri Yantra. If as some suggest, this
pattern is capable of emitting a significant amount of subtle energy, the importance of
having a well balanced and centered figure becomes obvious.

For these reasons we believe that the central triangle should be equilateral in an
optimal Sri Yantra configuration. For this to happen the highest down pointing
primary triangle must have an angle of 60 degrees (see figure 9 and 11).

Center of Mass

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Figure 10
Left: Figure with Concurrency criteria only. Center: Figure with
Concurrency and concentricity. Right: Figure with Concurrency,
concentricity and equilateral central triangle.

Now lets see if we can find ways to confirm the idea that we are getting closer to a
perfectly balanced configuration. Another measure of overall balance of a structure is
the center of mass. This is the point in the geometry where it would balance if it was a
solid object.

Figure 10 shows a detail view of the central triangle of three different Sri Yantras. The
left figure shows a configuration where only concurrency is achieved. In this case the
bindu (red dot), the center of the outer circle (green dot) and the center of mass (blue
dot) are not aligned.

The central figure shows a Sri Yantra that achieves concurrency and concentricity. As
a result the bindu (red) and the center of the outer circle (green) overlap nicely. The
center of mass still doesn't overlap however.

On the right we see that for a figure drawn with the three criterion that we have
suggested (concurrency, concentricity and equilateral central triangle), the three
centers overlap and we have a perfectly centered and balanced figure.

The Sri Yantra from Sringeri Temple

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Figure 11
Sri Yantra from Sringeri
temple.

The Sringeri temple in India claims to have the oldest Sri Yantra. This temple is one of
the four pillars founded by none other than Shankara during the first millennium.
Assuming that older Sri Yantras are closer to the original configuration lets see how
this Sri Yantra compares to our optimal version. Obviously it is not possible to be
certain that it is the oldest Sri Yantra on Earth but it is certainly older than most of
the versions available. The shape of the petals and the bhupura are good indicators
that it is a old Sri Yantra configuration.

Figure 11 shows an alleged picture of this Sri Yantra and a diagram that was drawn
from the picture. Taking into account the distortions caused by the camera and
printing we can see that the figure has many of the same characteristics as our
optimal figure. The bindu is well centered and more importantly the centermost
triangle has an angle very close to 60 degrees.

The Three Flavors of the Sri Yantra

Plane form Pyramidal form (Meru) Spherical form (Kurma)

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Since the Sri Yantra is based on triangles it is very appropriate that there are
currently three main ways to represent this figure. The first and probably the most
common is the plane form, which is what we have been looking at so far. More
pictures of the plane form can be seen here.

The second is the pyramidal form called Meru in India. Mount Meru is a mythical

mountain. So named because of the mountain shape of the figure. More pictures of
pyramidal Sri Yantras can be seen here.

The third and rarest form is the spherical form or Kurma. Kurma was the second
incarnation of Vishnu, the turtle incarnation. This refers to the similarity between this
form and the shell of a turtle. It is interesting to note that there seems to be some
confusion with the use of these two terms. The pyramidal form is often wrongly
referred to as Kurma.
https://www.sriyantraresearch.com/Optimal/optimal_sri_yantra.htm

The uniqueness of God’s creation is reflected in different fields of life by the great
masters throughout the ages that have born with the formation of the universe, from
the big bang, till times still to come. Special ratio that can be used to describe the
proportions of everything from nature’s smallest building blocks, such as atoms, to the
most advanced patterns in the universe, such as unimaginably large celestial bodies.

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One of the key evidences presented for creation is the recurring appearance of the
Divine proportion, or golden section, throughout the design of the human body and
other life forms. In an article PROPORTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE, Ar. Minakshi
Rajput Singh International Journal of Research –GRANTHAALAYAH, Vol.6 (Iss.3):
March, 2018 has made an attempt to relate Sri yantra and golden ratio and the
various forms that seem to exemplify in the plan and elevation of the Indian temple.
The yantra which is a complex geometry has been perfected to be used for the
development of temple forms of different eras. She finds that there is a relation between
Golden Ratio and Sri yantra and using Sri yantra as a device to evolve the plan and elevation has
been studied and found to be true in the temple taken for study purpose. The construction of Hindu
temples has always been a subject of study through various ancient yantras, mandalas, that needs
to be rediscovered and documented. A new perspective into the relation between the Sri yantra, its
significance and role in design of Indian temple would create a wide scope of research by taking
examples of temples of different era.

MANDIRS BUILT WITH SRICHAKRA DESIGN

Dhyani Mandir Temple - Nikora Gujarat India

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Devi Puram Temple - Anakapalle, Andhra Pradesh, India/ Devi Puram Temple - Anakapalle,
Andhra Pradesh, India

Mahe Meru Temple - Adudhurai Thanjavur

Venkateswara Temple - Madnapalle Andhra Pradesh India

Yantra Mandir - Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh India      

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Perfect geometry-Chitra Ramaswamy

Huge faces of goddesses and finely sculpted figurines of yoginis greet visitors at the
entrance.  
An interface of interlocking triangles, snake hoods and more… a look at the
sprawling Sri Yantra Maha Meru Temple, Amarkantak, by Chitra Ramaswamy
It is a vast palette of blue, green and brown – in that order. The clear and azure
blue sky appears punctuated by greens in enchanting hues as they spike
heavenwards from atop the mountain ranges they inhabit. A tier below the
emerald vegetation, it is all a monochrome in brown, a stupendous structure
rising out of a basin-like valley.
The Maha Meru Sri Yantra Temple is encircled by forest on two sides, the ancient
and sacred Batte Krishna Kund, a pond on its western side, and a water reservoir
to its north. The temple is constructed in the middle of the Maikal, Satpuda and
Vindhyachal range of mountains, 3500 ft. above sea level in Amarkantak, Madhya
Pradesh. Amarkantak enjoys the distinction of being the source of three rivers –
the Juhila, the Sonbhadra and the Narmada. The borderline dividing north and
south India also passes through this spot.
The entrance to the sprawling temple precincts is through an impressive,
sculpturally rich towering gate, the four sides of which are crowned with the
faces of goddesses Saraswati, Kali, Bhuvaneshwari and Lakshmi.
The lower segments of these sides are embellished with finely sculpted
figurines of the 64 yoginis associated with the Tantrik cult, 16 on each side. In
addition, Ganesh and Kartik are also featured on one of the sides.

Elevated platform
The temple is constructed on an elevated square platform measuring 90,000
sq.ft. and is structured in the form of a mandal of uniform length, breadth
and height, each measuring 52 feet. The temple, we are told, has been built
on the tenets of temple architecture as laid down by sage Agasthya.
The design, layout and plan of the temple adhere to ancient traditional
knowledge and methods and are aligned with astrological aspects. The
construction is in sync with stellar and planetary movements as per tantrik
calendar. In keeping with this style of architecture, the Padambandh or
foundation of the temple gives solid protection to the edifice. The next stage,
the Sarpbandh, features a pair of sculpted sarps or serpents with tails
entwined in each other.
The serpents rise from the base of the outer walls of the temple and run
through its perimeter in a circumambulatory mode till they appear with their
hoods raised, at the entrance to the temple.
Above the Devbandh, where one would normally see the tower or shikhar, is
the Maha Meru Sri Yantra. Images of Goddess Maha Tripura Sundari with her
consorts are sculpted on all its four sides.
Three-dimensional projection
The Maha Meru temple is the three-dimensional projection of the two-
dimensional Sri Yantra or Sri Chakra which forms the core of Sri Vidya
worship in Hinduism.
The temple with its complicated architectural pattern that requires perfect
mathematical calculations and accurately proportioned dimensions, is

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perhaps the first of its kind to be built anywhere in the world. It is formed by
nine interlocking isosceles triangles of varying dimensions that surround and
radiate from a focal or central point that is referred to as the bindu.
The triangles are so interfaced as to form forty three smaller triangles in a
maze that symbolises the cosmos with its multitude of creations. The triangles
themselves are inscribed by two rows of lotus petals, eight and sixteen,
respectively, and an earth square, symbolic of a temple with four doors.
Each of the levels of the Sri Chakra, also known as the nava chakra for its
nine levels, is associated with a yogini, a mudra and a specific form of the
principal deity Tripura Sundari who is worshipped by followers of the Sri
Chakra.
The sanctum sanctorum has a 62-inch-tall idol of the Divine Mother made of
ashtadhatu, an alloy of eight metals.

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121
Dance of time
In keeping with the principles of Vaastu Shastra, Kaal Nritya or ‘the dance of
time’ is portrayed on the external walls of the temple. On the four edges on top
are four paws of a powerful lion, symbolising actions performed. Stuck in its
paws are spherical balls, below which are depicted the poisonous serpents,
symbolic of individuals trapped in the cycle of birth and death.
While construction of the main temple is complete, work is still in progress as
several smaller shrines are slated to be added over a period of time.

The Maha Meru Shree Yantra Temple, Amarkantak, MadhyaPradesh. The temple is
encircled by forest on two sides, the ancient and sacred Batte #Krishna Kund, a pond
on its western side, and a water reservoir to its north.

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SriYantra temple was constructed by Acharya Mandaleshwar of the Attal Akhada Sri
Swami Shukdevanadji in Amarkantak. The whole temple is in the shape of a colossal
Sri-Yantra and is a geometric representation of the Primal Force, Maha Shakti.

It is constructed in the middle of the Maikal, Satpuda and Vindhyachal range of

mountains, 3500 ft. above sea level in Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh. Amarkantak
enjoys the distinction of being the source of three Rivers Juhila, Sonbhadra and
Narmada.
The borderline dividing north & south India also passes thro' this spot. Entrance to
the sprawling temple precincts is thro' an impressive, sculpturally rich towering gate,
the 4 sides of which are crowned with the faces of goddesses Saraswati, Kali,
Bhuvaneshwari & Lakshmi
The lower segments of these sides are embellished with finely sculpted figurines of the
64 Yoginis associated with the Tantrik cult, 16 on each side. In addition, Ganesh &
Muruga are also featured on one of the sides.
The temple is constructed on an elevated square platform measuring 90,000 sq.ft & is
structured in the form of a mandal of uniform length, breadth & height, each
measuring 52 ft. The temple has been built on the tenets of temple architecture as laid
down by sage Agasthya.

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Devi reigns supreme inside Sri Chakra,Nandini Ramani, 2019
Muthuswami Dikshitar captures the glory of Devi in his Navavarana Kritis
Parasakti is worshipped in her three divine facets as Durga (the vanquisher of
obstacles), Lakshmi (giver of prosperity), and Saraswati (giver of knowledge)
throughout Bharatavarsha during Navaratri. From time immemorial, Vedic
chants, hymns and songs of saints and seers have been an integral part of the
myriad modes of Devi worship; more so, during the auspicious Navaratri
celebration to propitiate Sakti, hailed as Akhilandakoti Brahmanda Nayika.
Sri Muthuswami Dikshitar occupies a unique place in the realm of Devi worship
and Sri Vidya Cult. His scholarly and highly spiritual compositions on Goddess
Kamalamba enshrined in the Tiruvarur temple as Gnana Sakti, the giver of high
intellect, are a unique set describing Her as the primordial Power seated in Yogic
posture presiding over the form and content of the ever-auspicious Sri Chakra.

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125
YANTRA / YANTRA PROPERTIES

As per Vedic texts the "Sri

Yantra" is one of the most powerful and auspicious amongst all different Yantra as it
represents energies of all Gods and Goddesses and basically is a representation of
your entire Life which is a Play of Goddess Lalita
When it comes to Vastu, you always hear about mystic instruments such as Yantra
and Pyramids that are used to correct the faults in design. Traditionally Yantra find
seat in temples near the deity idols or are placed in altars or near entrances of homes.
In South India, Yantra are drawn with Rangoli designs at entrances of homes during
religious festivals. The famous Tirupathi temple is in the shape of a Shree Yantra and
many attribute its power and fame to this geometry. But what does Yantra mean? How
do they work? Are they really beneficial? Let’s get into the bottom and find out the core
meaning.

A Yantra also referred as Mandala is a sacred figure or symbol characterized by simple

geometric forms arranged in a symmetric design. These are mystical religion based
diagrams which have an ultimate reality and are of strong astronomical esthetics. It
carries the signification of a mantra or process. It can be etched on a plain surface or
made in a three dimensional form or used as an amulet or charm. Adi
Sankaracharya's Saundarya Lahiri is an authoritative work on Yantra. The literal
meaning of Yantra is: "to control, curb, bind or influence".They can also be considered
as diagrammatic representations of different Mantras and thus helps resonate positive
energies disperse negative energies and help individual elevate spiritually.

As per ancient Vedic texts there are different kinds of Yantra meant for different
purposes. Yantra geometries are three dimensional in nature but are represented as
two dimensional when etched or drawn. Different types of Yantra include Planetary
Yantra, Numerological Yantra, Yantra for different Gods and Goddesses and others.
Yantra represent a Physical force or a creative energy. Yantra in Sanskrit means the
chant that awakens energy when you place it anywhere in the environment around
you. This energy is said to cleanse the environment and electrify the atmosphere with
positivity.
.

Subtle Energy: If you see any divine object such as OM, Swastika or Trident
(Hinduism), Cross (Christianity), Moon and Crescent (Islam), they have a distinct

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shape and this emits a specific frequency and cosmic energy pattern. One can draw a
yantra on paper, wood, gemstone, metal, or earth, or can give it a three-dimensional
shape. It would attract cosmic energies for Yantra science is based on the sacred Vedic
geometries representing scriptural mantras.

Powers of Mantras: A Yantra is composed of geometrical shapes generating a subtle

range of cosmic force matching the invoked energy. When you chant a Vedic mantra,
the layers of energy in the microcosm vibrate on the same wavelength with the
corresponding energy current in the macrocosm. Thus the energy of the Yantra and
Mantra comes from the creation as a whole (Macrocosm).
 
WHAT IS YANTRA
A Yantra is a divine figurine which is also commonly referred to as the‘Mandala’ in
Sanskrit. It is a visual representation of the specific mantra and is a sacred
instrument which comprises of symbols and geometric forms which are aligned in a
design that is symmetric in nature. The driving force of a Yantra is the divine mantra
through which it is born. Most of the Yantras are ruled by a specific deity, planets or
are ruled by the mystical energies that are designed for a specific purpose. A Yantra in
lay man’s language can be described as a Holy object which holds the supreme
energies of the Gods, which when energised and prayed upon daily can help to achieve
all the heart’s desire.

The literal meaning of the word ‘Yantra’ means "to control, curb, bind or influence".
Yantras are powerful representations of the cosmic energies and the associated
mantras in diagrammatic forms. Praying over a Yantras by chanting the respective
mantra can resonate positive energies and destroy negative energies and can help an
individual to elevate spiritually.

Yantras work on the divine vibrations of the mantras and helps to connect to the
energies of the divine through this process. Yantras can also be described as diagrams
which are based on religion and which are symbolic of ‘ultimate reality’. They canalso
be defined as an object holding divine astronomical powers and aesthetics.

Sage AdiSankaracharya is one of prominent names that is remembered as he is one of

the scholars whose literary work titled ‘SaundaryaLahiri’ is a masterpiece that talks
about yantras.
Yantras are made of which objects
Yantras can be etched on wood, metal or printed on cloth or can be made in three
dimensional forms or can be made in the form of an amulet or charm that one can
wear or keep with oneself on an everyday basis. One of the most astonishing facts
about the Yantras which are carved on different metal sheets hold special significance
as each metal sheet has a different mantra for the Yantras carved or etched on it.
What is the Properties of Yantra
There are various types of Yantras and each Yantra has a deity, a celestial body or a
specific energy associated to it. A Yantra is a divine symbolic visual representation of
the mantra which is a source of Supreme energy. A Yantra works on the vibrations
created by the resonance of the mantras chanted and magnifies the force of energy to
manifest it into reality. It can be referred to as the magnetic field that when energised
helps one attain union with the divine.

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The divine cosmic rays that are emitted by the cosmic bodies are attracted by the
yantras. The Yantra then work in union with the divine energies and nullify the
negative energies the surroundings hold and transform them into positive energies.
Once the energies become positive, it spreads them in the atmosphere where it is
installed.

The properties of the Yantra combines with the supreme energies of the divine and
amplifies the thought process through mantra signification.
ANALOGY OF A YANTRA
When you look at a Yantra, you will notice the certain symbols making up the entire
Yantra. These symbols include bindu (dot), trikona (triangle), chakra (circle), shatkona
(six-pointed star) (bhupura (square) and Padma (divine lotus)

All the Yantras are made up of signs are symbols which hold a deep meaning. The
symbols that one would witness while taking a closer look at the Yantras are as
follows

This symbol is known as a ‘Bindu’ meaning ‘Dot’. In the world of Yantras, the
dot is known as ‘Guru GyanBindu’ It indicates the energy and its extreme
concentration at the centre. It is also called the centre of cosmic radiation. Bounded
by different surfaces such as a triangle, a hexagon, a circle, the bindu represents the
union with the force or creative energy ruling the yantra.
 

This symbol is known as ‘Trikona’ meaning ‘Triangle’. In the world of

Yantras, the Trikonas are referred to as the ‘Guru GyanTrikona’ It is the emblem of
Shakti, the absolute female energy of the Divine. It completes the creation or
manifestation of both, material as well as spiritual worlds. The triangle pointing down
characterizes the Yoni which is the source of all creations. Pointing upwards signifies
forceful spiritual desire, the transferal of one’s nature into the subtler sphere and the
Fire Element because Agni always burns upwards. A triangle pointing downwards
represents the Water Element for water flows down. Fire Element represents Shiva
and Water Element represents Shakti
 

This symbol is known as ‘Shatkona’ meaning ‘Hexagram’ in Greek and

‘Sexagram’ in Latin. This symbol displays two triangles which are interlocked and
inverted forming a star sign(six-pointed star). In the world of Yantras, the Shatkonas
are referred to as the ‘Guru GyanShatkona’ It is an archetypal amalgamation of two
triangles structured in all the Yantra. It characteristically signifies the divine
unification of Shiva (Male energy) and Shakti (Female energy) which is the cause of all
creation.
 

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 This symbol is known as ‘Chakra’ meaning ‘Circle’. In the world of Yantras, the
Chakra symbol is referred to as the ‘Guru GyanChakra’ It stands for rotation which is
central to the functioning of the macrocosmic progression. At the same time, the circle
signifies perfection and the peaceful creative void of the Vishudha chakra. In the series
of the five fundamental elements it represents the Air Element.
 

This symbol is known as ‘Bhupura’ meaning ‘Square’. In the world of Yantras,

the Bhupura symbol is referred to as the ‘Guru GyanBhupura’ it represents the Earth
Element that resides in the physical self. Yantra start with the dot and end with the
square. It implies the way the cosmos evolves. It begins with the subtle energies at the
centre, with granular at ether and then culminating in earth.
 

This symbol is known as ‘Padma’ meaning ‘Divine Lotus’. In the world of

Yantras, the Padma symbol isreferred to as the ‘Guru GyanPadma’ All the Vedic
scriptures as well as the scriptures of other faiths consider lotus to be the divine
emblem of purity that resides in the chakras. A lotus in Yantra represents the
unconditional force of the Supreme Absolute Truth. The lotus serves as a divine seat
for devas (gods). It also represents detachment. It grows in the mud but never touches
even a tinge of mud, representing detachment to the external forces (material world)
and maintaining the original nature which is pure and divine.
 
YANTRA: AN OBJECT OF MEDITATION

Yantra is one of the most powerful objects one can use to channelize focus on. It is a
Holy instrument which holds divine and supreme energies of the deities. Yantra is a
medium that helps one attain union with the God through the process of meditation
and channelizing your focus on the geometrical symbols present on the Yantra. Once
you start focusing all your attention on the centre of the Yantra it amplifies the pure,
supreme energy of the divine deity and through the power of resonance (mantra
chanting) it connects you to the energy present in the macrocosm and manifests your
heart’s desires.
 

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 How do Yantra Work?

A Yantra as stated above is the symbolic representation of the mantra. Yantras work
on the resonance of the powerful mantras. Once you start reciting a mantra by
concentrating on the centre of the Yantra with complete devotion it connects you with
the divine energies and helps to manifest your thoughts.Yantrasenchances the
concentration power and thus help in increasing the intensity of the prayers which in
turn makes the urge to fulfil our wants more strong and influential.

The powers of a Yantra thrive on the reverberation of cosmic energies. Yantra is a

mystical object. Every Yantra has a ruling deity and the energies of this deity are
stored in the Yantra through the powerful mantra. So when one focuses on the Yantra
with closed eyes and chants the mantra with complete devotion and purity, the
thoughts and wishes which the devotee wants are amplified and the Yantra paves way
by connecting the divine vibrations to the worldly desires one prays for and then this
thought is manifested.

Yantra work in following ways

 In order to achieve your dreams you can install a Yantra and meditate on the
yantra to achieve resonance with the divine energy ruling the yantra
 In order to gain success and progress in career you can install it on your office
desk. This creates a magnitude of force and helps to turn your desires into reality
 You can install a yantra in the puja altar or hang it on a wall near the entrance
of your house or office. This helps in inviting positivity and destroying negative
energies. It also helps to manifest what you pray for
 You can install the Yantra in your vehicle to be safe from accidents
 You can also wear the Yantras which are available in the form of jewellery such
as a pendant, ring, bracelet or an amulet.
 You can also keep the Yantra in your purse or wallet. This creates a shield of
protection around you and keeps all negativity at bay
 Make sure you are not placing the yantra in a leather purse or wallet
 Yantra are the ultimate answer for establishing a vibration of large amplitude or
resonance with the benefic energies of the cosmos. Thus the vibrations generated get
us in contact with highly elevated energies & entities which help us attain spiritual
course of conduct in our daily lives & enhance the spirituality within.
 

TYPES OF YANTRA

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 There are four basic variations:
 Yantra of deities- Yantra of Ganesh, Shiva, Hanuman, Durga, Laxmi and the
like. The most significant being the Shakta Yantra (these are usually forms of the
Great Mother or the Mahavidyas- 'Sources of supreme knowledge').
 Yantra with Astrological significance (these are used to harness the energies
of the nine planets)- Navagraha Yantra, Kalsurpa Yantra, Nakshatra Yantra and the
like.
 Architectural Yantra (these are used for the ground plans of lands)- Vastu
Yantra, Bhumi Yantra and the like.
 Numerical Yantra (comprising select combinations of numbers which serve as
talismans)- Kuber yantra, Rog Nivaran yantra, Beesa Yantra and the like.
 Purposeful Yantra: Those meant for a certain purpose like Lagna yog (for early
marriage), Santan gopal (for begetting a child), Vashikaran (for attraction).
 

Yantra for success in personal and professional life:

Yantra, besides fulfilling their fundamental purpose, helps prosper in career along
with good health, wealth, happiness and success. These are etched in metals like
Silver, Gold, Copper and Bhojpatra which are cheaper than gemstones and can be as
effective as gems. They are the doorway to the cosmic universe. Maha Meru, or Sri
Meru Chakra is the supreme of all Yantra. The transcendent geometry of the Sri
Chakra is the genomic code of the Cosmic Space that redirects its positive vibrations
to the place it is installed.
 
THE EFFECT OF YANTRA

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 One must always pay attention to the importance of placing correctly energized Yantra
in the appropriate direction. They are best placed in the North East part of the
dwelling as it is confluence of positive energies coming from the geometric lines from
North and the rising sun in the East. However if North East part is not convenient,
then it is best to place them closer to you on your desk or on wall or near entrance
door. Some Yantra offer results instantly if the karmic potential is ripe. Some offer
results gradually over a long period of time. Yantra for wealth and affluence require
patience. For instance, Kuber Yantra works better after the first year. Yantra are also
exceedingly helpful for health and averting accidents and mishaps.

 SOME OF THE POPULAR YANTRA AND THEIR USES

 Shree Yantra for name, fame, wordly pleasures, prosperity and salvation
 Mahalakshmi Yantra for money, food grains, for perfection, attainment of high
goals
 Kuber Yantra for riches and preserving acquired money
 Ganesh Laxmi Business Yantra / Vyapaar Vridhi Yantra for progress in
business and improvements in slow or quiet business
 Ganesh Yantra to begin pious and fortune giving deeds, attaining prosperity
and accomplishment of goals
 Mahamrityunjaya Yantra for improving health, preventing disease and
protection from untimely death
 Surya Yantra for worshipping the Sun, attaining glory, inner radiance and
worldly pursuits
 Nav Graha Yantra for pacifying the nine planets, attaining peace and pleasure
 Hanuman Yantra to empower learning, increase wisdom and devotion to God
 Durga Yantra for worshipping Goddess Durga to remove pain and suffering
 Bagalamukhi Yantra to destroy enemies, success in law-suits and achievement
in sports competitions
 Mahakali Yantra for worshipping Shakti, Goddess Mahakali to attain desired
goals
 Batuk Bhairav Yantra to save from untimely death
 Durga Bisa Yantra to save from the evil eye, banish hindrance from evil spirits
and achieve both progress and success in all realms
 Saraswati Yantra for improvements in learning, wisdom, grace and talents in
the education & arts
 Gayatri Yantra for purifying the mind and ensuring good progress in life

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 Vashikaran Yantra to attract the person you desire and bring him or her under
your influence
 Santan Gopal Yantra to beget a child
 Mahasudarshan Yantra to get the grace of Lord Vishnu
 Ram Raksha Yantra for worshipping Lord Ram and succeeding in aspirations
 Kaal Sarp Yantra to negate the effect of Kaal Sarp Yoga and removing evil
effects of the nine planets
 Bhuvaneshwari Yantra for gaining mesmerizing personality that draws all
people towards him
 Dhumavati Yantra for all round success and spiritual upliftment
 Kamla Devi Yantra for elevation of the soul through both spiritual and worldly
goals
 Mangal Yantra to negate the malefic effects of planet Mars and for luck in
business & health
 Matangi Yantra for the attainment of great powers, power of speech and
happiness in family life
 Rahu Yantra to negate the malefic effects of planet Rahu
 Shani Yantra to propitiate an afflicted Shani and achieve Rajayog
 Shiva Yantra to free the fear of death, grave dangers, fatal diseases and make
courageous and healthy
 Tara Yantra for wealth and prosperity in life
 Guru Yantra for strengthening a weak Jupiter and get blessings in prosperity,
power, rank, authority, abundance
 Shukra Yantra to negate the malefic effects of planet Venus and gain respect,
love of opposite sex and peace of mind
 Ketu Yantra to negate the malefic effects of planet Ketu and gain all round
success
 Chandra Yantra to negate the malefic effects of planet Moon and gain respect,
friendship and create contacts with opposite sex in harmonious way
 Buddh Yantra to appease the planet Mercury or Buddh
 Manokamna Yantra changes one's luck for the better, brings about desirable
outcomes and makes manifest one's deepest desires
 Sarva Siddhi Yantra most powerful yantra set comprising of the qualities of
nine exclusive Yantra: Ganesh, Mahalaxmi, Saraswati, Durga Bisa, Shree Yantra,
Durga, Mahamrityunjay, Batuk Bhairv
 Vahan Durghatna Yantra for protection from accidents, injury, or other
mishaps, especially those related to vehicles
 Rog Nivaran Yantra to free the wearer from any fatal diseases and make him
courageous and healthy
 Kamakshi Yantra prosperity, knowledge, fame and good progeny expeditiously
in abundance
 Katyayani Yantra for success in love with auspiciousness and fruitful marriage
 Lakshminarayan Yantra invokes the blessings of Lord Vishnu and Goddess
Lakshmi for complete happiness and success
 Swastik Yantra to prevent home from evil eyes
 Vaastu Yantra to remove Griha Dosha, Dik Dosha and negative energies
Benefits of different types of energized Yantra
 Helps you to get rid of insufficiency,
 Helps to win over competitors,
 Nullifies resentments

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 Wards off malefic of planets
 Yantras help in attractingpositive energies, prosperity, abundance and most of
all, good luck in all walks of life
 Offers a range of benefits and fills your house with radiant and beneficent
energies
 Fulfils wishes through power of manifestation
 Helps to attract prosperity and helps to safeguard the existing wealth
 Helps to repel the negative energies like intentions of malice, psychic spells or
plain jealousy
 Maintains peace and harmony among family members and colleagues

SIGNIFICANCE OF YANTRAS
Yantras are ancient holy tools which forms a bridge between the worshipper and
divinity. It is an object which can be used to elevate oneself spiritually, to enhance the
power of concentration. A Yantra helps to manifest desires through enhanced
meditation and mantra chanting.

The geometric figures and symbols of which the yantra is made up of are visual
representations of the respective mantra.Yantras are often mistakenly thought to be
symbols purely of the manifold aspects of the Mother Goddess. This is an
understandable error as most Yantras are indeed connected to the Goddess, the most
famous being the Sri Yantra, an abstract representation of the Mother (and Father
too!) as Cosmos.

The Sri Yantra is also commonly misunderstood to represent Lakshmi, the Goddess of
Fortune but it is more true to say the Sri Yantra includes and transcends every notion
of divinity ever conceived of the pantheons of deities relating to the Sanatana Dharma.

In actual practice a Yantra is a symbolic representation of aspects of divinity, usually

the Mother Goddess. It is an interlocking matrix of geometric figures, circles, triangles
and floral patterns that form fractal patterns of elegance and beauty. Though drawn in
two dimensions, a Yantra is supposed to represent a three dimensional sacred object.
Three-dimensional Yantras are now becoming increasingly common. Although the
Yantra is primarily a meditation tool both for serious spiritual seekers as well as
sculptors in the classical tradition, its Shakti is also available to new seekers with
sincere devotion and good intention. Before creating Yantric artefacts in wood, stone
or metal, they draw a Yantra that represents attributes of the god or goddess they
wish to sculpt, etch or create. Intense meditation upon it causes the fully formed
image to leap into the mind's eye with remarkable intensity with imprinting ability. In
some cases, traditional Yantra-makers do not need to make a sketch before creating
the image.

Yantras are also used for innumerable mundane purposes such as to enhance the
quality of one's life, attract prosperity, abundance, love, harmony, peace, enhance
learning, promote healing, relieve health problems, for career advancement, achieve
desired goals in projects, improve business and protection from negative forces.

HOW TO ENERGIZE YANTRA

We at Rudra Centre get Yantras energized with the help of qualified Brahmins or
priests who are well-versed in the Yantric sections of the Holy Vedas. The Vedas

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 especially Yajur Veda have instructions for various rituals. The priests follow the exact
purification and energizing procedures called the PranaPratishta given in the
Shastras.

For the PranPratishta, the Priest:

 Sits on an asana or mat facing east and keeps the Yantra to be

energized on a plate in front at the altar.
 Places spoonful of water on his head and chants:
ApavitrahPavitroVaSarvaVastanGatopiVa Yah
SmaretPundariKakshamSaBahyaBhyantarahShuchih
 May all things unholy become holy, may all lower tendencies
depart, just as soon as we transcend may within and without be purified!
 Om Sri GurubhyoNamaha
I bow down to my Guru
Om Sri GaneshayaNamaha
I bow down to Shree Ganesha
Om Sri Kula DevatabhyoNamaha
I bow to the family deity
Om Sri IshtaDevatabhyoNamaha
I bow to my personal deity
Om Sri Mata PitribhyamNamaha
I bow to my parents
Sips water after each mantra:
 Om Sri KeshavayaSwaha
Om Sri NarayanaSwaha
Om Sri MadhavayaSwaha
Pours one spoon of water on ground:
 Om Sri GovindayaNamaha
Om Sri GovindayaNamaha
Repeats and touch each after each next mantra, right eye, left eye, forehead: Om Apo
JyothiRasoAmtritam

 Brahma BhuBhuvahaSwarom
chants the pranpratishtha mantra while offering yellow rice to the Yantra:
 Om Um Kum Chum Dhum Tum pum yum sum soham
PranahaEhaGachaEhaTishtha Sum Yum Pum Tum Tum Chum Kum Um Om
Om Um Kum Chum Dhum Tum pum yum sum soham
PranaEhaSusthishaBhavatu Sum Yum Pum Tum Tum Chum Kum Um Om
Om Um Kum Chum Dhum Tum pum yum sum soham
PranaManasyachakshuJibhyamGhraniPani
Pachusthan
DasoIndriyaniSusthishaBhavantu
Sum Yum Pum Tum Tum Chum Kum Um Om
 The priest than offers flowers while reciting
DevayeNamahAvahanamSamarpayami
 Offers flowers for asana while reciting DevayeNamahAasanamSamarpayami
 Offers water to wash to the feet of lord while speaking
DevayePaydamSamarpayami

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 Bathes the Deity while reciting DevayeSnanamSamarpyami
 Offers Panchamrit with mantra DevayePanchaamritSnanamSamarpyami
 Recites the mantras DevayeVastramSamarpyami,
DevayeUpvastramSamarpyami, DevayeYaghopavitamSamarpyami For clothes
upvastar and YajyoPaveet,
 Applies Ghand/Scent while reciting DevayeGandhamSamarpyami
 Offers unbroken rice while reciting DevayeAkshtanSamarpyami
 Offers flowers and garland while reciting DevayePushyaniSamarpyami
 Lights up Dhoop and offers while reciting DevayeDhoopamSamarpyami
 Lights up a Deep and offers while reciting DevayeDeepamSamarpyami
 Offers fruits and coconut and lemon while reciting
DevayeNavdamfalamchaSamarpyami
 Offers Pan, Supari, Clove while reciting DevayeTambulamSamarpyami
 Offers Pradikshina while reciting DevayePradkshinayaSamarpyami and walks
around the Yantra three times while chanting YaniKan cha apainjanmantarkirtani
cha TanisarvaniNashyantuPradakshinPadePade
 Offers flowers and Namaskar with folded hands and chant a rosary of the beeja
mantra of the Yantra. Beeja mantras of each yantra are specific to the Yantra and
the Deity which they represent.
In this way, all the yantras are energized in accordance with the Yantric rites before
they are shipped to the buyers.
PUJA VIDHI OF YANTRA
You can pray on a Yantra which is installed in the puja altar of your house or office
daily and experience the positivity and fulfilment of desires that you pray for. Listed
below are the detailed steps of how you can offer daily prayers to the Yantras
 Wake up early in the morning and purify your body by taking bath.
 Wear clean cloths and start with a clear and positive mind frame
 Now be seated in the Padmasana pose where you place your each foot on
opposite thighs on a mat known as asana
 Make sure that you are seated facing East
 Now light adiya (oil or ghee lamp)
 Burn incense sticks
 Take mango tree leaves and sprinkle water placed in the kalash on yourself as
well as on the Yantra
 Once this is done wipe the Yantra with a soft cloth and place it back in the altar
 Now apply sandal paste or Kumkum in the Centre of the Yantra
 Offer fresh flower and a fresh fruit to the yantra by placing it in front of the
Yantra.
 Now channelize you attention in the centre of the yantra and stay quiet until
your mind is silenced and all the wavering thoughts are destroyed.
 Now chant the specific mantra of the Yantrafor at least nine times
 Now slowly close your eyes and visualize the Yantra and its centre point and fix
your attention with closed eyes on the central point of the Yantra while chanting the
divine respective mantra of the yantra.
 As you chant the mantra keep thinking about the wish you need the Lord to
fulfilland
 Now with all sincerity, ask God to grant you the desire of your life that you
wanted to be fulfilled in your own language.

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Ganesh Pandey, Danya: A huge Shree Yantra is being established from Ashta metal
in Kalyanika Devasthanam Ashram located in Kanara Dol under development block
Lamgada. This Sri Yantra weighing one and a half thousand kg has been made by
eminent sculptors in Kumkonam, Kerala. From 18 to 29 April, Shri Dhyan Peeth
Establishment and Pran Pratishtha ceremony will be organized by the great Pandits of
South and North India. In the program, famous story reader Murari Bapu will also
organize Ram Charit Manas Gyan Prava Yagya.

Shree Yantra of one and a half thousand kg of Ashta metal will be installed in
Kalyanika Ashram Dol

: Jagran

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Baba Kalyan Das ji, the founder of Kalyanika Devasthanam Ashram told that
preparations are going on for the program on a war footing. He said that the
construction of Shri Yantra Mandir and Sadhana Kendra was started in the ashram
from the year 2012, which has been completed this month. Baba Ji told that the Pran
Pratishtha of Shri Yantra and Shri Ganesh program ceremony of the temple will be
held from April 18 to April 29. He expressed the hope that there would be a dignified
presence of His Excellency the Vice President and the Governor in this grand
event. Kalyan Das ji told that the establishment of Shri Dhyan Peeth and Pran
Pratishtha program will be completed by the great Pandits of South and North
India. He informed that five hundred sadhaks would be able to meditate at a time in
the Dhyan Peeth. Many seekers from abroad are also participating in this event. 
Temple and meditation center built in six years
The Shri Yantra Mandir and Meditation Center started from the year 2012 were
completed in six years. Baba Kalyan Das told that the height of this temple is 126 feet
and the circumference is 150 feet. He said that despite the continuous construction
work being in progress, it took more than 6 years for the construction of the grand
temple. Seekers of these countries will participate
Sadhaks from America, Japan, Germany, Korea and Dubai are participating in this
Maha Yagya, which will run from April 18 to 29. Preparations are going on in full
swing to welcome the guests and seekers coming from the country and abroad.  In the
Kalyanika Veda Vedanta Sanskrit Vidyapeeth established in the ashram, Sanskrit
education is being given to the children till Inter. Along with Sanskrit, conduct,
rituals, English language and technology based education is also given to the children
so that the children can lead in every field.
- Baba Kalyan Das
The Maha Meru Shree Yantra Temple, Amarkantak, MadhyaPradesh. The temple is
encircled by forest on two sides, the ancient and sacred Batte #Krishna Kund, a pond
on its western side, and a water reservoir to its north.

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SriYantra temple was constructed by Acharya Mandaleshwar of the Attal Akhada Sri
Swami Shukdevanadji in Amarkantak. The whole temple is in the shape of a colossal
Sri-Yantra and is a geometric representation of the Primal Force, Maha Shakti.

It is constructed in the middle of the Maikal, Satpuda and Vindhyachal range of

mountains, 3500 ft. above sea level in Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh. Amarkantak
enjoys the distinction of being the source of three Rivers Juhila, Sonbhadra and
Narmada.
The borderline dividing north & south India also passes thro' this spot. Entrance to
the sprawling temple precincts is thro' an impressive, sculpturally rich towering gate,
the 4 sides of which are crowned with the faces of goddesses Saraswati, Kali,
Bhuvaneshwari & Lakshmi
The lower segments of these sides are embellished with finely sculpted figurines of the
64 Yoginis associated with the Tantrik cult, 16 on each side. In addition, Ganesh &
Muruga are also featured on one of the sides.
The temple is constructed on an elevated square platform measuring 90,000 sq.ft & is
structured in the form of a mandal of uniform length, breadth & height, each
measuring 52 ft. The temple has been built on the tenets of temple architecture as laid
down by sage Agasthya.

Devi reigns supreme inside Sri Chakra,Nandini Ramani, 2019

Muthuswami Dikshitar captures the glory of Devi in his Navavarana Kritis

Parasakti is worshipped in her three divine facets as Durga (the vanquisher of
obstacles), Lakshmi (giver of prosperity), and Saraswati (giver of knowledge)
throughout Bharatavarsha during Navaratri. From time immemorial, Vedic
chants, hymns and songs of saints and seers have been an integral part of the
myriad modes of Devi worship; more so, during the auspicious Navaratri
celebration to propitiate Sakti, hailed as Akhilandakoti Brahmanda Nayika.
Sri Muthuswami Dikshitar occupies a unique place in the realm of Devi worship
and Sri Vidya Cult. His scholarly and highly spiritual compositions on Goddess
Kamalamba enshrined in the Tiruvarur temple as Gnana Sakti, the giver of high
intellect, are a unique set describing Her as the primordial Power seated in Yogic
posture presiding over the form and content of the ever-auspicious Sri Chakra.

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140
 CHAPTER VI
STHAMB
Hindu Temple Pillars
Dr Uday Dokras PhD Stockholm

A temple is a building used for the worship of a god or gods, especially in the Buddhist
and Hindu religions, and in ancient Greek and Roman times.A pillar or column is a
structural element in architecture.The most important structure of a temple after the
plinth is the supporting pillars or STHAMBS.
Measures and proportions

The structural harmony, the rhythm and a fine sense of proportion is the hall mark of
Indian temple architecture. It not merely resolves the contradictions but also
expresses harmony by encompassing all contradictions, transforming into pure and
uncompromised details of structure. The aim of a proportional system, meaning not
merely symmetry, is to manifest a sense of coherence and harmony among the
elements of the temple and it’s whole. The proportional harmonization of design,
therefore, is of utmost importance in the construction of a temple. It is believed that
the power and purity of the structure radiates from its exact proportions and
measures as specified in the texts. It is also believed that a meticulously well
constructed temple radiates peace and joy; and ensures the welfare of the world and
its people.

Without harmony, symmetry and proportion there can be no principles in the design
of any temple. This is analogues to the precise relation between the features and
organs of a well proportioned, good-looking person.
The ancient texts, therefore, insist on a high degree of precision in their
measurements. The standard text Mayamata  mentions “Only if the temple is
constructed correctly according to a mathematical system can it be expected to

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function in harmony with the universe. Only if the measurement of the temple is in
every way perfect, there will be perfection in the universe as well.”
The Hindu temple is a feast of a variety of visual aspects, and wherever one engages
one of them, entering a doorway, circumambulating or approaching the inner
sanctuary or worshipping there– one is accessing an aspect of the whole.
The rules of Vastu-shastra render beauty, structural stability and quality of spaces by
virtue of light, sound and volume management. They also evoke in the devotee an
attuning of his person to its structure and ambience.
The lighting of spaces inside a temple is orchestrated such that the mukha mantapa
(i.e. entrance porch) is semi-open with maximum light. If the directions and
measurements are followed correctly the sun rays should fall into the mantapa for at
least six hours (from 9.00am to 3.00pm, if the sun rise is at 6.00am). The Sabha
Mantapa (for worshippers) has moderate light with few openings.   Garbhagirha with a
single opening in front of deity allows light only on deity; and, is illumined by natural
oil lamps, placed on either side of the deity. The net effect of this arrangement is that
it projects the images against the dark wall. Further, the surroundings of the
Garbhagriha are modest in sculptural details. These help the worshippers to keep
away the distractions and to focus their attention on the deity.

Echoes are avoided by a clever manipulation of open spaces, elevations and designs in
the structured areas. Absolute quiet is ensured in the Sanctum vicinity. The Shilpis,
in some cases (Meenkshi temple, Madurai; Sundareshwara temple Tirchendur; and
the Vijaya Vittala temple of Hampi- Vijayanagar) displayed remarkable ingenuity in
sculpting “musical” pillars, which when struck at precise parts, produce the seven
swaras (octaves).

As regards the volumes, every part of the temple is rigorously controlled by a precise
proportional system of interrelated measurements, maintaining the fundamental unity
of the architecture and sculpture.

The ancient shilpis used a great degree of precision in their measurements. Much
of this system is followed by the present shilpis too. An interesting feature of these
systems is the standard unit of measurement; the smallest unit mentioned is the anu
or the particle, which is hardly perceptible. The anu measure was employed for
extremely delicate or intricate or the most vital aspects of a sculpture; for instance, the
eyes and facial features of the image of presiding deity; or in the amaziningly  delicate
and minute carvings of the Hoyasla images. The norms and measures specified in the
Southern texts, it is said, are still in use. These measures are in two categories; one
for delicate and intricate work and the other for normal structures.
Look at the table of measurements for minute and delicate carvings.
Eight anus (particles) = one nulu (breadth of a fine cotton or silk fiber),
Eight nulu = one hair (breadth of horse hair),
Eight hairs = one grain of sand,
Eight grains of sand = one mustard seed,
Eight mustard-seeds = one bamboo seed,
Eight bamboo-seeds = one angula.
The angula (1.875 cms) and the hasta (cubit, 45 cms) are the units that are normally
used for deriving the dimensions, proportions, the height and other details of a
sculpture. The Danda (four cubits) used for measuring less-delicate or lengthier
structure is equivalent to 180 cms.

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One Hastha = one cubit= 45 cms;
Four Hasthas = one Danda= 96 angulas = 180 cms.
One Hastha =24 angulas = 45 cms.
Thus one angula = 1.875 cms.
The old Sanskrit texts too mention a set of measurements. According to them Anu or
paramanu, the particle, was the smallest measure.
8 anus = one ratha renu (grain of dust);
8 ratha renu = one valagrasa (hair end);
8 valagrasa =One grain of yava;
4 yavas = one angula;
12 angulas = one vitasta or Tala (span)
2 Vitasta or Tala = Hastha (cubit) = 24 angulas
26 angulas= Dhanurbhagha (handle of a bow).
4 hatas = One Danda;
8 Dandas = One Rajju (rope)
1000 Rajju = One Yojana
**

The  Brhat-Samhita of  Varaha Mihira (Ca. Sixth Century CE), under the Chapter 58 – Prathima
Lakshana Adhyaya – gives another version of the Iconometric  measurements :

1.The fine particles moving in the rays of the sun coming into a room through the
window opening are known as atoms.
2. Eight atoms make a hair’s end; eight hair’s ends make a nit; eight nits make a
louse; eight lice make a barley seed; eight barley seeds make an inch, which is known
as a unit of measure
8 atoms=1 dust particle ; 8 dust particles=1 tip of hair; 8 tips of hair=1 nit; 8 nits=1
louse; 8 lice = 1 barley grain;8 barley grains =1 digit
****

The proportions of the head-trunk-arms-legs of images; and also their finer

specifications like nose, nail, ears and their shapes are specified in the texts.
Generally: it is dasatala (ten talas) for the height of image of male deity, navatala (nine
talas) for his consort and astatala (eight talas) for bhakta. These are not absolute
measurements; but are meant as guidelines to maintain proper proportions.(We shall
discuss more about these aspects in the part dealing with Temple Iconography.)
Further, the Vastu believes that every unit of time vibration produces a corresponding
unit of space measure; and derives that the time is equal to space. This rhythm of time
and space vibrations is quantified in terms of eight and as multiples of eight.
According to the Vastu, at the subtle level the human form is a structure of eight
spatial units apart from elements  like the hair, kneecap and toe nails, each of which
measures one-quarter of the basic measure of the body and, when added on to the
body’s eight units, increases the height of the total form to nine units. Traditionally,
these nine units are applied in making sculptures of gods.

Similarly, the lengths, the breadths the heights of various elements of the temple too
are related to each other by certain ratios. These lend esthetic appeal and stability to
the temple structure. For instance, it is said, by restricting the height of the tower,
Shikhara, to twice its width at the base, the weight of the tower is contained within
itself. Further, as the size of the pada (bay, distance between two pillars) increases,

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the cross section of pillars also increases in size and width of beam has to be exactly
same as that of the pillar.
Rám Ráz in his Essay on the Architecture of the Hindús describes seven kinds of Pillars
(Sthamba) in relation to the thickness of the walls, the strength and breadth of the
base, and the number of floors in the building. According to Rám Ráz :

When the base is taken as a reference point for the length of a pillar, than it may be
1¼, 1½, 1¾ or 2 times the height of the base. In total there are 12 varieties of the
height of a pillar. For the pilaster (in other words a wall-pillar) it is 3, 4, 5 or 6
angulas. The diameter of a pillar is 2, 3 or 4 times the width of the pilaster.
The pillar has a constructive character. It must be able to withstand the forces in the
building. When the amount of floors in a building is taken as a reference points for
determining the height of the pillars, then the ground floor pillars of a twelve storey
building are 8½ cubits in height. By subtracting one span for each storey a height of 3
cubits is obtained for the pillars of the top storey. The diameter of the ground floor
pillars of a twelve storey building is 28 digits. By subtracting two digits for each storey
6 digits are obtained for the diameter of the pillars of the top-storey.

The proportions of the Adhisthána or base must be related to those of the building. In

response to that, the rest of the pillar relates to the base of the pillar.
(The Mánasára uses the base to define the pillars. The Mayamatam uses the amount
of floors in a building to define the height of the pillars.)
As regards the form or shape of the pillars, Rám Ráz states :
There are 6 forms of pillars, namely: square, pentagonal (5 sides), hexagonal (6 sides),
octagonal (8 sides), 16 sided and circular. These shapes are uniform from bottom to
top, but the base and top may be square.
The top of a pillar consists of 7 elements : The bracket capital, the dye (featuring a
human figure), the abacus, the bell capital, the support, the lotus and the band
ornamented with garlands.

Intercolumniation
It is the distance between two pillars. For the intercolumniation, two different
approaches can be used.
The first one is relative to the rest of the building: “The intercolumniation may be
either two, three, four, or five diameters; it is measured in three ways, first from the
inner extremity of the base of the pillar to that of another; secondly from the center of
the two pillars, and, thirdly from the outer extremities of the pillars including the two
bases.”

 The second approach to intercolumniation is not relative to the building. In this

approach the intercolumniation consists of 9 different possibilities. These are defined
by 2 or 4 cubits, where each time 6 digits can be added. The architect can chose all of
the 9 possibilities. Here it doesn’t matter what its type is, but the disposition of the
pillars has to be regular, because otherwise it is believed to bring destruction upon the
building and upon its site.

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The size of the structure will also determine the various kinds of building materials to
be used at different stages of the construction. They also help to control the
proportions of the dimensions of the temple. These norms carry shades of religious
intentions too; the set of six formulae or Ayadivarga viz., the Aaya, Vyaya, Yoni, Tithi,
Vaara and Nakshatra are applied by the Acharya to derive the proper orientation and
dimensions of the structure. (More of Ayadivarga in the final part.)

The Vastu Purusha Mandala of the temple projects the temple in two main sections:
the ground plan and the vertical alignment. The square, the rectangle, the octagon
and the pentagon patterns drawn in the Mandala relate to the horizontal section or the
ground plan. The subdivisions of the ground plan detail the Brahmasthana (the main
shrine and smaller shrines) and the Mantapas (pavilions). The vertical alignment
consisting the pyramid, the circle and the curve are meant for designing the Gopura
(entrance ways), the Vimana (the structure above the main shrine) and the
prakara (the walls).

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How these designs of certain measurements and proportions are translated into three

dimensional construction s, is really interesting.

Hindu temple construction is strictly based on a complex system of measurements
and proportions. These proportions control every aspect of a temple’s design, from its
width and height to the size of its doorways and moldings.  There are a number of
prescribed methods. Let us look at just two of them.
A. This relates to the construction of the Garbhagriha (sanctum) and the Vimana or
Prasada on top of it.

In this method, the square of 4 (16) and the square of 8(64) are considered auspicious.
All the main horizontal as well as vertical proportions are with reference to either of
these numbers (mulasutra).The area of the Vimana (the prasada or the tower above the
sanctum) is divided into 16 squares (maha-pitha) or 64 squares (manduka), as the
case may be; in which case the width would be 4 or 8 units.
If the width of the Vimana is 4, then the width of the sanctum would be 2 units; the
height of the Vimana would also be 4; and the base of the Vimana would be a cube.
The Sikhara on top this cube would be twice its height (that is, 4×2).The cube and the
Sikhara would together rise to a height of 12 units. This proportion builds a
relationship between the vertical and horizontal extents of the other parts of the
temple.
In case the width of the sanctum is 8 units, The total height of the sanctum with
Sikhara would be three times the width of the sanctum(8×3), of which the height of the
Sikhara would be 2/3 the total height.
B. In this method, the size of the sanctum and the Dwajasthamba is determined by
the height of the image of main deity in the sanctum. The size of a temple is always a
fixed multiple of the height of image of main deity.
The normal height of a man is taken as six feet; and the sanctum would be in the
shape of a square of its inner length and width, of six feet. The width of the sanctum
walls would be two feet. The outer measurement of the sanctum would be 10 feet on
each side.

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A mantapa, in front of the sanctum, would have certain special features. The inner
length and breadth of a mantapa should be twice that of the sanctum. For instance, in
this case, the outer side of the sanctum is ten feet; and therefore the inner side of the
Mantapa should be 20 feet, in width. This is achieved by extending the face (door) side
of the sanctum on either side to form the inner dimension (20’) of the Mantapa.
If the directions and measurements are correctly followed the sun rays should fall into
the mantapa for six hours (from 9.00am to 3.00pm, if the sun rise is at 6.00am).
For a sanctum of this size, the idol, in standing position, should be six feet tall. If the
idol is less than six feet tall, its pedestal should be raised to obtain the required
height. The idol should be installed exactly at the mid-point of the chosen direction
(usually facing east).
The Dwaja –sthamba should be perpendicular and placed directly opposite to the idol.
A line drawn at an angle of 22 ½ degrees from the mid-point between the brows of the
idol should cut the top of the Dwajasthamba. The height of the Dwajasthamba thus is
related to the to the height of the image. Some scholars say, this perhaps is relates to
the axis of the earth which makes an angle of 22 ½ degrees with the sun.
Sometimes, a hole is made in the roof of the mantapa, at the point where the
imaginary line drawn from the idol emerges out of the roof of the mantapa, on its way
to reach the top of the Dwajasthamba. Thus, it is ensured that the mid point between
the brows of the idol, the hole in the roof and the top of Dwaja sthamba are all aligned
along one straight line.
The line when extended further from the top of the Dwaja sthamba should touch the
Kalasha on top of the Gopura.
Thus, the distance and the height of the Gopuram get related to the height of the idol
and the Dwajasthamba.

Mention is also made of other methods for determining the size of the Dhruva-

bhera (the main idol) and its position/placement in the Garbhagriha . According to
this method, the icon is considered to be made of three parts.; the con proper being
two parts ; and, the pedestal making up the third part.
The whole length of the Icon including pedestal should be 7/ 8th s of the height of the
doorway. (i.e. height + 7 x 8 = doorway). If the Icon is made 2 meters in height then the
following measurements are calculated;
doorway = 2 .28 mtrs high x 1.14 mtrs in width.
Sanctum = 4.57 mtrs square

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Vimana = 9.14 mtrs high
Mandapa = 9.14 mtrs wide
Plinth = 3 mtrs high
As regards the position of the Dhruva-bhera within the Garbhagriha :
The Garbhagriha  is divided into two  halves. One  half should again be sub-divided
into 10 parts.

The following is generally followed for positioning of the deity :

Shiva Linga in the 10th part i.e. center
Brahma is placed in the 9th part.
Vishnu is placed in the 8th part.
Shanmuga is placed in the 7th part.
Sarasvati in the 6th.
Surya in the 5th.
Ganesha in the 4th.
Bhairava in the 3rd
Shakti in the 2nd place from the rear wall.

[ The Bruhat-samhita of Varaha Mihira (Ca.6th century) mentions :

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53. The height of the Linga shall be equal to the length of the circumference; the lower
one-third of the Linga shall be four-sided, the central third shall be eight-sided; and
the upper third shall be round.

54. The lower part of the Linga shall be planted into the ground; the middle part shall
be made to fit the hole in the pedestal. The breadth of the pedestal all-round the hole
shall be of the length of the portion of the Linga above]

Placement Direction in Home, Office & Commercial Spaces

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Placement Direction In-Home, Office and Commercial SpacesThe puja room
or idol direction of god or goddess kept in the home, office, and commercial spaces. It’s
incomplete without correct Vastu Shastra.
As per Vastu Shastra, the North-Eastern or Eastern corner of the home is considered
to be perfect to keep the Puja Mandir. And it brings good luck to your place.
God must face in puja room should be facing west and devotee face to the east. For
placing lord idols in Puja Mantap, the size of the idols should be relevant or lesser to
the Mantap. Mandir size is not important while doing puja. The Diya should be kept or
lit in the south-east direction.
Puja room is a valuable part of a home and a perfect place for devoting the god.
Devotees should always keep some isolation while praying or sitting in the puja
mandir by using a mat or a puja chowki.The entrance of the puja hall must have a
threshold.
Things to Avoid While Placing Wooden Puja Mandir

Puja Mandir should not be in the south direction.

 The puja mandir should not be touch to the toilet or washroom, not even flat, below,
or above.
 It should not be placed in the bedroom, kitchen in case any space problem, you can
place the mandir at some height and cover it with curtain or door to hide the idols
or photo frames direct eye contact.
 Avoid placing any inherited pictures inside the puja Mandap. It is considered as an
inauspicious as per Vastu.
 Avoid keeping damaged idols inside the temple or Mandir. Also, avoid keeping heavy
idols or frames, because it damages the wooden mandir.
 Things to keep and discard in the Pooja room
 Pooja room at homes is a place filled with positive vibrations; hence one should be
very careful of what to keep and remove from the pooja room.
 The first rule is never keep disfigured idols in the pooja room as it is inauspicious.
 Clean the puja room often, regularly discard old flowers, ashed of incense
sticks, and anything that dirties the pooja mandir.

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  If you have wall mounted pooja mandir owing to shortage of place, ensure it's
beyond the reach of toddlers and place only the idols whose weight mandir can
sustain.
 Avoid keeping leather items in the Puja mandir.
 It is said that keeping the photo's of the deceased in the Puja room can be
inauspicious. So, if you have one in your pooja room, we recommend you
remove it.
 It would be best if you kept a small jug or bowl of water every day in puja
mandir and consume it the next day, and it will be enriched with positive
vibrations.
 Do not keep over two Ganesha idols in the Pooja Mandir.
 Keep idols not greater than the length of your palm in pooja mandir. Scriptures
specify different rules for performing puja for idols over 6 inches.
 Leave enough room to place diya's in pooja mandir.

 Pooja room Idols facing direction
 Like the mandir, the idols should ideally face east or north-east as it enables
harnessing the sun's rising energy. The second best direction to place the idol
facing West. The last possible but not so optimal direction is North, as they
say, North holds immense energy that the family cannot easily contain. Under
no circumstances, one should place idols facing South, as it drains out all the
positive energy from the house.
 How to light up the diya in-front of idols 
 For drawing the maximum benefits of lighting lamps at home, follow these tips.
 One should always light the diya in front of god and place it facing either East
or North. Placing diya facing east will enhance one's health, and the placing
diya facing north will increase the wealth.
 Never place the diya directly on the floor. Always put it in a bowl, or over a leaf,
or on rice.
 Always use cotton wicks inside diyas.
 Never place the diya's facing south, as it drains the wealth.
 Never light one diya with another, as it brings bad luck.

The actual construction process of a temple can be divided into three steps. The first is
the planning of the temple by architect, second is the carving of different parts and the
third is assembling the parts.
In the first stage, the architect prepares a list of all the parts that go into the details of
the temple; like the figures, pillars, beams, and brackets etc. These parts are usually
composed of several elements. For example, a pillar is made of at least five parts, while
the dome is made of several units. This is one of the reasons, it is said, why the
temples do not normally collapse in case of earthquakes or cyclones; as its parts are
not joined rigidly (say by materials like cement) but can vibrate within the surrounding
structured space.
In the second stage, the teams of assistants of the Shilpi carve the parts and segments
according to the temple Acharya’s and Shilpi’s drawings, designs, specifications and
guidelines.  The parts thus got ready are transported to the site. And, at times the
transportation to the site, itself, becomes a huge task. For instance, it is said that a
four km long ramp was constructed to transport and place in position the dome of the
Brihadishwara temple in Tanjore.

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The stability of the temple structure is attributed to its principles of unity, harmony,
balance and distribution of weight. It is said, if one member of this family breaks, the
unity, peace and stability of the family is sure to crumble. . Hence, no member moves
from its place, and holds the structure together even in the face of destruction all
around. These aspects are ensured during the third stage.
The third stage is the assembling of the readied parts i.e. the actual construction of
temple. The various elements and parts of temples are interlocked to hold in position.
All the parts have mortise and tenon joint for ensuring strength; and a hole or slot is
cut into each piece of readied part, for a projecting part tenon of the adjacent part to
be inserted into the next. These mortise and tenons not only hold the parts their
positions securely but also allow space for the stones to expand in heat or even to
vibrate modestly.
The third stage and the second stage have to be well coordinated in order to take care
of precise alignments and possible corrections. Though this stage, inevitably, means
the slowing down of the construction pace, it is said, the Sthaphti or Sthalapahi, the
one who supervises the actual construction process on site, takes extra care to ensure
precise positioning and alignment of each part and segment; and to meticulously
follow the overall proportion, stability and visual appeal, as specified and envisaged in
the Vastu mandala and the construction plans.
The size and the nature of the structure will determine the various kinds of building
materials to be employed at different stages of its construction. Generally the use of
iron, considered the crudest of metals, is strictly avoided within the temple structure,
as iron tends to get rusty and endangers the stability and the life of the structure. The
stone which has a far longer life and is less corrosive, is the major building material
employed in temple construction. (There are elaborate methods for testing and grading
the stones; and more about that in the final part) The main structure and the dome
are invariably constructed of tested stone.
The Building materials like stone, brick, mortar, wood, etc., are selected for the main
body of the temple, whereas elements like gold and silver are be used for final
ornamentation. Marble is not used in Southern structures. Materials like simulated
marble, plastic and asbestos, strictly, are not acceptable building materials. Only
organic materials are used in temple architecture. The traditional Indian temples of
stone, it is said, are designed to last for 800 years unlike RCC structures which are
guaranteed for 80 years. Incidentally, the Ayadi aspects are worked out to ensure
longevity of the temple.

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Indian architecture is a logical and an intellectual approach to how the vision of the
architect, governed by the prescriptions of the texts, should be realised. It has clear
rules on how a building should be constructed. It starts with defining the cardinal
directions of North, East, South and West. These directions form the basis for
designing the building; as also in erecting the walls of the temple.
The temple is based on the faith that it is a reflection of the Universe, which follows
cyclic processes of creations and destructions. Therefore, the temple has also to
project that cyclical notion. For that reason, its design grows from unity to
multiplicity; simultaneously, tending back to unity through a process of dissolution
and fusion. In this way, a temple is to be rendered cyclical, in its nature. These cycles
can occur at different times, at different rates, and in different parts of a temple. In
order to achieve such effects, several architectural tools are employed.
Some of the tools that could help the Indian architect to design a temple; and, for
achieving the pattern of its growth and of movement, as detailed by Adam Hardy in
his Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation (page 26) , include :
– Increasing aedicularity (principle of articulating the temple exterior as a matrix of
inter connected shrines)
 – Aedicular density, meaning to move shrine images to get closer together
– Proliferation and fragmentation, meaning the repetition of a given type of designs
and patterns culminating in a grand architectural composition. And , fragmentation is
the breaking up the whole into minor  individual designs.
– Central emphasis: the cardinal axes of the Vimana as also those of the Mantapa
become increasingly dominant, at various levels
– Using an increased sense of movement through various patterns which convey a
sense of emergence and expansion
 – Staggering, where the forms become progressively more staggered creating certain
visual architectural effects; say, from Vimana or Mantapa as a whole, through pillars
to the moulding of the pilasters.
 – Continuity and alignment. This ensures horizontal continuity with the vertical
structure; say, with each Tala (or the phase or the level) of the Vimana rising one over
the other
 – Abstraction. Here the shrine-imagery, particularly in the shapes of moulding,
develops away from the depiction of timber and thatch construction. The temple-
structure is transported from the non-essentials towards  its idealized form.
– Assimilation.  The elements or details, which, are at first  scattered are
systematically composed and assimilated with each other  into a framework that
finally defines the temple architecture
Thus, the temple-construction, which generally follows an evolutionary process
combines in itself the stages of differentiation and fusion; creation and dissolution;
and, emergence and mergence or blending . Although such dynamic processes are at
once conflicting and complimentary, they all are harmonized in a meaningful
composition to achieve the final and the idealized image of the temple.  The process is
also analogous to the emergence from the unity of the the seed to the diversity of the
tree with many branches.  

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Some essential aspects of Temple Structure
A typical South Indian temple has a certain fairly well defined features and a generally
accepted layout. The most important structure of a temple is the garbhagriha or
sanctum sanctorum which houses the idol of the presiding deity.
The Garbagriha is followed by four types of mantapas or pavilions. Mantapa means
any roofed, open or enclosed pavilion (hall) resting on pillars, standing independently
or connected to the sanctum of the temple.

The first of the mantapas is the antarala (sometimes called sukanas or sukanasi or
ardhamantapa), a narrow pavilion connecting the gharbhagriha and the navaranga.  It
usually will have niches in the north and south walls, occupied by a deity, with
attendant divinities in secondary niches flanking the central niche.  In a few temples
the antarala serves as the navaranga too.
The next mantapa is nrttamantapa or navaranga, is a big hall used for congregational
services like singing, dancing, recitation of mythological texts, religious discourses and
so on. The navaranga will usually be on a raised platform and will have nine anganas
(openings) and sixteen pillars.
This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a hall used for ceremonial purposes. This
leads to mukha mantapa the opening pavilion.

154
 The Dwajasthamba (flag post) in front of either the garbhagrha
or antarala or the mantapa is another common feature. It represents the flag post of
the ‘King of kings’. The lanchana (insignia) made of copper or brass fixed like a flag to
the top of the post varies according to the deity in the temple and his/her nature.

155
A stambha (tower in English) is a pillar or column found in India. In the context
of Hindu mythology, it is believed to be a cosmic column that functions as a bond,
joining heaven (Svarga) and earth (Prithvi). A number of Hindu scriptures, including
the Atharva Veda, feature references to Stambhas. In the Atharva Veda, a celestial
stambha has been described as an infinite scaffold, which supports the cosmos and
material creation.
Stambhas are also found in Indian architecture. Different stambhas serve different
purposes, including the following:

 Dhvaja Stambha (Flagstaff Towers) are placed opposite the main shrine, on an

axis with the main deity.
 Kirti Stambha (Glorious Tower) & Vijaya Stambha (Victory Tower) are erected to
commemorate victories.
 The most well-known stambhas of India are the Ashoka Stambha (Pillars of
Ashoka) — erected during the reign of Ashoka, spread across the subcontinent,
bearing different types of royal edicts.
 Adi Purana — a huge manastambha — stands in front of the samavasarana of
the tirthankaras, which causes entrants to a samavasarana to shed their pride.

Vijay Stambha at Chittorgarh fort/Kirti Stambh of Hutheesing Jain Temple/

Ashoka Pillar. BELOW PIC Pillar of Heroditus

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 The Heliodorus pillars, also ancient,  is a stone column that was erected around 113 BCE in
central India[1] in Besnagar (near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh). Throws light on the installation and erection of pillars.It is not
load bearing

The basic form of a Hindu structural temple consists of the following.

 Garbhagriha: It literally means 'womb-house' and is a

cave like a sanctum. ...
 Mandapa: It is the entrance to the temple. ...

157
  Shikhara or Vimana: ...
 Amalaka: ...
 Kalasha: ...
 Antarala (vestibule): ...
 Jagati: ...
 Vahana:
The focal point of a mandir is the inner sanctum, which is aligned with the highest of
the spires. It is here that the shrine containing the image or murti of the presiding
deity is housed. Areas reserved for worship cannot be entered directly from the outside
world.
Since there was no electricity in the olden says and the houses were tiny and small,
the source of natural light was sunlight from the windows. ... So made it sense to keep
the idols in the west side of the room facing the east so that when the sunlight fell on
the Gods idols, at least one could see their faces.

Shikhara, (Sanskrit: “mountain peak”) also spelled shikara, also called shikar, in
North Indian temple architecture, the superstructure, tower, or spire above the
sanctuary and also above the pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most
dominant and characteristic feature of the Hindu temple in the north. A Hindu temple
has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of
the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have
mathematical precision and geometric symbolism.

Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves
as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate
structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the
temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller
temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and
mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples
is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure, [37] each unique yet also
repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as
“an organism of repeating cells”

158
159
The Hindu texts on temple architecture have an extensive terminology. Most terms
have several different names in the various Indian languages used in different regions
of India, as well as the Sanskrit names used in ancient texts. A few of the more
common terms are tabulated below, mostly in their Sanskrit/Hindi forms

Name of
Description Alt. Name
Structure

Ardhaman half hall at each entrance, usually the reception

dapa area that connects to the mandapa

assembly hall, grounds inside a temple or

Ayatana
monastery compound

a projection often aligned to one of the cardinal

directions; typically of central part of walls;
Bhadra
decoration or a projected porch for pilgrims;
also may be a tower storey projection

a mythical dwarf or goblin usually with a

Gana
protruded belly and with humorous expression

The womb-house, adytum, sanctum sanctorum; Garbha-

it is the loci of the temple and the darshana, the griya,
spiritual space that Hindus circumambulate Garbha-
Garbhagrih clockwise about. This is where the geha,
a main murti image is placed. Usually the space is Sibika,
very plain, with no distractions from the murti, Garbha,
which is rich in symbolism. A large temple may Mula-
have many shrines, each with a garbhagriya. sthana

160
 one of the arch motifs; it is horseshoe-shaped,
Gavaksa,
Gavaksha found with windows or for decorating spires,
kudu
pillars and other elements

a gateway at entrance or one that connects two

sacred spaces of the temple; becomes very large Gopura,
Gopuram in South Indian temples, which may have Dvara
several; it has roots in ancient Indian attalaka
monasteries and the Vedic word gomatipur;[89]

Hara neck ornament such as necklace

a trellis, stone grille, net, first seen in 6th- Jali, Indra

Jala
century temples koshtha

Jagata,
any moulded base or pedestal for the temple or Pithika,
a statue that extends out, part of platform that Jagati-
Jagati
forms a terrace to stand on or circumambulate pitha,
around on, while reading the reliefs and friezes Kati,
Vasudha

161
 Kalasam,
the pinnacle element of a temple, a vase finial,
Kalasha Stupi,
cupola or pitcher
Kumuda

Pushkara
ni, Sara,
temple tank, stepwell, pool, usually with steps,
Sagar,
Kunda public utility for taking a dip; often connected to
Tadaga,
a nearby river or mountain stream
Udapana,
Var, Vapi

liana, creeper-style plant, vine, one type of scroll

Lata
work; also found on sikhara

a mythical fusion sea creature with fish-

crocodile like face, trunk or snout, legs
Makara
sometimes with lion claws and a tail; vahana
of Varuna

pillared hall or pavilion, with pillars usually

carved; a mandapa is typically square,
rectangle, octagonal or circular; it may have
walls with perforated stone windows, it may just
Mandapa
be open on some or all sides. Large temples may
m,
have many interconnected mandapas. It is a
Mandapa Mantapa,
gathering place, a place for pilgrims to rest
Jagamoha
(choultry), a part of the circumambulation
n
space, or to wait during prayers or Sanskara
(rite of passage) rituals. A mandapa may have a
tower (shikhara) of its own, but it is lower than
that above the sanctum.

Mulaprasa
main shrine in a temple complex
da

Nisha niche on temple walls or in pillars for sculptures

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 or stele

the art of arranging images and friezes to create

a narrative or composition, in some texts it
Nyasa refers to relative placement of images within a
panel to summarize a Hindu legend or fable;
also a form a ritual.

wall that separates an inner zone of temple

ground from an outer zone; typically concentric,
Prakara
defensive and fortified, a feature added after the
wars and plunders starting in the 14th-century

Chaiva,
entablature, horizontal superstructure of bands
gopanam,
Prastara and moldings above column capitals, sometimes
kapotam,
functions as a parapet of a storey
mancham

a facet or vertical offset projection on the plan of

the sanctum and shikhara above, or other
structure. It is generally carried up from the
bottom of the temple to the superstructure.
A ratha, meaning cart, is also the temple chariot
Ratha
used for processing the murti at festivals, and a
"ratha temple" is one designed to resemble a
cart, with wheels on the sides, and often horses.
The most famous example is the Sun Temple,
Konarak.

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 Round barrel-roofed, wagon-roofed pavilion;
rooted in the thatched roofed stall for people or
cattle tradition, then other materials of
construction; any mansion or griha; a pilgrim
services building with mandapas or pillared
Sala veranda or both inside the temple complex, Chala
Hindu texts describe multi-storey Sala; in
south, sala are structures used as a decorative
motif, or an actual roof, as at the top of
gopurams; rooted in ancient thatched roof
styles.

Shikhara,
Sikha,
Sikhanta,
In North India, the tower above the sanctum
Sikhamani
Sikhara/Vi (entire spire above mulaprasada); in South
, Deul in
mana India, that top part of tower that is above the
East India,
vimana
Garbhaka,
Garbhama
ndira

A pillar; it can be a load bearing element or an

independent standing element with diya (lamps) Kambha,
and Hindu icons below, around and / or on top; Dwajastha
Stambha the designs vary significantly by region, in mpam,
Kerala Hindu temples they are at the entrance; Kodimara
on festive occasions the wick lamps are loaded m
with oil and lit up.

an external ornamented feature over the

entrance to the garbhagriha or inner shrine. It
sukanasa-
Sukanasa sits on the face of the sikhara tower (in South
sika
India, the vimana) as a sort of antefix. Can refer
to the antarala below as well.

Tala tier or storey of a shikhara, vimana or gopuram

164
 Numerous
terms, e.g.
any arch or canopy motif, ornament or
Gavaksha
Torana architectural member in temples and buildings;
(from 'cow
it also refers to an arched gateway
eye'-
shaped)

subsidiary turret-like shikharas on the side of

Urushringa the main shikhara; the primary turret is
called shringa

The experience of Indian Shilpis in making of pillars has been profound be it stone,
timber or brick. Pillars (Stambha) forms an innate part of the Hindu Temple
Architecture, thousand years back when these temples were built there were
established design principals, testing methods, though no software, calculators and
spreadsheets etc were available, still the end results exhibited by these temples are
fabulous and are ‘Structural Engineering Marvels’. These pillars played a very
prominent and pleasing part in the temple architecture of the time. Tall, slender, free-
standing, beam supporting pillars, and pilasters, but these elements are not well
defined as in the western classic architecture, and hence it becomes difficult to
classify them as they have multifold relations which they have carried from one period
to another transforming into new types with minute changes, this can be seen as a
result of craftsmanship prevailing at the time at a particular place also the social
needs and ruling power were the factors in evolution of the pillars.

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They were expressions of strength, support, celestial connection and manifestation of
arts prevailing at that era. Although they evolved from Sastraic Mathematical
proportions, they displayed greater freedom of design which the Indian wrought in his
own imaginative way, these pillars still stand today as a source of inspiration,
promoting diverse studies for designing of pillar in contemporary temples. This paper
analyses the Pillars (Stambha) as vital element of the Hindu temple and provides more
explanation of ancient literature study on pillars, also the rules and regulations which
govern the construction of these marvelous element of temple architecture. Further
the paper discusses the Yali [Vyala] Pillars with respect to elements of space making in
temples of Vijaynagar era, and how these Yali Pillars when treated with extraordinary
ornamentations enhanced, beautified and lender unique character to the structure
and identified the temples given impression of strength, stability and reliability.

The volume of distinct spaces, movements and visual impact created by these pillars
in temples gives an idea of the distinct identity of architecture to create a sense of
group identities between those who built and those who inhabited or used these
structures, such elements embody not just the earth or stone from which they were
built, but the people and experiences involved in their construction, holding special
place in human memory giving distinct identity to structures of architecture.
A temple is a building used for the worship of a god or gods, especially in the
Buddhist and Hindu religions, and in ancient Greek and Roman times.

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The Thousand Pillar Temple or Rudreswara Swamy Temple[1] is a
historic Hindu temple located in the town of Hanamakonda, Telangana State, India.
[2]
 It is dedicated to Lord Shiva, Vishnu and Surya. Thousand Pillar Temple, along
with Warangal Fort, Kakatiya Kala Thoranam and Ramappa Temple were added to the
tentative list of World Heritage sites recognised by UNESCO.[3]In July 2021, Ramappa
Temple was inscribed into the list of UNESCO's World Heritage Site.
Many Hindu temples were developed under the patronage of Ganapati Deva, Rudrama
Devi and Prataparudra who were of Kakatiya dynasty. The Thousand Pillar Temple
was believed to be constructed during the period between 1175–1244 CE by order of
the king, Rudra Deva. It stands out to be a masterpiece and achieved major heights in
terms of architectural skills by the ancient Kakatiya Vishwakarma Sthapathis
(Architect). The Executive officer of the subject temple is P.Venugopal.
It was desecrated by the Tughlaq dynasty during their invasion of the Deccan. Only
the Shiva shrine is worshipped in this temple as the Vishnu and Surya shrines were
devoid of the idols which are missing.
ARCHITECTURE: The Thousand Pillar Temple with its ruins lies near the
Hanamkonda-Warangal Highway in Telangana State, about 150 kilometres (93 mi)
from the city of Hyderabad.
Rudreswara Temple locally known as Veyisthambala Gudi (Thousand pillars temple) is
one of the fine and earliest available examples of Kakatiya art, architecture and
sculpture. It was built by Rudra Deva and named after him as Sri Rudreswara Swamy
temple with the presiding deity as Rudreswara, in 1163 AD in the style of later
Chalukyan and early Kakatiyan Architecture, star-shaped and triple shrined
(Trikutalaya). The temple is a fine specimen of architecture and sculpture with One
thousand pillars. There are richly carved pillars, perforated screens, exquisite icons,
rock cut elephants and the monolithic dolerite Nandi as components of the temple.
Strengthening of foundations like sandbox technique, the skill of Kakatiya sculptors is
manifest in adroit craftsmanship and flawless ivory carving technique in their art. The
ingenuity of Kakatiya sculptors is visible in likes of lathe turned, and shiny polish in
dolerite and granite stone sculpture and craftwork of Nava Rangamandapa.
The temple was renovated in 2004 by the Government of India. Archaeological Survey
of India and modern engineers have been working for the temple's further renovation.

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This Temple Has A Pillar That Does Not Rest On The Ground! A Walk Through
India’s Most Mysterious Temple

The 16th century Veerabhadra temple, also known as Lepakshi temple, is the
country’s most mysterious temple. It has 70 massive pillars built in the Vijayanagar
style, out of which one pillar is the most intriguing. This pillar, unlike other pillars,
does not touch the ground and hangs from the ceiling, leaving a noticeable space.
People who visit the temple, pass a piece of cloth through the space.

The temple, located in Anantapur district in southern Andhra Pradesh, has challenged
many engineers who failed to solve the mystery behind its pillar. It is also said that a
British engineer, during the British era, tried to find out about its support but failed.
The temple is bejewelled with gorgeous sculptures of gods, goddesses, dancers and
musicians. It also has a gigantic 24 X 14 feet mural of Veerabhadra, the fiery god
created by Lord Shiva. It is said to be the largest mural of any single figure in India.

Sculpture of Nandi at Thousand Pillar Temple

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Lepakshi temple was built in 1583 by brothers Virupanna and Veeranna. The temple
has a Ramayana story where it is said that Jatayu, the bird, fell after being injured by
Ravana. And when Lord Rama spotted the bird, he said, ‘Le Pakshi’ which, when
translated, reads ‘rise, bird’ in Telugu. That’s how the temple got its name. Incredible,
isn’t it?
How modern Columns & Pillars are installed
Here is a quick visual step-by-step procedure to install our Alpa columns & pillars.
See our Installation Guide for the full step-by-step instructions or call our technical
support team. Remember our columns require 2-2x4 SPF #2 or better lumber or a
stronger alternative support (round aluminum post or engineered studs) on the inside
to become fully structural. Always consult with your project's architect or structural
engineer if you are unsure of the loading condition.
1. Measure vertical opening.

169
 Tip - make sure to always have a temporary support off to the side, or on
both sides, of the area where you are installing your column/pillar
Tip - the support on the inside will need to be cut down 1" shorter than the
overall height.
Tip - the vinyl sleeve is cut 2 ¼" shorter than the overall height if installing
a column.
Tip - the vinyl sleeve is cut 4 ¼" shorter than the overall height if installing
a pillar.
2. Assemble the top and bottom bases (mounting plates).

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 Tip - mount first base, then slide sleeve over support, then connect second
base.
3. Set assembly in place.

Tip - remove temporary support after full connection of bases (top &
bottom) are done.
Tip - Don’t forget base cap plugs!
Please refer to the Column/Pillar Installation Guide for more detailed step-
by-step instructions to install a column or pillar. Contact our Technical
Support team for further assistance.

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 CHAPTER VII
From the Coromandel Coast to the Straits: Revisiting Our Tamil Heritage

 A Singapore Government Agency Website

Culture

Coromandel was a region known around the world for its trade textiles and goods from ancient
times. The term “Coromandel” is the European derivative of Cholamandalam (“the realm of the
Cholas” or “the land successfully conquered by the Cholas”). Also known as Chola Nadu or
“land of the Cholas”, Coromandel referred to territories under the Chola dynasty in south-eastern
India which included parts of present day Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh.
The earliest reference to Cholamandalam can be found in an inscription located at the
Brihadishvara Temple in Thanjavur dating to the 12th century CE. The oldest European mention
of Coromandel appears in Roteiro de Vasco da Gama (Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco Da
Gama) as Chomandarla. As a toponym, Coromandel first appears in Portuguese maps at the start
of the 16th century.
The Coromandel coastline was a significant trading region in the Indian Subcontinent. It was
home to a network of ports such as Pazhaverkadu, Nagapattinam, Parangipettai, Arumugam etc.

172
which were unified by their participation in the Indian Ocean trade. By the 17th century,
established mercantile communities were concentrated around ports along the Coromandel
Coast.
For instance, in Southeast Asia Tamil Muslim trading communities from the Coromandel Coast
such as Lebbai, Rawther, Marakayyar and Kayalar achieved fame as the Chulia merchants.
These traders were engaged in commerce primarily with Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Melaka Straits
and other parts of Southeast Asia, although this trade gradually declined by the 19th century.

1. Eng raved Map sh owin g th e Coroman del Co ast in relat io n to Sou theast A sia b y Galvao Anto nio
1557, Published in 1707
M ap of the East In dies sh owin g po rt s of co nseq uence alo ng the Co ro mand el Co ast by Hon dius
H en drik
17th century

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Empires and Faith

PART 1 TAMILS IN PRE-MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA- Ancient Connections

Maritime links between South India and Southeast Asia date back to the late prehistoric period.
During this period, Tamils acted as intermediaries in a trade network comprising the Roman
Empire and the Mediterranean in the west to the other side of the Bay of Bengal. By the early
centuries of the Common Era, pre-modern Tamil diasporas comprising seafarers and traders
travelling to ports in Southeast Asian polities, had become common.
The early presence of Tamils in Southeast Asia is supported by epigraphic and archaeological
finds that include medieval Tamil inscriptions, coins, pottery, ceramics, beads and bronze
artefacts. The oldest inscription in the Tamil language dates to the 2nd or 3rd century CE on a
potsherd found at Phu Khao Thong in south Thailand bearing the word turavon, meaning
“ascetic”.
A 3rd century CE touchstone inscription of a perumpattan (Tamil goldsmith) from Khuan Luk
Pat in Krabi Province points to the presence of pre-modern professional diasporas. The Takua Pa
inscription indicates that a manigramattar (Tamil mercantile guild) operated in Thailand in the
8th–9th centuries CE. The Lobu Tua inscription also mentions the Ayyavole trade guild who
established a permanent outpost on the west coast of Sumatra.
In addition, the Sangam anthologies contain the earliest literary references to Tamil contact with
Southeast Asia. The poem Pattinappalai, dating to the 2nd century CE, describes the import of
foreign merchandise from Kedah to the Chola port of Poompuhar, while Chithalai
Satthanar’s Manimekalai written in the 5th–6th centuries CE makes reference to Java.
The earliest reference to Tamil religious beliefs can be found in Sangam literature. Each of
the Sangam thinai (poetic landscape) was represented by a specific deity: Kurinji  or hilly regions

174
by Seyon or Murugan; Mullai or pastoral lands by Mayon or Vishnu; Marudam or agricultural
areas by Senon or Indra; Neydal or coastal zones by Kadalon; and Palai or arid regions by
Korravai.
Jainism and Buddhism also co-existed with Hindu practices during this period. For instance,
Kanchipuram, Puhar or Kaveripumpattinam, and Madurai were known as the three ancient Tamil
centres of Buddhism. Even the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang visited the court of
Narasimha Pallava in the 7th century CE and noted that there were 100 Buddhist monasteries
and over 10,000 monks.
From the 7th century CE onwards, a devotional movement revived the Hindu sects of Siva and
Vishnu as well as the worship of the mother goddess or Shakti. The classical form of Tamil
temple architecture evolved after this period with the rise of the Pallava, Cholas, and Pandiya
dynasties. Echoes of these art and architectural styles can be seen across Southeast Asia as
remnants of its Hindu-Buddhist past.
Tamil folk versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata also grew popular in Southeast Asia. For
instance, the Ramakien’s inclusion of Mayil Ravanan, a character unique to
Kambar’s Ramavataram, points to the Tamil influences in the narrative.

1. Miniature Shrine Roof-Kedah, Malaysia, 7th century CE-Bronze

On loan from Asian Civilisations Museum
2. Standing Buddha-Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu, India-13th century CE, Chola period,Bronze
Collection of Indian Heritage Centre
3. Siva Nataraja-12th century CE, Chola Period,Tamil Nadu,Bronze,On loan from National
Museum, New Delhi (India)

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 4. Larger Leiden Gran- circa 1006 CE,Copper-with permission from Leiden University
Library
Coromandel Trade
Mercantile activity between the Tamil country and Southeast Asia was well in place long before
the arrival of European companies in the region. For instance, Sultan Mansur Shah of Melaka
(1459–1477 CE) sent emissaries to the Vijayanagara Empire in the 15th century to strengthen
commercial ties, and the ships of the Sultan of Melaka sailed to Pazhaverkadu or Pulicat
regularly.
Tamil traders such as the Marakkayars, the Mudaliars, and the Chettis were held in high esteem
in the courts of Southeast Asian kingdoms and were made shahbandar (harbour
master),  bendahara (official) and saudagar raja (king’s merchant). They hailed from port towns
such as Pazhaverkadu, Mylapore, Kunimedu, Cuddalore, Parangi Pettai, Nagore and
Nagapattinam, and exported rice and textiles from the Coromandel in exchange for gold, copper
and tin; spices such as nutmegs and cloves; and Chinese raw silk.
Nayinar Chetti, a native of Pazhaverkadu, was a leading textile trader in 16th century Melaka
and appointed shahbandar by the Portuguese. Tome Pires in Suma Oriental mentions Nayinar
Surya Deva, a well-known merchant who was engaged in trade from Melaka to the Moluccas.
The Sultan of Banten appointed a Chetti merchant from Mylapore as laksamana (supreme
commander of the navy). In the early 17th century, the Sultan of Pasai appointed Nayinar
Kuniyappan, a Hindu merchant from Kunimedu as shahbandar.
However, the influence of these Tamil trading communities declined by the 19th century.
Arikamedu
The Coromandel Coast included ports located across present day Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh. Arikamedu was one of the most important ports in this network, and had connections
with Southeast Asian centres such as Khao Sham Kaeo in Thailand and Sembiran in Indonesia.
Rouletted pottery and beads made in and/or by communities from Arikamedu recovered from
these sites serve as evidence of these early connections.
The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, in the early centuries of the Common Era, mentions
Arikamedu as the port for Colondiphonda (an unknown type of ship) bound for Southeast Asia
(Cheryse). Arikamedu was a significant production centre with strategic access to the Indian
Ocean trade network.

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 1. Piring (Dish)-Romano-Indian Rouletted Ware,2nd–3rd centuries,Made in Arikamedu
and found in Buni Site, Krowang, Northwest Java
2. Indo-Pacific Trade Beads
Kedah
Kedah was an important trade centre and ancient kingdom in the Malay Peninsula. Early south
Indian navigators often relied on latitudinal readings, and their ships would sail in a straight line
from southern India or Sri Lanka across the Bay of Bengal and make landfall at the Isthmus of
Kra or at Kedah. Known in Chinese sources as Jiecha and as Kadaram in Tamil country, it was
an ideal midway point for traders and pilgrims awaiting favourable monsoon winds to take them
to their ultimate destinations in India and beyond or China.
The earliest references to Kedah can be found in Sangam literature composed in the second half of the
2nd century CE.  Called  Kazhagam  in Pattinapalai, this term is derived from  the Tamil
word kazhk meaning iron or black rock. This type of iron was typically used to forge steel weapons
which were then exported out of iron factories. Archaeological excavations in Kedah have led to the
discovery of iron factories at the Sungai Batu dating back to the 3rd–6th centuries BCE.

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Tuyere (Tube),Iron Ingots

1. Tuppotiya  (Skirtcloth),18th century, made in the Coromandel Coast and

collected in Sri Lanka
Cotton
Ship's bell, with inscription in Tamil characters translated as "Bell of
the Ship Mohideen Bakhsh"-17th – 18th centuries,Made in Tamil Nadu,
discovered in New Zealand
Bronze

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A bell being inscribed at Kumbakonam in contemporary Tamil Nadu.

The Singapore Connection

Archaeological finds since the 1980s in the riverfront area strongly suggest that maritime
networks connected India to the kingdom of Singapura, a prosperous regional port for much of
the 14th century CE. Situated at the access points of both the Straits of Malacca and the South
China Sea, this port was of strategic significance and was central in the lucrative India-China
trade.
Sang Nila Utama, of the Srivijayan dynasty, founded the kingdom of Singapura in the late 13th
century CE. He and his descendants ruled Singapore for five generations until Iskander Shah
fled, driven out by Majapahit forces. He later founded the kingdom of Melaka. As attested in
the Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals, these kings of Singapura claimed descent from Raja
Chulan of the Chola dynasty.
The victories of Chola kings in the Malay Archipelago are listed in inscriptions of the era.
Thirteen place names are provided, of which four are unidentified till date. Some scholars have
recognised one of these names, Valaippanduru, as Singapore, as Pancur was the placename for
Fort Canning Hill at the heart of Old Singapura.
The name Singapura itself has Indic roots and it was likely adopted due to connections with
South Indian polities. For instance, Singapuram was a common placename issued in the Chola
territory while Singai Nagar was the capital of the Arya Chakravartis of Jaffna. Singapura was
also the name of places in Tra Kieu, Vietnam as early as the 4th century CE.    

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11th–13th centuries CE, Singapore Stone

The Headless Horseman .14th century CE to RIGHT Sejarah Melayu  (Malay Annals)
Copy inscribed in 1896

Odyssey of Tamils - From the Coromandel Coast to the Straits

Odyssey of Tamils, a specially commissioned documentary film, dwells on the pre-modern
connections between Tamil regions, Southeast Asian polities and Singapore. Utilising evidence
of Tamil connections in archaeological sites, museums and other institutions, this film presents
the rich legacy of Tamil heritage in the region during pre-modern times. It also shows
Singapore’s contemporary Tamils visiting sites of historical importance, and reminds us that our
heritage is all around us, waiting to be re-discovered.

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This film uses authoritative accounts presented by historians Iain Sinclair and Sureshkumar
Muthukumaran on the role of Tamil diasporas in Southeast Asia and Singapore. From surveying
early literary references to a toponymic review of cross-cultural interactions, the film features
aspects of interactions between south Indian and Southeast Asian societies from ancient times.
It also investigates traces of the Cholas in Singapore through Dr Iain Sinclair’s survey of 14th century
archaeological finds and the Singapore Stone in conjunction with narratives presented in Sejarah
Melayu.  Using a combination of re-enactments, interviews and contextual imagery, this film presents
the odyssey of early Tamil diasporas in Southeast Asia and Singapore.

TAMILS IN 19TH CENTURY SINGAPORE

Merchants: Naraina Pillai and his Contemporaries
The early Indian mercantile community in Singapore was diverse in ethnicity and religious
affiliation and Tamils were influential merchants, traders, shopkeepers and small vendors. The
Chulias were among the earliest Indians to settle permanently in Singapore, and by the 19th
century, they had become one of the most influential sections of the Tamil community as leading
operators of lighter and harbour boats, as well as shopkeepers and labourers. As early as 1827,
Tamil Muslim migrants, led by Anser Saib, were given land for the construction of a mosque
along South Bridge Road while Mohammed and Haja Mohideen constructed the shrine Nagore
Dargah between 1828 and 1830.
Between 1823 and 1826, Sir Stamford Raffles introduced regulations to select and appoint
headmen based on their respective community’s customs and social practices to deal with
disputes. In 1822, William Farquhar, the Resident of Singapore nominated Sangra Chitty, a
Hindu native of Malacca, as the overall headmen for the Indian community and Naraina Pillai,
and Mayapoory or Viapoory, as the headmen for Coromandel Coast natives. In addition,
Mahomet Lebbai, Fakir Tyndall and Ibrahimutto were nominated as headmen for labour while
Mahomud Hussein, Ismail Lebbai and Sheikh Mahomet were nominated to represent the Tamil
Muslim community.

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 1. Petition submitted by Naraina Pillai
October 1822, Singapore
2. Petition submitted by Naraina Pillai with his signature appearing in Tamil together
with Viapoory’s signature
December 1822, Singapore

Rare hand coloured wood engraving of Masjid Jamae Chulia and Sri Mariamman Temple at
South Bridge Road  .1860. Drawn by Peter Bernhard Wilhelm Heine

182
Scribes, Poets and Publishers: Munshi Abdullah, Makhdoom Saibu, and Others
19th century literature attests to the diversity of early Indian residents in the Straits region.
Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, better known as Munshi Abdullah, arrived in Singapore from
Malacca in mid-1819, and served as a scribe and interpreter for Sir Stamford Raffles. The first
historical accounts on Indians in the Straits Settlements were available in the 1920s and 1930s
following the publication of Saravana Muthuthamby Pillai’s Malaya Manmium on Tamils in
Malaya, PNM Muthupalaniappa Chettiar’s Happy Malaya and RB Krishnan’s Indians in
Malaya.
Tamil literature in Singapore, however, pre-dates the abovementioned publications and can be
traced to the late 19th century. Examples include Munajathu Thirattu by Muhammad Abdul
Kadir Pulavar, a compilation of Islamic religious poetry, which was published as early as 1872,
and Singai Nagar Anthadi by Yazhpanam Sadasiva Pandithar in 1887. By the second half of the
19th century, Tamil Muslims and the Jawi Peranakans established the earliest vernacular presses
in Singapore. These newspapers were published in Tamil and provided commentaries on
subcontinental politics, social reform and local issues.
In 1873, CK Makhdoom Sahib established Denodaya Press which published Singai Varthamani,
Singapore’s first Tamil newspaper in 1875. In 1876, the Jawi Peranakan company
published Tankai Nesan, and in 1887, the Denodaya Press published Singai Nesan. In 1907, NR
Partha founded and edited The Orient newspaper, and its Anglo-Tamil version Vijayan with a
view to better understand the island’s residents. Other notable Tamil newspapers published
during the early 20th century included Tamil Murasu by the Tamils Reform Association and
edited by G Sarangapany.

2. Kazhuthiru  or wedding necklace/ Mid-20th century, Chettinad/Gold

3. Copy of Singai Nesan founded by Makhdum Sahib and Muhammad Abdul Kadir

27 June 1887, Singapore.

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Bankers and Patrons: The Story of the Rm VLN Chettiar Family
Nattukottai Chettiars are one of the oldest Tamil communities in Singapore and they settled in
Singapore during the 1820s. As a community of private financiers and merchant bankers, the
Chettiars were the main source of private financing through medium and long-term credit, and
their clientele was cosmopolitan. They were also keen advocates of education and established the
Chettiar’s Premier Institution. In addition, the Chettiars built Sri Thendayuthapani Temple on
Tank Road in April 1859, and the popular festival-procession of Thaipusam dedicated to
Murugan was first celebrated at the temple in 1860.
The family of Rm VLN (Ramanathan Vellayappan Lakshmanan Nachiappan) Subbiah Chettiar
has its roots in Kallal in Chettinad. Rm V Subramaniam Chettiar arrived in Singapore in 1892.
He was a private financier and with his brother Lakshmanan Chettiar, co-founded his firm
located at 56 Market Street. Lakshmanan adopted Subramaniam Chettiar’s son Nachiappan who
continued in the financing business, and his son Rm VLN Subbiah Chettiar was the last of the
private financiers in this family.  The practice of retaining the initials of several generations in
their name is unique to the Chettiar community and provides a clue to a Chettiar’s genealogy.
This is one of Singapore’s oldest Nattukottai Chettiar families with a long history in Singapore
dating back to the 19th century.

Passport of Rm V Subramaniam Chettiar

Photograph of Rm V Subramaniam Chettiar with his son Kumarappa Chettiar

Early 20th century, Singapore

A Fleet of Carriages: The Story of Sangoo Thevar and Descendants

In the early 19th century, Singapore’s land transport system was comprised mainly bullock carts,
horse carriages, jin-rickshaws and bicycles. Sangoo Thevar, Palaniappa Chetty, Sundra Daven,
Meydin, Ismail Shah and Syed Ibrahim were some of the Tamil horse carriage contractors.
Sangoo Thevar (Sangoo is Tamil for conch) arrived in Singapore in the 1850s with his wife from
Mannargudi, Thanjavur. He acquired a fleet of horse carriages and leased them out.

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In the succeeding decades, he amassed a fortune from this business and became a prominent
member of the Indian community in Singapore. Sangoo Thevar had six children, Shanmugam
Pillai, Parvathi, Regunath, Rajagopal, Lakshmi, and Meenachi Sundram. When Sangoo Thevar
passed away in 1890, Shanmugam, the eldest, remained in Singapore and sent his siblings and
mother back to India in 1895. Shanmugam subsequently became the Chief Clerk of Singapore
Telegraph Office in 1912. Sangoo Thevar’s youngest son, Meenachi Sundram, returned to
Singapore in 1912 with his mother and later became the first Asian Headmaster of Anglo-
Chinese School in Singapore.
Sangoo Parvathi's daughter Anjalaiammal married Avadai Thevar, a construction contractor who
arrived in Singapore in the early 20th century from Thanjavur, and their daughter, Avadai
Dhanam, became the first lady of Singapore as the wife of the late CV Devan Nair, third
President of the Republic of Singapore.

Photograph of Sangoo Thevar riding a  gharry  or horse carriage as identified by Pushpa

Ramanujan
Late 19th century, Singapore
Paper (Reproduction)
Courtesy of National Museum of Singapore

From Vaddukoddai to Singapore: Annamalai Pillai, JA Supramaniam and

Descendants
Arumugam Annamalai Pillai was born in Vaddukoddai, Jaffna in 1839. He was educated at St
John’s College in Yazhpanam or Jaffna and later graduated as a surveyor in India in 1868. He
was appointed Government Surveyor at Galle where he met James Wheeler Woodford Birch.
Birch later became the Colonial Secretary of Singapore and transferred Annamalai to Singapore
to become its Government Surveyor.
Annamalai arrived in Singapore in 1875 and became Chief of the Survey department. Annamalai
introduced the practice of valuing land in Singapore by the square foot as he anticipated the rise
in land value as the port city developed. He resigned from colonial service in 1883 and
established a leading private practice in partnership with Alfred William Lermit. It is estimated
that Annamalai was responsible for surveying three quarters of the land in Singapore. According
to title deeds and historical records, Annamalai owned estates in Katong and Siglap by 1885. He
also started buying tracts of land in Tanglin and the Bukit Timah area, and these surroundings

185
were collectively named after him as Namly Avenue. Annamalai Pillai was also a founding
member of Singapore Ceylon Tamil Association.
Annamalai Pillai’s nephew, Rev JA Supramaniam, married Harriet Navamani Joseph, whose
lineage traced back to 13th century Jaffna royalty. Their son Dr JMJ Supramaniam was a pioneer
in the management and elimination of tuberculosis in Singapore, and his son, Paul Supramaniam,
has recorded his family tree showing five generations of his family in Singapore, and tracing
their lineage to Kulasekara Singai Aryan Pararajasekaran Arya Chakravarty, King of Jaffna
(1246-56 CE). 

Photograph of the JA Supramaniam family

Early 20th century, Singapore

From Mannargudi to Singapore: The Ramasamy Family

P Ramasamy and his wife Rengammal arrived in Singapore in 1886 from Thirumakottai in
Mannargudi, Tamil Nadu. They belonged to a community known as the Agamudyar Thevars
who were landowners. On their arrival, Ramasamy joined the Straits Settlements Police Force
and soon rose to the rank of Sergeant. The couple had five children Vaithinathen, Angammal,
Muthia, Manikam, and Rengammal. Angammal married her relative Kuppusamy, a cattle trader.
Kuppusamy and his younger sister Ponnammal jointly owned a thaan or shed with stables for
cattle and horse carts at Rochor. The horse carts were primarily rented out for the use of guests at
the nearby Raffles Hotel. Ponnammal was also an industrious female entrepreneur who ran a
lucrative kootu or tontine business in Rochor. Lakshmi, the daughter of Angammal and
Kuppusamy, was trained in classical music by her illustrious musician aunt Amballigay who had
come to Singapore in 1933 as the fourteen-year old bride of Manikam. The first public

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performance by Amballigay’s musical troupe took place in May 1937 at Farrer Park when Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru and his daughter Indra made a short visit to Singapore and Malaya.
Lakshmi later married Rengasamy, the son of Kuala Lumpur’s wealthy Tamil merchant RM
Davar, and the brother of the Indian National Army veteran Janaki Athi Nahappan. Lakshmi
Rengasamy Davar was an educator and philanthropist who made charitable contributions to
several Hindu temples and the Ramakrishna Mission.
The Ramasamy family trace their lineage in Singapore to six generations.

Portrait of Lakshmi Reng asamy D evar  

T ambalam  o r tray presen ted b y Ind ra N eh ru to Lakshmi Rengasamy Devar

They came from Jaffna: The Family of Eliyathamby

Jaffna (Yazhpanam in Tamil) is located in northern Sri Lanka (Ceylon in the past). Tamils from
this region included descendants of the old Tamil kingdom of Jaffna, the Vannimais or
descendants of chieftains. Most of the early Tamils from Sri Lanka arrived as colonial personnel
to Malaya and Singapore. 

Born in Changanai, a market town in Jaffna, Eliyathamby worked as an assistant overseer for the
British in Malaya. In this role, Eliyathamby supervised labour who cleared and built the roads
that connected important towns. Eliyathamby’s grandfather Venasithamby and father,
Muthuthamby had migrated from Jaffna to Malaya in the 1850s. They owned rice fields in
Malaya and conducted trade with Jaffna. Eliyathamby subsequently married a relative Meenachi,
from Chulipuram. 

Both Meenachi and Eliyathamby belonged to a community known as Vellalar and hailed from a
line of chieftains. Meenachi and Eliyathamby travelled to Malaya in the 1890s by a sailboat, and
their descendants eventually settled in Singapore. Meenachi was a skilled  culinarian , and
brought with her cooking implements such as grinding stones, a wooden mortar and pestle as
well as heirloom brass vessels that were passed through the generations. 

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Venasithamby and his descendants have been in Malaya and Singapore for seven generations. 

Sothi (coconut based curry) serving vessel and a cooking vessel from the collection of
Madam Meenachi Eliyathamby/ 1890s, JaffnaBrass

Tamil Women
Family accounts and oral historical sources have informed us that Tamil women have been in
Singapore from the second half of the 19th century. As labour, as convicts, as wives, and as
entrepreneurs Tamil women were diverse in the walks of life they occupied in Singapore.
Alamayloo Pillay arrived from Mauritius with her father Sabapathy Pillai in the second half of
the 19th century and in 1890, she married Koona Vayloo Pillay. Madam Ponnammal was a
private financier with operations at Rochor in the late 19th century. These are but two names of
Tamil women who were 19th century personas in Singapore. What of the others who remain
anonymous? This section serves as a reminder of the stories of many Tamil women that remain
obscure, waiting to be discovered.
 The story of the female Tamil migrant is often shrouded in anonymity and little is known of the
lives of early Tamil female migrants to Singapore and Malaya. In response to this gender-
imbalance, Anurendra Jegadeva attempts to recreate the journey of a contemporary diasporic
Tamil girl by using his daughter as the central figure for this installation titled Heart in Hand.
The installation juxtaposes her Western oriented values against her ethno-cultural background
inherited from her grandmother. The work further conveys the disconnect, even indifference felt
by the children of migrants as they assimilate and negotiate their way through the same issues of
identity and place, albeit twice removed, that was experienced by their grandparents. 

The central panel of the altar presents Anurendra’s daughter, and she is surrounded by
paraphernalia of the migrant including cooking implements, a famous migrant ship, auspicious
birds, and ancestral portraits. The six wings of the altar, inspired by a thali, are hinged to the
main panel. Embellished on back and front, each wing contains miniature paintings that
contribute to the narrative of contradiction.

The middle boxes within these hinged wings house light-boxes with reproductions of Migrant
Letters, works that incorporate letters from migrants. On the top of the panel, is a gopuram
(temple tower-like crown) that houses another light-box depicting an electric guitar-playing
Saraswati, the goddess of learning.

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Duality and Diversity: The Family of B Govindasamy Chettiar
In the 19th century, residents in the Madras Presidency were conversant in Tamil, regardless of
their own linguistic backgrounds. Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam were spoken across the
Presidency, and residents were receptive to these diverse influences in culture and tradition.
Consequently, migrants who arrived from the Madras Presidency, while predominantly Tamil,
included those who were well versed in both Tamil and their own cultural and linguistic
practices.

One such example was B Govindasamy Chettiar who arrived in Singapore at the turn of the
century. He was proprietor of the Indian Labour Company and supplied the harbour board with
wharf and dockyard workers. B Govindasamy’s offices and the labour quarters were located
along Keppel Road. He was well known for distributing free meals at his shed to port workers
and to members of the community which earned him the moniker Kottai Govindasamy. After a
short illness, he died on 6 April 1948 at the age of 59 and his funeral attracted attendees from all
races. Throughout the 1940s, B Govindasamy Chettiar was involved in the management of
Vadapathirakaliamman Temple, and after his death, his nephew SL Perumal oversaw major
renovations and the temple’s expansion in the 1970s. 

Photograph of the Indian Labour Company, 1935,Paper, 34x40cm

On Loan from the family of B Govindasamy Chettiar and SL Perumal

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B Govin dasamy Ch et tiar wit h h is first wif e, Komalavalli,1925-1926, Singapore RIGHT with 2 nd WIFE

Journey Across the Seas: The Adhynamilagi Family

When looking at Tamil heritage in early Singapore, it is important to remember that a large
Tamil mercantile community had long been present in Malacca, Penang, Myanmar, Medan, and
Vietnam. The mobility of these traders, influenced the pattern of migration undertaken by Tamil
diasporas. The descendants of Adhyakonar, an agriculturalist in the village of Mahibalanpatti in
Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu are one such example. Staunch followers of the patron guardian
deity Adhynamilagi Ayyanar at Maruthangudi near Pillayarpatti. Narayanan father of
Adhynamilagi and his uncle Mangaipahan both travelled via Nagapattinam to Southeast Asia.
Mangaipahan established himself as a successful textile trader at the turn of the century in
Saigon and Hanoi and was a patron of the Sri Mariamman temple there. Adhynamilagi boarded a
ship from Nagapattinam and sailed for Singapore, and then joined his uncle in Vietnam to help
him in his textile business. He returned to Singapore in the mid-20th century and worked as a
clerk with the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company. Adhynamilagi was English-
educated and multilinguist, lived in Market Street. Later brought his son to Singapore with him,
while his wife lived in India and visited occasionally. In his later years, by the 1970s, he became
a guide for Japanese tourists visiting Singapore. The family of Adhynamilagi can trace their
roots back to 4 generations in Southeast Asia.
Portraiture
European curiosity over Asian diversity is manifest in the emergence of portraiture and
photography by the 19th century in Singapore. The commodification and exotification of Indian
culture for western audiences was also achieved through the medium of photography. A Sachtler
of Sachtler & Co and John Thomson of Thomson Bro shot some of the earliest portraits of
Indians in Singapore between the 1860s and the 1870s. Later, the firm of GR Lambert & Co,
which operated from 1877 until the end of the First World War, produced the single most
important collection of images of Singapore in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
 These carefully curated photographs capture people from diverse trades and professions ranging
from hawkers to labour; the exotic fashion of matriarchal women; and the family as a unit.
Photographs such as these, together with those of other migrants, reinforced the exotic and
mysterious image of Singapore. However, it is unfortunate that the names of these profiles were
never documented, and they remain anonymous to date. To reverse the colonial neglect
surrounding these studies are portraits of Tamil pioneers from the 19th and early 20th centuries
identified in family collections and/or commissioned for this exhibitio
Revisiting the Past
Tamils in Singapore are a unique diaspora who have settled in the country, through continuous
waves of migration, over a period of 200 years. It is evident that the roots of most present-day

190
Tamil culture, customs, religious ideologies and affiliations in Singapore can be traced to the
19th century and that they have continued to evolve over the centuries. In fact, Tamil identity
today is the product of a long history of traditional practices which have combined and
incorporated local influences over time.
 As early migrants became settlers, language and literature became useful tools that fostered
social integration amongst the diverse groups of Tamils. Tamil language education was provided
as early as 1834 in Singapore, and Anglo-Tamil schools were established in 1873 and 1876 to
teach English through the use of Tamil. Today, Tamil is one of the four official languages of
Singapore, and community and state-led efforts in the preservation and promotion of Tamil
language continue unabated.
 This exhibition traces the long history of Tamils in Singapore and highlights the stories of Tamil
pioneers who played integral roles in the development of early Singapore. Since then, the Tamil
community has continued to evolve, and the Singaporean Tamils of today are a vibrant and
diverse community. They constitute an estimated 5% of Singapore’s population and yet continue
to play an important role in shaping Singapore’s future.

The Chettiars: Singapore's First Financiers

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Sri Senpaga Vinayagar Temple//S ri Veeramakaliamman Temple
© 2021 National Heritage Board

CHAPTER VIII
The Ancient Hindu Mantra for Victory in life (Aaditya
Hridayam)
Ādityahṛdayam (Sanskrit: आदित्यहृदयम्,  is a Hindu devotional hymn dedicated
to Āditya or Sūrya (the Sun God) found in the Yuddha Kānda (6.105)
of Vālmīki's Rāmāyana. It was recited by the sage Agastya to Rāma in the
battlefield before fighting with the asura king Rāvaṇa. In it, Agastya teaches
Rāma (who is fatigued after the long battle with various warriors of Laṅkā, ) the
procedure of worshiping Āditya ( for strength ) to defeat the enemy. [
Āditya (Sanskrit: आदित्य, lit. "son of Aditi") refers to
the Sun. Hṛdayam (Sanskrit: हृदयम्) is the Sanskrit word for 'heart'.

Structure
The Ādityahṛdayam is made up of thirty śhlokas which can be divided into six
sections:

1–
Agastya Rishi approaches Rāma.
2

3– Agastya Rishi states the greatness of the Ādityahṛidayam and advantages

5 of reciting it.

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 6– A description of Āditya as the embodiment of all gods as well as
15 nourisher, sustainer, and giver of heat.

16
– Mantra japa.
20

21
– Salutations to Āditya.
24

25 A description of the results of this prayer, the method of recital, and the
– procedure followed by Rāma to successfully invoke Āditya to bless him
30 with the requisite strength for the victory on the battlefield.

Devanagari
॥ आदित्यहृदयम् ॥
ततो युद्धपरिश्रान्तं समरे चिन्तया स्थितम् ।
रावणं चाग्रतो दृष्ट्वा युद्धाय समुपस्थितम् ॥ १ ॥
दैवतैश्च समागम्य द्रष्टु मभ्यागतो रणम् ।
उपागम्याब्रवीद्राममगस्त्यो भगवान् ऋषिः ॥ २ ॥
राम राम महाबाहो शृणु गुह्यं सनातनम् ।
येन सर्वानरीन् वत्स समरे विजयिष्यसे ॥ ३ ॥
आदित्यहृदयं पुण्यं सर्वशत्रुविनाशनम् ।
जयावहं जपं नित्यम् अक्षयं परमं शिवम् ॥ ४ ॥
सर्वमङ्गलमाङ्गल्यं सर्वपापप्रणाशनम् ।
चिन्ताशोकप्रशमनम् आयुर्वर्धनमुत्तमम् ॥ ५ ॥
रश्मिमन्तं समुद्यन्तं देवासुरनमस्कृ तम् ।
पूजयस्व विवस्वन्तं भास्करं भुवनेश्वरम् ॥ ६ ॥
सर्वदेवात्मको ह्येष तेजस्वी रश्मिभावनः ।
एष देवासुरगणाल्ँलोकान् पाति गभस्तिभिः ॥ ७ ॥
एष ब्रह्मा च विष्णुश्च शिवः स्कन्दः प्रजापतिः ।
महेन्द्रो धनदः कालो यमः सोमो ह्यपां पतिः ॥ ८ ॥
Text
IAST
.. ādityahṛdayam ..
tato yuddhapariśrāntaṃ samare cintayā sthitam .
rāvaṇaṃ cāgrato dṛṣṭvā yuddhāya samupasthitam .. 1
..
daivataiśca samāgamya draṣṭumabhyāgato raṇam .
upāgamyābravīdrāmamagastyo bhagavān ṛṣiḥ .. 2 ..
rāma rāma mahābāho śṛṇu guhyaṃ sanātanam .
yena sarvānarīn vatsa samare vijayiṣyase .. 3 ..
ādityahṛdayaṃ puṇyaṃ sarvaśatruvināśanam .
jayāvahaṃ japam nityam akṣayaṃ paramaṃ śivam ..
4 ..
sarvamaṅgalamāṅgalyaṃ sarvapāpapraṇāśanam .
cintāśokapraśamanam āyurvardhanamuttamam .. 5 ..
raśmimantaṃ samudyantaṃ devāsuranamaskṛtam .
pūjayasva vivasvantaṃ bhāskaraṃ bhuvaneśvaram ..
6 ..
sarvadevātmako hyeṣa tejasvī raśmibhāvanaḥ .
eṣa devāsuragaṇālm̐lokān pāti gabhastibhiḥ .. 7 ..
eṣa brahmā ca viṣṇuśca śivaḥ skandaḥ prajāpatiḥ .
mahendro dhanadaḥ kālo yamaḥ somo hyapāṃ
patiḥ .. 8 ..

193
पितरो वसवः साध्या अश्विनौ मरुतो मनुः ।
वायुर्वह्निः प्रजाः प्राण ऋतुकर्ता प्रभाकरः ॥ ९ ॥
आदित्यः सविता सूर्यः खगः पूषा गभस्तिमान् ।
सुवर्णसदृशो भानुर्हिरण्यरेता दिवाकरः ॥ १० ॥
हरिदश्वः सहस्रार्चिः सप्तसप्तिर्मरीचिमान् ।
तिमिरोन्मथनः शम्भुस्त्वष्टा मार्ताण्डकोंऽशुमान् ॥ ११ ॥
हिरण्यगर्भः शिशिरस्तपनो भास्करो रविः ।
अग्निगर्भोऽदितेः पुत्रः शङ्खः शिशिरनाशनः ॥ १२ ॥
व्योमनाथस्तमोभेदी ऋग्यजुःसामपारगः ।
घनवृष्टिरपां मित्रो विन्ध्यवीथीप्लवङ्गमः ॥ १३ ॥
आतपी मण्डली मृत्युः पिङ्गलः सर्वतापनः ।
कविर्विश्वो महातेजा रक्तः सर्वभवोद्भवः ॥ १४ ॥
नक्षत्रग्रहताराणामधिपो विश्वभावनः ।
तेजसामपि तेजस्वी द्वादशात्मन्नमोऽस्तु ते ॥ १५ ॥
नमः पूर्वाय गिरये पश्चिमायाद्रये नमः ।
ज्योतिर्गणानां पतये दिनाधिपतये नमः ॥ १६ ॥
जयाय जयभद्राय हर्यश्वाय नमो नमः ।
नमो नमः सहस्रांशो आदित्याय नमो नमः ॥ १७ ॥
नम उग्राय वीराय सारङ्गाय नमो नमः ।
नमः पद्मप्रबोधाय मार्ताण्डाय नमो नमः ॥ १८ ॥
ब्रह्मेशानाच्युतेशाय सूर्यायादित्यवर्चसे ।
भास्वते सर्वभक्षाय रौद्राय वपुषे नमः ॥ १९ ॥
तमोघ्नाय हिमघ्नाय शत्रुघ्नायामितात्मने ।
कृ तघ्नघ्नाय देवाय ज्योतिषां पतये नमः ॥ २० ॥
तप्तचामीकराभाय वह्नये विश्वकर्मणे ।
नमस्तमोऽभिनिघ्नाय रुचये लोकसाक्षिणे ॥ २१ ॥
नाशयत्येष वै भूतं तदेव सृजति प्रभुः ।
पायत्येष तपत्येष वर्षत्येष गभस्तिभिः ॥ २२ ॥
एष सुप्तेषु जागर्ति भूतेषु परिनिष्ठितः ।
एष एवाग्निहोत्रं च फलं चैवाग्निहोत्रिणाम् ॥ २३ ॥
वेदाश्च क्रतवश्चैव क्रतूनां फलमेव च ।
यानि कृ त्यानि लोके षु सर्व एष रविः प्रभुः ॥ २४ ॥
॥ फलश्रुतिः ॥
एनमापत्सु कृ च्छ्रेषु कान्तारेषु भयेषु च ।
कीर्तयन् पुरुषः कश्चिन्नावसीदति राघव ॥ २५ ॥
पूजयस्वैनमेकाग्रो देवदेवं जगत्पतिम् ।
pitaro vasavaḥ sādhyā aśvinau maruto manuḥ .
vāyurvahniḥ prajāh prāṇa ṛtukartā prabhākaraḥ .. 9 ..
ādityaḥ savitā sūryaḥ khagaḥ pūṣā gabhastimān .
suvarṇasadṛśo bhānurhiraṇyaretā divākaraḥ .. 10 ..
haridaśvaḥ sahasrārciḥ saptasaptirmarīcimān .
timironmathanaḥ śambhustvaṣṭā mārtāṇḍakoṃ'śumān
.. 11 ..
hiraṇyagarbhaḥ śiśirastapano bhāskaro raviḥ .
agnigarbho'diteḥ putraḥ śaṅkhaḥ śiśiranāśanaḥ ..
12 ..
vyomanāthastamobhedī ṛgyajuḥsāmapāragaḥ .
ghanavṛṣṭirapāṃ mitro vindhyavīthīplavaṅgamaḥ .. 13
..
ātapī maṇḍalī mṛtyuḥ piṅgalaḥ sarvatāpanaḥ .
kavirviśvo mahātejā raktaḥ sarvabhavodbhavaḥ ..
14 ..
nakṣatragrahatārāṇāmadhipo viśvabhāvanaḥ .
tejasāmapi tejasvī dvādaśātmannamo'stu te .. 15 ..
namaḥ pūrvāya giraye paścimāyādraye namaḥ .
jyotirgaṇānāṃ pataye dinādhipataye namaḥ .. 16 ..
jayāya jayabhadrāya haryaśvāya namo namaḥ .
namo namaḥ sahasrāṃśo ādityāya namo namaḥ .. 17
..
nama ugrāya vīrāya sāraṅgāya namo namaḥ .
namaḥ padmaprabodhāya mārtāṇḍāya namo
namaḥ .. 18 ..
brahmeśānācyuteśāya sūryāyādityavarcase .
bhāsvate sarvabhakṣāya raudrāya vapuṣe namaḥ ..
19 ..
tamoghnāya himaghnāya śatrughnāyāmitātmane .
kṛtaghnaghnāya devāya jyotiṣāṃ pataye namaḥ ..
20 ..
taptacāmīkarābhāya vahnaye viśvakarmaṇe .
namastamo'bhinighnāya rucaye lokasākṣiṇe .. 21 ..
nāśayatyeṣa vai bhūtaṃ tadeva sṛjati prabhuḥ .
pāyatyeṣa tapatyeṣa varṣatyeṣa gabhastibhiḥ .. 22 ..
eṣa supteṣu jāgarti bhūteṣu pariniṣṭhitaḥ .
eṣa evāgnihotraṃ ca phalaṃ caivāgnihotriṇām .. 23 ..
vedāśca kṛtavaścaiva kṛtūnāṃ phalameva ca .
yāni kṛtyāni lokeṣu sarva eṣa raviḥ prabhuḥ .. 24 ..
.. phalaśrutiḥ ..
enamāpatsu kṛcchreṣu kāntāreṣu bhayeṣu ca .
kīrtayan puruṣaḥ kaścinnāvasīdati rāghava .. 25 ..
pūjayasvainamekāgro devadevaṃ jagatpatim .
194
एतत् त्रिगुणितं जप्त्वा युद्धेषु विजयिष्यसि ॥ २६ ॥
अस्मिन् क्षणे महाबाहो रावणं त्वं जहिष्यसि ।
एवमुक्त्वा तदागस्त्यो जगाम स यथागतम् ॥ २७ ॥
एतच्छ्रु त्वा महातेजा नष्टशोकोऽभवत्तदा ।
धारयामास सुप्रीतो राघवः प्रयतात्मवान् ॥ २८ ॥
आदित्यं प्रेक्ष्य जप्त्वेदं परं हर्षमवाप्तवान् ।
त्रिराचम्य शुचिर्भूत्वा धनुरादाय वीर्यवान् ॥ २९ ॥
रावणं प्रेक्ष्य हृष्टात्मा युद्धाय समुपागमत् ।
सर्वयत्नेन महता वधे तस्य धृतोऽभवत् ॥ ३० ॥
अथ रविरवदन्निरीक्ष्य रामं
मुदितमनाः परमं प्रहृष्यमाणः ।
निशिचरपतिसंक्षयं विदित्वा
सुरगणमध्यगतो वचस्त्वरेति ॥ ३१ ॥
॥ इति आदित्यहृदयम् ॥
etat triguṇitaṃ japtvā yuddheṣu vijayiṣyasi .. 26 ..
asmin kṣaṇe mahābāho rāvaṇaṃ tvaṃ jahiṣyasi .
evamuktvā tadāgastyo jagāma sa yathāgatam .. 27 ..
etacchrutvā mahātejā naṣṭaśoko'bhavattadā .
dhārayāmāsa suprīto rāghavaḥ prayatātmavān ..
28 ..
ādityaṃ prekṣya japtvedaṃ paraṃ
harṣamavāptavān .
trirācamya śucirbhūtvā dhanurādāya vīryavān .. 29 ..
rāvaṇaṃ prekṣya hṛṣṭātmā yuddhāya samupāgamat .
sarvayatnena mahatā vadhe tasya dhṛto'bhavat ..
30 ..
atha raviravadannirīkṣya rāmaṃ
muditamanāḥ paramaṃ prahṛṣyamāṇaḥ .
niśicarapatisaṃkṣayaṃ viditvā
suragaṇamadhyagato vacastvareti .. 31 ..
.. iti ādityahṛdayam..

A few words before the English rendering of Aaditya Hridayam.

Trying to do justice to verses from the epic Ramayana – the first of all epics in
the world – written over 5000 years ago, is impossible by anybody today. And
for that matter, Sage Valmiki himself says that the prayer part is older than the
epic itself. That must be obviously true, for, Sanskrit language existed in its
poetic, prosaic and pristine form much before the penning of the epic. I have
just attempted to give the limited version of my understanding of the Slokas
(verses). Mistakes, if any, are all mine, and any praise for the work goes to
blessings of Lord Ganesha, Lord Rama, the Sun God, and of course Sage
Valmiki.

195
 Aadityta Hridyam is part of the Yuddha Kaanda (or the war chapter) of
Valmiki Ramayana.

1&2
Sage Agastya arrived at the battlefield to watch two warriors – Lord Rama and
the demon king of Lanka – the ten headed Ravana. Due to incessant war the
tired Ravana rested a little and got ready for war again. As Lord Rama was
wondering as to how the formidable Ravana could be bested, Agastya began his
advice to (Lord Rama to) do the same.

3
O long limbed Rama, dear Child, I will now reveal to you an ancient secret
(method) to win against one’s adversaries. Listen to me (therefore), carefully.

4
Chanting the (divine verse) Aaditya Hridayam would grant you merits. The
verse will help you annihilate all your foes. It is very auspicious and (will
render you) beyond destruction.

5
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 The best amongst auspicious verses, (Aaditya Hridayam) will destroy all sins,
dispel all doubts, worries and increase the longevity of life.

6
Worship the Sun God who is revered by the denizens of heaven and demons
alike, (because) His rays reach all corners (of all the stellar systems) and on
that count alone, He is said to be the Lord of the world.

7
(The Sun God) protects the Universe through his rays and is considered to be
the protector of (all living beings be they) Gods or demons.

8
(Due to the aforesaid qualities), He is Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva (the holy Trinity),
Subrahmanya – the generalissimo of the Gods, Indra, Kubera, Yama, Moon and
Varuna – all rolled into one.

9
He is also the origin of all beings, embodiment of all (sense of) direction, the
soul of the Aswini twins, controller of all atmospheric movements, the life
breath of all living beings, and the Lord of all climes – from spring through fall
and winter.

10
(These apart), He is one of the progeny of (the mother of creation) Aditi, (and in
turn) Creator of every living being on the Universe, protector of all objects
moving through space and commands the sense of duty (amongst mortals and
immortals alike). He of the golden hue, is the preceptor of intellect.

11
He, who is omnipresent in the eight corners of space, has immeasurable
amount of rays, (whose chariot) has seven (celestial) horses. Sun, the God of
bliss also decimates those, which are unwanted in the Universe.

12
Being the One who controls the creation, safety and destruction of beings, (the
Sun God) is praised by all living beings in the Universe (as He is) the self-
controlled origin of Fire (and therefore) the one who destroys frost.

13
The Sun God, who traverses the Vindhyas (a mountain chain in central India),
in the second part of the (Lunar) calendar, scatters darkness and the
embodiment of the wisdom of the Rig, Yajur and Sama (the first three) Vedas,
is the emperor of the Heavens.

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 14
The round shaped Sun God who rises at dawn in the colour of molten gold,
who within himself contains the entire Universe, is the origin of all systems of
creation, (by) inhabiting His own Creation, helps (all to) win over enemies,
(because) He is benevolent at heart.

15
(I always) Prostrate before (Sun God) who is the head of the important 27 major
stars, and all the minor stars, whose brilliance is more than that of (the) Fire
(God himself), and who has twelve faces (for 12 months).

16
I prostrate before the One who rises in the east and sets in the west, who is the
Lord of daylight (and so should you.).

17
I Worship (therefore so should you) the very embodiment of victory, the sign of
auspiciousness, the One who has green coloured horses to carry him.

18
I Worship (so you too should), the brave and terrible one (for his enemies), the
one of quicksilver reflexes, the one who makes (all flowers like) the lotus to
bloom, and the one who has the final say in creation at the end of the 4 cyclical
periods of time–Kritayuga, Threthayuga, Dwaaparayuga and Kaliyuga followed
by the Great Flood.

19
I Prostrate before Him (so should you), the first among equals of the (first) three
Gods – Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, the One who impels all creations to behave
in their ordained, organised way, the One who is in the form of (the brightest)
star (in the Universe), and who burns all the unwanted (debris of the Universe),
(by His) terrible face.

20
I Pay obeisance (so do the same) to the One who dispels darkness, who
(triggers) the melting of snow, who has innumerable attributes, who decimates
the ingrate, who shines by His innate glow, and who is the first amongst all the
lights of the Universe.

21
I bow (so do the same) before the One who has the colour of molten gold, the
(seed of) fire (in Him), who destroys the darkness of ignorance, and who is the
witness of all merits and demerits of the denizens who inhabit the universe.

22

198
He creates the same world he destroys (and ipso facto the same beings within),
creates heat by his rays but cools the same by sending down soothing rain.

23
He remains awake when all the living beings in the Universe are asleep, and
due to his fierce form, bestows merit on all those who perform the daily fire
ritual (Agnihotra).

24
The Sun God is the origin and protector of the four Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama,
and Atharva), and decides the Universal path.

25
Listen O Rama! Anybody who recites these verses of Aaditya Hridayam during
difficult times, or during journeys into (the unknown) forests, or when
confronted with fear will never suffer.

26
Without being distracted (by the surroundings) pray thrice (a day) to the Lord
of all (mortal and immortal) beings – the Sun God and you shall win (all) your
battles.

27
After blessing the long limbed Lord Rama thus, and predicting that He would
slay (the demon) Ravana, sage Agastya took leave.

28
His (clouds of) worry thus dispelled, the lustrous (Lord Rama) obeyed
(verbatim) the sayings of sage Agastya with great happiness.

29
After purifying himself with water thrice, with undisturbed concentration, the
invincible Lord Rama prayed to the Sun God thrice and thereafter picked up
his bow (to fight Ravana).

30
Lord Rama thus cheered, advanced towards Ravana in full concentration with
a will to slay him.

31
Thus pleased with Lord Rama, the Sun God surrounded by all the Gods in
heaven showed him the path to decimate Ravana. Thus ends the Praise of the
Sun God in the Yuddha Kaanda (the war chapter) in Valmiki Ramayana.

199
 CHAPTER IX
Design concepts of the Angkor wat temple

200
Ancient Brahmin in SEA-The Cultural Influences on Southeast Asian Culture!🧡

This theory claims that the Brahmins, the priests, were mainly responsible for the spread of
Indian culture throughout Southeast Asia.
As said in the previous theory, the Vaishya Theory, a certain amount of power and authority
was required for such a deep pervasion of the Indian culture. The Brahmins were the highest
level in the caste system, deeply knowledgeable on the concepts of the political system and the
religious system and thus able to spread these concepts to the countries and local
communities in Southeast Asia.
Furthermore, as they were the highest caste, it is likely that the local rulers themselves would
have welcomed and respected their presence. The Brahmins interacted with the local rulers,
becoming counsellors in court and legitimising the local rulers by giving them a sort of
genealogical list, supporting them politically.
Additionally, they were knowledgeable in the concepts of the cosmic universe, which would
have intrigued the locals with its mystique, as the majority of the locals then practiced
animism and was greatly curious about the spirits around them.
It is not a far leap to assume that the Brahmins could easily influence the rulers and the
community with the Indian culture.
Reference: INDIANISATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Brahmin from Cambodia He is shown sitting in a cusped

arched niche of Hampi type. Raise of arch is equal to the

height of supporting columns. In Kamal Mahal of Hampi,

we see similar arches albeit with different proportion.

Arch is decorated with foliage pattern of Angkor type.

Definition. When referring to architecture; a concept is an idea, thought or notion

that forms the backbone and foundation of a design project and one that drives it
forward. It becomes the force and identity behind a projects progress and is
consistently consulted throughout every stage of its development.Every architectural
project is derived from a concept
An architectural concept is the meaning and reason to the end product (the
completed building or structure) and is the very first part of the design process to
be developed and realized much like a seed is to plant. And just like a plant seed it
can come from a vast array of sources, and produce a huge amount of variations
and outcomes. It is also the one of the only consistent element that follows a
project from beginning to end and remains as important at the start as it is at the
finish.

An architectural concept can be described as an: idea, notion, opinion,

abstraction, philosophy, belief, inspiration, thought, in Architectural concepts
should primarily be generated from three key areas;  Intention, theory, image, plan,
or hypothesis.

 The Site – climate, orientation, views, access, context, history, use …site
analyse

201
 Design brief – client and building requirements, accommodation, and
construction budget
 Building typology – Building type and use
…But can also be generated in full or in part by building program, culture, society,
technology, emotion, and sense. 

That said, more often than not, an exemplar piece of architecture will always be
well rooted and relate to its site and context, and so site analysis plays a huge role
in architectural concept generation and development.This can then backed and
supported by the design brief and building typology.
How and what do they influence?
Design concepts will and should influence the whole project, and include the:

 Exterior and interior – orientation, massing, form, apertures, height, light

 The landscape – hard and soft surfaces, types of planting, scale of painting,
arrangement of planting
 Finishes – colors, styles, textures, materials
 Fixtures and fittings – genre, style, scale, amount, material
 Structure – light, heavy, traditional, modern, vernacular
 Materials – colors, hard or soft, weathering, types, styles, locally sourced,
vernaculars

Each aspect of a project should be derived from and be driven by a concept; this
could be a singular global conceptual approach for the whole project, or individual
conceptual approaches applied to each aspect. A strong architecture concept gives
the architect / designer a clear direction and framework when making design
decisions; it provides a methodology to the thinking process by offering a type of
rule book. When there is a question to be answered or a decision to be made, the
concept is consulted and used to direct methods of thinking to provide a solution
within its own parameters to maintain the clarity of the design intent. This stops
the architect from branching off into never-ending directions and tangents, that
will only hinder and water down the architectures legitimacy.

In academic and professional terms, the difference between a successful project

and an average one is judged by the strength of its concept and whether its clarity
remained and was kept consistent throughout.

Priests Upheld a Unique and Royal Tradition in Cambodia

Cambodia has Brahmanism in its history. Centuries ago in the chambers of Angkor
Wat and Bayon temple, Brahman priests serving Angkorian kings presided over sacred
ceremonies. Descendants of the Indian priest caste who brought their religion to
Cambodia centuries before Buddhism took root, the Brahmans served as mystics,
clairvoyants, advisers and clergy. When the Indian entrance became effective, it
brought in the Brahmans. Although there was Buddhism, [there] has been Brah-
manism all along—the state religion and the king’s religion. Brahmanism has always
been part of the Cambodian royalty. Even today the burden of upholding that royal

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tradition falls on the gaunt, hunched shoulders of Kang Ken, Cambodia’s head Brah-
man priest and a civil servant in the Ministry of the Royal Palace.

They passed down their faith from one generation of men to the next, in a chain of
tradition that withstood centuries of warring regimes and even the cultural destruction
wreaked by the Khmer Rouge. The Brahmans have homes outside the palace, and
unlike Buddhist monks, they are allowed to marry and have children, thereby keeping
alive the practice through their family lines.And for the Brahmans, that may be the
greatest challenge of all.

Brahman was the teacher for the King—the royal teacher.The previous kings always
got advice from Brahmans—they had Brahmans who could predict the future and
Brahmans who played other roles. The current-day kings: Sometimes they get advice,
sometimes they only get the blessing.
Today, priests are conspicuous for their unusual dress: They wear only white, black
and red, and are forbidden to cut their hair. Their duties include performing elaborate
ceremonies: one for each month, plus the annual plowing ceremony, another ritual
near Khmer New Year, one on Pchum Ben and others. As late as the 1960s, the Brah-
mans were a highly visible element of palace life, said Alain Daniel, who holds a
doctorate in oriental literature and civilization.

Khmer kings looked to the Brahmans to bring good fortune to the nation.
It is said that one year when there was no rain, all of the kings of Cambodia—in-
cluding King Norodom Sihanouk, and his father, King Norodom Suramrit—asked the
Brahman priests to be an intermediary with the Hindu gods, so that the rain would
come.Traditionally, when one Brahmin retired his son( not daughter) would continue
this position.
 Samantha Melamed and Kuch Naren , 2005

Architecture needs to be grounded in depth and meaning and the more coherent
and relevant it is, the more successful and interesting it becomes …the concept
brings richness to the design. Then it is quite possible that the Brahmin played an
important part in conceptualizing and giving Religious shape to the monuments
design masters together with the other actors who built the temples

The Sdok Kak Thom Inscription in Thailand: The inscription (classified K.

235) is a 340-line composition, in both Sanskrit and ancient Khmer, carved on
a gray sandstone stele 1.51 meters high that stood in the northeast corner of
the temple's court. Dating to 8 February 1053, it recounts two and a half
centuries of service that members of the temple's founding family provided to
the Khmer court, mainly as chief chaplains to kings. In laying out this long
role, the text provides a remarkable and often poetically worded look at the
faith, royal lineage, history and social structure of the times.

203
Northeastern library. Photo c. 1980 / The Inscription RIGHT PIC

The Sanskrit text opens: "Homage to Śiva whose essence is highly proclaimed
without words by the subtle Śiva, His form, who pervades (everything) from
within and who activates the senses of living beings." The inscription is
perhaps most useful to historians in providing an account of twelve Khmer
kings who ruled over the course of the two and a half centuries. It recounts
monarchs' spiritual and martial virtues and basic events of their reigns. “As a
teacher zealously impels his disciples or a father his children, so did he, for the
sake of his duty, zealously impel his subjects, rightfully securing them
protection and nourishment,” says the inscription of Udayādityavarman II. “In
battle he held a sword which became red with the blood of the shattered enemy
kings and spread on all sides its rising lustre, as if it were a red lotus come out
of its chalice [or, applied to the sword: drawn out of its scabbard], which he
had delightedly seized from the Fortune of war by holding her by the hair(or
better, correcting lakṣmyāḥ in to lakṣmyā: which the Fortune of war, after he
had seized her hair, had delightedly offered him).”
The earliest king mentioned is Jayavarman II, who historians generally
consider, partly on the authority of this inscription, to have founded the Khmer
empire in c. 800. The text includes the oft-cited detail that he came from a
country named Java which meanwhile by most scholars, such as Charles
Higham, was seen as a foreign people living in the east whose name is derived
probably from Sanskrit yavana (wise), perhaps referring to the kingdom
of Champa. The Khmer portion of the text goes on to say: “A Brahman named
Hiraṇyadāman, skilled in magic and science," was invited by the king "to
perform a ceremony that would make it impossible for this country of
the Kambuja to pay any allegiance to Java and that there should be, in this
country, one sole sovereign.” 
The inscription documents nine generations of the temple's priestly
family starting with Śivakaivalya, Jayavarman II's chaplain. The advisors
are praised in the same adulatory tone as is employed for the kings. The text
gives a detailed account of how the family systematically expanded its holdings
of land and other property over the course of its long relationship with the royal
204
household. The final chaplain named in the text, Sadasiva, is recorded as
leaving the holy orders and marrying a sister of the primary queen of
Suryavarman. The man was given a new name and placed in charge of
construction projects. His career appears to have closed out the family's role in
the royal inner circle; the family is never heard from again in inscriptions.
Devaraja Cult: Scholars have paid special attention to the inscription's
account of the cult of the devarāja, a key part of the Khmer court's religious
ritual. “Hiraṇyadāma(n), the best of brahmins, with superior intelligence
like Brahmā, came, moved with compassion. To the king Jayavarman II he
carefully revealed a magic which had not been obtained by other people,” the
text reads. The king was instructed in four holy treatises. “After carefully
extracting the quintessence of the treatises by his experience and
understanding of the mysteries, this brahmin contrived the magic rites bearing
the name of Devarāja, for increasing the prosperity of the world.” [7] But the
description is sufficiently enigmatic that scholars cannot agree on the cult's
function. The term means obviously "king of the gods," in the sense that one
god, generally Śiva, was recognized as higher than others in the Hindu
pantheon and through his authority brought order to heaven. Court religious
ritual, as described repeatedly in the inscription, focused on maintaining a
linga, or holy shaft, in which Śiva's essence was believed to reside.
The inscription is also key to understanding important events in Khmer
history, such as the late 9th Century relocation of the capital from the area
around the present-day village of Roluos. “Again, the skillful Vāmaśiva was the
preceptor of Śrī Yaśovardhana, bearing as king the name Śrī Yaśovarman,” the
Sanskrit text states. “Invited by the king, he erected a liṅga Mount Yaśodhara,
which was like the king of mountains (Meru) in beauty.”  French scholars
initially believed that Śrī Yaśodharagiri was the mountain-like Bayon temple.
But it is now established that the Bayon was built almost three centuries later
than the event described in the inscription and that the linga was in fact placed
in the newly constructed Phnom Bakheng temple, which stands about two
kilometers south of the Bayon atop a real hill.
The text also notes the relocation of the capital from Angkor to the site now
known as Koh Ker under Jayavarman IV, and turmoil during the times of
King Sūryavarman I. He is described as having dispatched soldiers against
people who had desecrated shrines in the area of Sdok Kok Thom. Historians
generally believe that Sūryavarman fought his way to power, eventually driving
out of Angkor a king named Jayavīravarman (who significantly is not
mentioned in the inscription).
Elsewhere, the text provides myriad details of everyday existence in the empire.
Khmer inscriptions were created in part to glorify heaven and the earthly elite.
For that reason, their value as factual records is often thrown into question.
Overall, there is general consensus among scholars that the words chiseled out
at Sdok Kok Thom are perhaps the most important written explanation that
the Khmer empire provided of itself.

205
The inscription's author or authors are not named. Many scholars conclude
firmly that Sadasiva wrote it, at least his lineage; Sak-Humphry believes the
text was likely drafted in consultation with the Brahman, but was meant to
1
represent declarations of his king, Udayādityavarman II.
In “India” (of those days) as well as SE Asis, the devarāja order grew out of
both Sanatana Dharma and separate local traditions depending on the area. It
taught that the king was a divine universal ruler, a manifestation of
Shri Bhagawan (often attributed to Shiva or Vishnu). The concept viewed the
monarch to possess transcendental quality, the king as the living god on earth.
The concept is closely related to the Bharati concept of Chakravartin (universal
monarch). In politics, it is viewed as the divine justification of a king's rule. The
concept was institutionalized and gained its elaborate manifestations in
ancient Java and Cambodia, where monuments such
as Prambanan and Angkor Wat were erected to celebrate the king's divine rule
on earth.
The devaraja concept of divine right of kings was adopted by
the indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Southeast Asia through Indian
Hindu Brahmins scholars deployed in the courts. It was first adopted by
Javanese kings and through them by various Malay kingdoms, then by the
Khmer empire, and subsequently by the Thai monarchies.
Purpose
The Devaraja concept has been established through rituals and
institutionalized within the Indianized kingdoms of Southeast Asia. It enables
the monarch to claim the divine authority which could be used on ensuring
political legitimacy, managing social order, economic and religious aspects. In
political aspects, it strengthens the justification of the king and the ruling
dynasty as the rightful ruler of the land. It also used to maintain social order,
exalting the king as living god definitely demands the utmost service and
devotion of his people. Introducing the Indian caste system also defining social
class, occupations, as well as the way of life of their people.
The Devaraja religious order also enabled the king to embark on large scale
public works and grand projects, by mobilizing their people to create and
maintain elaborate hydraulic irrigation system to support large
scale rice agriculture or to construct imposing grand monuments and temples
in the king's honor. The example of this grand projects
are Borobudur, Prambanan, also temples and barays in Angkor.
Ritual
Example of the Devaraja religious order — such as demonstrated
by Jayavarman II — associate the king with the Hindu deity Sri Shiva, whose
divine essence was physically embodied by the linga (or lingam), a phallic idol
housed in a mountain temple.  The king was deified in an elaborate and
mystical ceremony, requiring a high priest, in which the divine essence of

206
kingship was conferred on the ruler through the agency of the linga. The
safeguarding of the linga became bound up with the security of the kingdom,
and the great temple architecture of the Khmer period attests to the
importance attached to the belief.

Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: 

I. the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple. It is designed to
represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu and Buddhist
cosmology.
II. Mount Meru he concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles
was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with
a Shikhara (Śikhara) — a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain
peak." Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata
Temple and Harshnath Temple from the 8th century CE
in Rajasthan, Western India. This concept also continued outside India,
such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.
.
Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west.

The scale replica of the top tier of Angkor Wat created for the 1931 Colonial Exhibition in Paris. To RIGHT

In an article in Beyond Borders Angkor Wat,Suzanne McNeill

(https://www.artsillustrated.in/art-heritage/beyond-borders-angkor-wat/) says that Angkor is
based on the dravidian model of temples”

The Dravidian temples of South India are open and symmetrical, and display perfect geometric shapes
such as circles and squares. This is the model on which Angkor Wat’s temples are based, and indeed
the architects may have been from Pala India, the powerful Buddhist-supporting dynasty that ruled
Bihar and Bengal from the 8th to 12th century. The style, however, was indigenised by local artists.
Whilst the region’s early Hindu temples were built on the same scale as their Indian models, with
stepped, square terraces and narrative reliefs along the terraces, later buildings such as Java’s
Borobudur temple represented a dramatic change of architectural character. Increasingly vast in scale
and monumental in design, temples became works of power as kings sought to accumulate religious
merit and prestige by constructing ever more magnificent buildings.

207
The Indian heritage which she claims is prominent throughout Angkor Wat,
particularly in the representations of Vishnu and his avatars, Krishna and Rama.
Dazzling bas-relief carvings depict Vishnu battling against the Asuras, the enemies
of the gods, or riding on his mount, Garuda, half-vulture, half-man. An enduring
contribution of the Pallavas to Angkor Wat is the cult of the eight-armed
Ashtabhuja Vishnu, which forms one of the temple’s major iconographic
influences. Narratives from the Mahabharata and the Ramayana provide extensive
decoration. Episodes include the Ramayana’s long, fierce Battle of Lanka where
lithesome monkey warriors are the central figures, watched by Rama and his
attendants. The Battle of Kurukshetra from the Mahabharata is illustrated, with
the armies of the Kauravas and the Pandavas marching from opposite ends of the
panel towards the centre where they meet in combat. Other friezes that portray
warfare of the Angkor period mark the shift towards a native identity. There are
many depictions of Apsaras and Devatas, semi-divine nymphs and spirits, which
show remarkable diversity of hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewellery and
decorative flowers, and are believed to be based on the actual practices of the
Khmers. It must all have been DIRECTED by the Brahmins for no one else had
that deep a knowledge of the Hindu Mythology and traditions.

In fact Encyclopedia Britannica states that a Divākarapaṇḍita a powerful Brahmin

Pandit and Religious advisor to the khemer kings played a singular role in Cambodian
history, for it was at his urging that Suryavarman II began construction of the temple
of Angkor Wat, one of the world’s largest religious edifices and certainly one of the
greatest achievements of ancient Khmer, or Cambodian, civilization. One of the
monuments of Angkor Wat commemorates this powerful Brahman.

Divākarapaṇḍita, original name Divākara, (born 1040, Cambodia—died c. 1120),

Hindu of the Brahman (priestly) caste who rose through religious and administrative
ranks to serve four Cambodian kings—Harshavarman II, Jayavarman VI,
Dharanindravarman I, and the great Suryavarman II—and who was the most trusted
adviser to three of them. The highly opportunistic Divākara was able not only to
survive the successive usurpations of monarchies but also to ingratiate himself with
each new sovereign.

Bantey Srei was built to honour a Brahmin Priest

Consecrated on 22 April 967 A.D., Bantãy Srĕi was the only major temple
at Angkor not built by a monarch; its construction is credited to the courtiers
named Vishnukumara and Yajnavaraha.Yajñavarāha who served as a counsellor
to king Rajendravarman II. The foundational stela says that Yajnavaraha,
grandson of king Harsavarman I, was a scholar and philanthropist who helped
those who suffered from illness, injustice, or poverty.

His pupil was the future king Jayavarman V (r. 968- ca. 1001). Originally, the
temple was surrounded by a town called Īśvarapura.
Banteay Srei is known for the intricacy of its carvings. This carving is of a kala, a
mythical creature representative of time and of the god Siva.

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 Yajñavarāha's temple was primarily dedicated to the Hindu god Śiva. Originally, it
carried the name Tribhuvanamaheśvara—great lord of the threefold world—in
reference to the Shaivite linga that served as its central religious image.
However, the temple buildings appear to be divided along the central east–west
axis between those buildings located south of the axis, which are devoted to
Śiva, and those north of the axis, which are devoted to Viṣṇu.

It has been speculated that the temple's modern name, Bantãy Srĕi, is due to the
many devatas carved into the red sandstone walls.

The temple's modern name, Bantãy Srĕi—citadel of the women, or citadel of

beauty—is probably related to the intricacy of the bas relief carvings found on
the walls and the tiny dimensions of the buildings themselves. [8] Some have
speculated that it relates to the many devatas carved into the walls of the
buildings

.Design and construction

The stylistic elements of the complex are characteristic of Khmer architecture and
include the ogival, lotus bud-shaped towers, half-galleries, axial galleries, connecting
enclosures and cruciform terraces.

Angkor Wat is a religious temple complex in Cambodia. At 402 acres, it is the largest

religious monument in the world, and is considered to be the finest classical example
of Khmer architecture, a building tradition that spanned the 9th and 15th centuries
AD during the reign of the Khmer Empire.
King Suryavarman II began the construction after ascending to the throne in 1113. It
is not known who the architects or designers were. Originally, it was built as a Hindu
temple of the god Vishnu. Reflecting this, the temple faces west in contrast with many
of the other temples at Angkor. However, towards the end of the 12th century it was
transformed into a Buddhist temple.
Over the course of the 20th century, Angkor Wat became more well-known globally as
a symbol of Cambodia, and today it is the country’s main tourist attraction.

Design 

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The temple complex is surrounded by a 190m-wide moat forming a 1.5km by 1.3km
rectangle. A sandstone causeway crosses the moat on its western side.
The stylistic elements of the complex are characteristic of Khmer architecture and
include the ogival, lotus bud-shaped towers, half-galleries, axial galleries,
connecting enclosures and cruciform terraces.

The main pyramid takes the form of three stepped terraces with

covered galleries bordering all sides of each step. The corners of the second and
third steps are punctuated by towers, the highest of which rises to 55m.
At the time of its construction, Khmer architects were proficient in the use
of sandstone as a building material, and the complex was constructed using 5-10
million sandstone blocks, each weighing up to 1.5 tons. These blocks were quarried
from the mountain of Phnom Kulen, more than 50km away, and were floated
on rafts down the Siem Reap River. Inscriptions record that the construction involved
300,000 workers and 6,000 elephants.

The sandstone blocks form the most visible elements of the structure, while a type

of clay local to the area, laterite, was used for the outer wall and concealed structural
elements. The precise binding agent for the blocks is unknown, although it is believed
to be natural resin or slaked lime.

Internally, the smooth stones were laid with very tight joints without mortar, held

together instead by mortise and tenon joints, or by dovetails and gravity. It is believed
the blocks were assembled using a combination of elephants, coir ropes and pulleys,
and bamboo scaffolding.
Angkor Wat is famous for its vast array of symbolic detailing. Nearly 2,000 sq.m of bas
reliefs are intricately carved into the sandstone,as well as extensively
carved lintels, friezes and pediments, and nearly 2,000 depictions of apsaras (celestial
dancers).

Post Construction: After King Suryavarman II’s death, the temple was converted to
Buddhist use by King Jayavarman VII. Western interest in the temple only really
began with the writings of the French naturalist Henri Mouhot in the 1860s.

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Conservation work was started by the French in the early-20th century and continued
over the decades in an attempt to preserve the structure from damage caused
by plant growth, fungi, ground movement, war and looting. Conservation efforts were
halted for around 20 years during the Cambodian civil war and the rise to power of
the Khmer Rouge.

In an article RISE OF THE ANGKOR EMPIRE, YASH DHOTRE

https://doyouevenangkor.weebly.com/rise-to-power.html) states that;

The adoption of Indian Brahmins or scholars

While many experts have contested the possibilities of the Angkor empires rise to power and
have not yet concluded the finals strategies used to assemble this empire, but we know for sure
that that the ancient Khmer kings adopted a successful monarchy system of Indian civilization.

The Khmer kings were able to rule over the empire with divine rule and absolute power. This
enhanced the kings to mobilize large manpower to serve in its military force to defend the
nation as well as to invade the neighbors. In addition, the kings could maintain their extensive
trading system which was the prime factor of its successful economy with their Khmer laborers
and foreign slaves.

Moreover, the kings surrounded themselves with the wise men or the "learned" Brahmins as
their counselors. The Brahmins were known to have acquire vast knowledge which were
inherited from father to sons or taught only within the family. These learned Brahmins help the
kings to run an efficient administration of the country, and that resulted in the growth of the
civilization.

In my paper Design Construction Process of the Hindu temples, I mention that:

The initial team is comprised by an Acharya, a scholar learned in traditional lore; a

Sthapathi, a qualified and an experienced director for the temple construction project;
and Shilpi, the sculptor.

Acharya is the learned preceptor who gives the Yajamana (one who sponsors the
temple project) the necessary advice and guidance in selecting the proper site, the
Sthapati and other Shilpins. The Sthapati, Yajamana and the Acharya form the trinity
of Vastu-sthapana (construction); they are compared to Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra.

As regards the construction per se, The Manasara, one of the principal texts dealing
with all aspects of temple construction, mentions a team of four types of architects –
the Sthapati, Sutragrahin, Vardhaki and Takshaka.

It is quite possible that many Brahmins doubled as Acharyas. The actual

construction process of a temple can be divided into three steps. The first is the
planning of the temple by architect, second is the carving of different parts and the
third is assembling the parts.

In the first stage, the architect prepares a list of all the parts that go into the details
of the temple; like the figures, pillars, beams, and brackets etc. These parts are
usually composed of several elements. For example, a pillar is made of at least five

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parts, while the dome is made of several units. This is one of the reasons, it is said,
why the temples do not normally collapse in case of earthquakes or cyclones; as its
parts are not joined rigidly (say by materials like cement) but can vibrate within the
surrounding structured space.

In the second stage, the teams of assistants of the Shilpi carve the parts and
segments according to the temple Acharya’s, Sthapathi ’s and Shilpi’s drawings,
designs, specifications and guidelines. The parts thus got ready are transported to the
site. And, at times the transportation to the site, itself, becomes a huge task. For
instance, it is said that a four km long ramp was constructed to transport and place in
position the dome of the Brihadishwara temple in Thanjavur.

The stability of the temple structure is attributed to its principles of unity, harmony,
balance and distribution of weight. It is said, if one member of this family breaks, the
unity, peace and stability of the family is sure to crumble. . Hence, no member moves
from its place, and holds the structure together even in the face of destruction all
around. These aspects are ensured during the third stage.

The third stage is the assembling of the readied parts i.e. the actual construction of
temple. The various elements and parts of temples are interlocked to hold in position.
All the parts have mortise and tendon joint for ensuring strength; and a hole or slot is
cut into each piece of readied part, for a projecting part tendon of the adjacent part to
be inserted into the next. These mortise and tendons not only hold the parts their
positions securely but also allow space for the stones to expand in heat or even to
vibrate modestly.

The third stage and the second stage have to be well coordinated in order to take care
of precise alignments and possible corrections. Though this stage, inevitably, means
the slowing down of the construction pace, it is said, the Sthapathi or Sthalapahi, the
one who supervises the actual construction process on site, takes extra care to ensure
precise positioning and alignment of each part and segment; and to meticulously
follow the overall proportion, stability and visual appeal, as specified and envisaged in
the Vastu mandala and the construction plans.

The size and the nature of the structure will determine the various kinds of building
materials to be employed at different stages of its construction. Generally the use of
iron, considered the crudest of metals, is strictly avoided within the temple structure,
as iron tends to get rusty and endangers the stability and the life of the structure. The
stone which has a far longer life and is less corrosive, is the major building material
employed in temple construction. (There are elaborate methods for testing and grading
the stones; and more about that in the final part) The main structure and the dome
are invariably constructed of tested stone.

The Building materials like stone, brick, mortar, wood, etc., are selected for the main
body of the temple, whereas elements like gold and silver are be used for final
ornamentation. Marble is not used in Southern structures. Materials like simulated
marble, plastic and asbestos, strictly, are not acceptable building materials. Only
organic materials are used in temple architecture. The traditional Indian temples of
stone, it is said, are designed to last for 800 years unlike RCC structures which are
guaranteed for 80 years. Incidentally, the Ayadi aspects are worked out to ensure
longevity of the temple.

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The primary source is the text of the Shilpa Shastra, the Manasara or Mayamatam,
which deals with construction aspects such as: selection of suitable site for temples,
the variety of pillars, types of Mantapas and patterns of Vimanas etc . The text in
translation is available on the net .Another text , Samarangana Sutradhara, mentions
details of craftsmen, artists and the divisions of their work , traditional skills etc. The
articles I have posted on temple design and architecture are based mainly in the
ancient texts. These do bring out the principles, practices and norms of temple
architecture. And, they, indeed, are educative and useful in understanding the
theories of temple design and its purpose.

In the Vastu-S'astra the term architecture is taken in its broadest sense and implies
almost everything built or constructed. Thus in the first place it denotes all kinds of
buildings — religious (temple), residential (dwellings), and military (forts), and their
auxiliary members (colunms, walls, floors, ceilings, roofs, doors, and other openings)
and the component mouldings and ornaments; such as plinth, base, pedestal, shaft,
entablature; fillet, listel, annulet, astragal, caretto, scotia or trochilos, torus, cyma,
talon, ovolo or echinus. Secondly it implies the town-planning; laying out gardens,
constructing market places and ports; making roads, bridges, gates; digging wells,
tanks, trenches, sewers, moats; building enclosure walls, embankments, dams,
railways, landing places (ghats), flights of steps for hills and lladders, etc. Thirdly, it
denotes articles of house furniture, such as, bed-steads, couches, tables, chairs,
thrones, wardrobes, baskets, conveyances, cages, nests, mills, etc. It also includes
making dresses, ornaments such as crowns and head-wear, etc.
Architecture also includes sculpture and deals with carving and phalli, idols of deities,
statues of great personages, images of animals and birds. Painting also forms part of
architecture.
As preliminary matters, architecture is also concerned with the selection of sites,
testing soil, planning, designing, finding out cardinal points by means of a gnomon,
dialing and astronomical and astrological calculation.
Besides being an all-round good, clever, and intelligent man, why an architect is
required to possess the general knowledge of all sciences (S'astras) and the special
knowledge of mathematics, history, geography, music aesthetics, law, astronomy and
engineering can be imagined when the list of qualifications is read with reference to
the subject-matters of architecture mentioned here. The point is satisfactorily
elaborated by Vitruvius.
Before proceeding further, it is profitable to note that the leading Roman architect,
Vitruvius, suggested in the first century of the Christian era, in a more methodical and
scientific manner, almost the same syllabus. 'An architect " says Vitruvius (Book 1,
Chapter I), "should be ingenious, and apt in the acquisition of knowledge He should be
a good writer, a skilful draftsman, versed in geometry and optics, expert at figures,
acquainted with history, informed on the principles of natural and moral philosophy,
somewhat of a musician, not ignorant of the sciences of both law and physic, nor of
the motions, laws, and relations to each other, of the heavenly bodies."
It is familiar to everybody that for success in any profession in life one must be clever,
industrious, honest and generous. It is also easily understood that an architect, who
has got to do both manual and brain work must not be deformed and must be free
from all disease and disability. According to Vitruvius he is required to be a good

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writer also, because an architect is to commit to writing his observations and
experience, in order to assist his memory. Drawing is employed in representing the
forms of his designs. Geometry which forms a part of mathematics affords much aid to
the architect, to it he owes the use of the right line and circle, the level and the square,
whereby his delineation of buildings on plane surfaces are greatly facilitated.
Arithmetic estimates the cost, and aids in the measurements of the works; this
assisted by the laws of geometry, determinaton of those abstruse questions wherein
the different proportions of some parts to others are involved. The science of optics
enables him to introduce with judgment the requisite quantity of light according to the
aspect. Unless acquainted with history, he will be unable to account for the use of
many ornaments which he may have occasion to introduce. For history, the
expression 'Purana' is used in the Indian literature and it implies mythology or
mythological stories which are as a rule depicted in the buildings of a nation. There
are, however, other uses of history for an architect.

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215
 CHAPTER IX
INCREASING IDOL TEMPLE OF SOUTH INDIA

Sri Yaganti Uma Maheswara Temple or Yaganti is a temple of Lord Shiva in the
Kurnool district in the Andhra Pradesh state of India. It was built in accordance with
Vaishnava tradition. Have you ever heard of a growing idol? Then you must know
about Yaganti (originally Neganti) shrine in Kurnool District of Andhra Pradesh, India.
The famous Yaganti cave and hill temple has with Umamaheswara as its main deity
and also a maginificent Nandi idol, in front of ‘Garbhagruha’ as in all Lord Shiva
temples usually. The devotees believe that the Nandi idol in front of the temple is
continuously increasing its size. The locals say that the idol was initially much smaller
than its present size. They say that certain experimentation was carried out on this
idol and it was said that the type of rock out of which the idol is carved has a growing
or enlarging nature associated with it.
The interesting part of this temple is the ‘growing Nandi idol’.You heard it right. The
Nandi idol in the temple has been growing gradually over the centuries. The idol,
which was very small over the last century, has grown in size over a century, and
has currently filled the space between the idol and the pillar beside it, the path
of pradakshina (moving around holy idols in Hindu temple tradition).
According to the scientists, the rock of this idol has growing property, and so the idol
has been growing 1′ inch in size for every 20 years. Currently, its of 5 ft high and 15 ft
wide. According the Kalagnanam (future prediction) made by Potuluri Veerabrahma
Swamy in the ancient times, the Yaganti Nandi will grow more in size and will come
live to shout at its peak, which would be the end of Kaliyuga (the current Yuga).
This temple was constructed by King Harihara Bukka Raya of the Sangama
Dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 15th century. It was built according
to Vaishnavaite traditions.
One story of the site's origin is as follows: The sage Agastya wanted to build a temple
for Lord Venkateswara on this site. However, the statue that was made could not be

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installed as the toe nail of the idol got broken. The sage was upset over this and
performed a penance for Shiva. When Shiva appeared, he said the place suits Shiva
better as it resembles Kailash. Agastya then requested Shiva to give the devotees
a Parvathi Goddess as Lord Uma Maheswara in a single stone, which Shiva obliged.
A second story is as follows: Chitteppa, a devotee of Shiva, was worshiping Shiva and
Shiva appeared to him as a tiger. Chitteppa understood that it was Lord Shiva in tiger
form, and shouted Neganti Shivanu ne kanti (meaning: I saw Shiva I saw), and danced
with joy. There is a cave called Chitteppa nearby. Sri Yaganti Uma Maheswara Temple
is one of the few temples patronized by one of the great dynasties of India. Every
year Maha Shivaratri is celebrated and a large number of devotees from all over
Andhra Pradesh visit. Shiva, Parvati and Nandi are the main deities in this temple.
This temple is 14 km away from Banaganipalli in kurnool dt. The saint lord
Veerabrahmendra swami stayed here for some time and wrote Kalagnanam.
 According to Sthalapuranam(history of a certain pilgrimage), Sage Agastya on his
South India found a Lord Venkateshwara idol at Yagantiand wanted to instill the same
here, however, couldn’t do so because of some defect in the idol. Then he prayed Lord
Shiva, following which, he requested the Lord Shiva to be the main detiy of this
temple, along with his wife Goddess Uma, as Umamaheshwara Swamy.
The name Yaganti (Ne’ganti), meaning Ne= Me and Ganti = Saw. The name was said to
have derived when a devotee Chitteppa cried, “Ne Ganti Shiva, after finding the Lord
Shiva in the form of a Tiger”, which means, “I saw Lord Shiva”.

The shrine is surrounded by hills and caves, and is of architectural significance.

The Pushkarini is suitable for holy baths.

ARCHITECTURE
Pushkarini
Sri Yaganti Uma Maheswara Temple or Yaganti is a temple of Shiva in Kurnool
District in the India state of Andhra Pradesh. It was built according

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to Vaishnavaite traditions. A feature of this temple is its Pushkarini, a small pond of
water on the temple premises. Water flows into this Pushkarini from the bottom of hill
through the mouth of a Nandi (bull). The water is fresh and sweet, as it comes from
the hills. No one knows how the water reaches the pond all year round and this temple
architecture in terms of its sculpture shows the skills of ancient Viswakarma
Sthapathis. Devotees find that a holy bath in Pushkarini is highly beneficial. After
taking a bath in Pushkarini, they pay tributes to Lord Shiva.

Nandi through which water comes in

The sage Agasthya bathed in Pushkarini and worshipped Shiva.

Caves present in and around yaganti temple are:

The Agastya cave

Agastya Cave
This is the cave where Agastya performed his penance for Shiva. One can enter the
cave by climbing 120 steep steps. An idol to Devi is installed and may be worshipped
here
Venkateswara Cave
The damaged idol of Lord Venkateswara is present in this cave. Compared to Agastya
cave it is easy to climb though the steps are steep. According to the story this idol was
present in this cave before the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple was constructed. But
as the idol is damaged near the foot, it could not be worshipped. Sri Sri Potuluri Veera

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Brahmendra Swami tells us in his Kala Gynanam that this place can stand as an
alternative to Tirupati.

Venkateswara cave

Veera Brahmam Cave

This is the cave where saint Sree Potuluri Veera Brahmendra swamy wrote some of
his Kala Gnaanam (prophecy). The height of the cave is less and one needs to bend
half over to enter it.

The Yaganti Nandi Statue is believed to be growing in size.MIDDLE Ancient Tulasi Kota In Temple RIGHT

It is said that people used to do Pradakshinas (rounds) around it in the past. The
temple staff has already removed one pillar as the size of the Nandi has increased.
According to Potuluri Veera Brahmendra swamy, the Basavanna (stone nandi) of
Yaganti will come alive and shout when Kali Yuga ends.
Absence of Crows
Legend has it that while the Sage Agastya was performing his penance, crows
disturbed him and he cursed that the crows cannot enter the place. As the crow is
the Vahana for Lord Shani, it is believed that Shani cannot enter this place.

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Yaganti temple mandapam beam breaks
.   | Photo Credit: SUBRAMANYAM. U
Illegal mining activity impacting 15th century structure, say temple, ASI officials.
KURNOOL, JANUARY 27, 2021 01:16 IST

A stone beam of the mandapam that houses the Nandi idol at the Sri Yaganti
Uma Maheswara temple in the district broke on Monday afternoon allegedly
due to the blasts done at illegal mining sites within a 5 km radius of the
temple, Archaeological Survey of India and Endowments Department officials
have said. Fortunately, the beam did not collapse but remained intact on one
end. None was hurt in the incident.
Temple Executive Officer Devulapalli Prasad told The Hindu on Tuesday that
ASI officials had propped up the beam with some metal pipes. “During my
routine inspection, I found the beam broken and hanging and informed the ASI
officer and there is no immediate danger of the structure falling,” the EO said.
He expressed concern over the illegal mining activity continuing in the vicinity
of the temple with loud sounds and vibrations coming from the blasts done
there.
Mines closed
ASI Kurnool district in-charge Y. Dhaka Reddy said all the mines were closed
up to Basvannakatta near the Yaganti temple two years ago, but some
miscreants kept conducting blasts for illegal mining which was impacting the
15th century structure.
“The government efforts may not be sufficient. People of the four surrounding
villages in the Banaganapalle Assembly constituency must take up the cause
of saving the ancient temple by stopping all such illegal mining activity,
otherwise we will lose our heritage structure,” he added.
Mining and Geology Assistant Director Venugopal expressed concern at the
illegal mining activity continuing though 12 of the leases for mosaic chips/
colour stones, were cancelled.
The wall of the pushkarni in the central prakara of the temple has also
partially caved in and devotees say it could fall any day if corrective measures
are not taken.

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 THE TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
Dr. Uday Dokras

A mythical genealogy of the artists is given in most of the architectural treatises. From

the four faces of Brahma, the creator, are stated to have originated the four heavenly
architects Visvakarman, Maya, Tvashtar, and Manu. 2 Their four sons are called
respectively Sthapati, Sutra-grahin, Vardhaki, and Takshaka. These four evidently
represent the progenitors of the four classes of terrestrial artists. They form the guild
of architects, each an expert in his own department, consisting of the chief architect or
master-builder, the designer or the draftsman, the painter, and' the joiner.
The temple construction project begins with identifying the most suitable site for
erecting the structure. This involves examination of all aspects relating to the location,
the extent, the orientation, the quality of soil, the water source, the environment and
astrological suitability of the site etc. This elongated process goes by the name:
Bhupariksha. The principal elements involved in a temple –projects are: Sthala (temple
site); Teertha (Temple tank) and Murthy (the idol). Elaborate rules are laid out in the
classical texts on Shilpa Shastra, describing the required qualities of the places where
a temple is to be erected; as also of the other two elements.

1. The initial team is comprised by an Acharya, a scholar learned in traditional

lore; a Sthapathi, a qualified and an experienced director for the temple
construction project; and Shilpi, the sculptor.

Acharya is the learned preceptor who gives the Yajamana (one who sponsors
the temple project) the necessary advice and guidance in selecting the proper
site, the Sthapati and other Shilpins. The Sthapati, Yajamana and the Acharya
form the trinity of Vastu-sthapana (construction); they are compared to
Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra.

As regards the construction per se, The Manasara, one of the principal texts
dealing with all aspects of temple construction, mentions a team of four types of
architects – the Sthapati, Sutragrahin, Vardhaki and Takshaka.

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2. The Sthapati (one who establishes things – Sthapatih sthapanarhah syat) is
the chief architect or master builder empowered to plan, design and direct the
construction from the beginning to the end. Slhapati is in rank the director-
general and the consulting architect, Sutra-grahin is the guide (guru) of the
other two, and Vardhaki is the instructor of Takshaka.The second chapter of
the Manasara specifies in detail, the qualities, the virtues and the requirements
of a Sthapathi under the section ‘Shilpi-lakshanam’. He is well experienced in
all aspects of temple architecture (Sarva shastra-visaradah); and is a highly
qualified master craftsperson, well versed in Shastras and the Vedas. He is
pictured as a cultured, decent man, free from vices, truthful and in control of
his senses. He has the ability to plan, design, use the instruments; coordinate,
and direct the work of his entire team.

Sthapati must be proficient in all the sciences. He must know all the Vedas. He
must be endowed with all the qualifications of a supreme managing-
director.4 The master-builder must be a draftsman and able to design. He must
be proficient in all S'astras. He must not be deformed by lacking in one or
possessing too many limbs. He must be proficient in laws and compassionate.
He must not be malicious or spiteful. He must be well versed in music. He must
be of noble descent. He must be a mathematician and a historian. He must be
content in mind and free from greed. He must be proficient in painting. He must
know all countries. He must be truthful and possess self-control. He must not
have any disease or disability. He must be above committing errors. Hp must be
free from the seven vices (Manu VII, 47-8) viz., hunting gamblingi day-
dreaming, blackmailing, addiction to women, etc. He must have a good name
and be faithful to friends.
He must be an expert in the ocean of the science of architecture. 5 Thus, he
must be very learned, meritorious, patient worker, dexterous, champion, of
large experience, kulina (one who follows ancient custom, possesses modesty,
learning, has fame; performs pilgrimage, faithful, peaceful, practices
meditation, gives charity). He must be full of resources, and capable of
application to all works. Further, he must be acquainted with the use of
instruments and should devote himself whole-heartedly to his work.
He must also be a skilful draftsman of industrious habit, must possess wide
outlook and be bold in temperament.
3. The Sutragrahin is the supervisor and is said to be normally the Sthapati’s son
or disciple; one who clearly understands the mind of the Sthapathi. He is also
well-qualified in the Vedas and Shastras. He is an expert draftsman or
Rekhagna, who directs the rest of the work force. He is good in calculations. His
job is to see that all building parts are aligned correctly, in proper
measurements. He should be able to give instructions to the other craftsmen.
Sutragrahin should also be proficient in the Vedas and S'astras (sciences). But
the special branch of his study is measuring and he must be an expert in
drawing. On his part too it is necessary to possess the general knowledge of all
the departments of the science of architecture and to follow the instructions of
the master-builder'

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 4. The Vardhaki is the painter and has made a special study of it. He is also well-
versed in the Vedas. He takes charge of strength and quality of materials used
in the construction. Vardhaki also ensures proper alignment, assembling and
joining together of the building elements shaped by Taksaka. Vardhaki,13 too,
should have the general knowledge of the Vedas and the sciences. But the
object of his special study is painting. Besides, like Sutragrahin, he should have
an idea of accurate measurements. He must also be able to design architectural
and sculptural objects from his own ideas

5. Taksaka is the craftsman who cuts and shapes the building elements; such as:
wood, stone and metal. He is in charge of reducing the size of materials to the
appropriate size and shape. The Takshaka is also the master carpenter who is
responsible for all the intricate wood work including doors, windows, pillars etc.
Takshaka, could be a carpenter or joiner or a carver of stones-- must be an
expert in his own department, namely, carpentry. He should also be proficient
in clay work. He must be a qualified and able man. He should have the capacity
for application to his work. He should follow the instructions of his three
superiors, namely the chief architect, the designer and draftsman, and the
painter, but at the same time he must be capable of doing all his works
independently. And he should have aspiration to rise in rank. But he should be
of good behaviour, clever, dexterous, learned in sciences, free from excessive
desire for gain, and generous to forgive his rivals.

These four classes are considered the representations of Vishwakarma, Maya, Manu
and Tvasta, the sons of Brahma, the creator. Whatever might have been the actual
custom in the period of the early S'ilpa-shastras, in more historical periods no
distinction has been observed in the division of either functions or ranks between the
Sthapati, Sutragrahin, Vardhaki, and Sutradhara. These terms appear in historical
documents to have been indiscriminately used. Like the term artist in English, Silpin
is the common epithet.

But, in actual practice, these four are ranked in hierarchical position. The Sthapathi
at the top is the Guru of all (Sthapatis tu Sva-turyebhyas trisrinya gururiti smritah).
Next to him is the Sutragrahi (Sutragrahi gurur dvyabhyam); and, below him are
Vardhaki and Takshaka (Takshakasya gurur nama; Vardhakiti prakirtitah.) (M. II. 19-
22.)

The actual construction process of a temple can be divided into three steps. The first
is the planning of the temple by architect, second is the carving of different parts and
the third is assembling the parts.

In the first stage, the architect prepares a list of all the parts that go into the details
of the temple; like the figures, pillars, beams, and brackets etc. These parts are
usually composed of several elements. For example, a pillar is made of at least five
parts, while the dome is made of several units. This is one of the reasons, it is said,
why the temples do not normally collapse in case of earthquakes or cyclones; as its
parts are not joined rigidly (say by materials like cement) but can vibrate within the
surrounding structured space.

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In the second stage, the teams of assistants of the Shilpi carve the parts and
segments according to the temple Acharya’s, Sthapathi ’s and Shilpi’s drawings,
designs, specifications and guidelines. The parts thus got ready are transported to the
site. And, at times the transportation to the site, itself, becomes a huge task. For
instance, it is said that a four km long ramp was constructed to transport and place in
position the dome of the Brihadishwara temple in Thanjavur.

The stability of the temple structure is attributed to its principles of unity, harmony,
balance and distribution of weight. It is said, if one member of this family breaks, the
unity, peace and stability of the family is sure to crumble. . Hence, no member moves
from its place, and holds the structure together even in the face of destruction all
around. These aspects are ensured during the third stage.

The third stage is the assembling of the readied parts i.e. the actual construction of
temple. The various elements and parts of temples are interlocked to hold in position.
All the parts have mortise and tendon joint for ensuring strength; and a hole or slot is
cut into each piece of readied part, for a projecting part tendon of the adjacent part to
be inserted into the next. These mortise and tendons not only hold the parts their
positions securely but also allow space for the stones to expand in heat or even to
vibrate modestly.

The third stage and the second stage have to be well coordinated in order to take care
of precise alignments and possible corrections. Though this stage, inevitably, means
the slowing down of the construction pace, it is said, the Sthapathi or Sthalapahi, the
one who supervises the actual construction process on site, takes extra care to ensure
precise positioning and alignment of each part and segment; and to meticulously
follow the overall proportion, stability and visual appeal, as specified and envisaged in
the Vastu mandala and the construction plans.

The size and the nature of the structure will determine the various kinds of building
materials to be employed at different stages of its construction. Generally the use of
iron, considered the crudest of metals, is strictly avoided within the temple structure,
as iron tends to get rusty and endangers the stability and the life of the structure. The
stone which has a far longer life and is less corrosive, is the major building material
employed in temple construction. (There are elaborate methods for testing and grading
the stones; and more about that in the final part) The main structure and the dome
are invariably constructed of tested stone.

The Building materials like stone, brick, mortar, wood, etc., are selected for the main
body of the temple, whereas elements like gold and silver are be used for final
ornamentation. Marble is not used in Southern structures. Materials like simulated
marble, plastic and asbestos, strictly, are not acceptable building materials. Only
organic materials are used in temple architecture. The traditional Indian temples of
stone, it is said, are designed to last for 800 years unlike RCC structures which are
guaranteed for 80 years. Incidentally, the Ayadi aspects are worked out to ensure
longevity of the temple.

The primary source is the text of the Shilpa Shastra, the Manasara or Mayamatam,
which deals with construction aspects such as: selection of suitable site for temples,
the variety of pillars, types of Mantapas and patterns of Vimanas etc . The text in
translation is available on the net .Another text , Samarangana Sutradhara, mentions

224
details of craftsmen, artists and the divisions of their work , traditional skills etc. The
articles I have posted on temple design and architecture are based mainly in the
ancient texts. These do bring out the principles, practices and norms of temple
architecture. And, they, indeed, are educative and useful in understanding the
theories of temple design and its purpose.

In the Vastu-S'astra the term architecture is taken in its broadest sense and implies
almost everything built or constructed. Thus in the first place it denotes all kinds of
buildings — religious (temple), residential (dwellings), and military (forts), and their
auxiliary members (colunms, walls, floors, ceilings, roofs, doors, and other openings)
and the component mouldings and ornaments; such as plinth, base, pedestal, shaft,
entablature; fillet, listel, annulet, astragal, caretto, scotia or trochilos, torus, cyma,
talon, ovolo or echinus. Secondly it implies the town-planning; laying out gardens,
constructing market places and ports; making roads, bridges, gates; digging wells,
tanks, trenches, sewers, moats; building enclosure walls, embankments, dams,
railways, landing places (ghats), flights of steps for hills and lladders, etc. Thirdly, it
denotes articles of house furniture, such as, bed-steads, couches, tables, chairs,
thrones, wardrobes, baskets, conveyances, cages, nests, mills, etc. It also includes
making dresses, ornaments such as crowns and head-wear, etc.
Architecture also includes sculpture and deals with carving and phalli, idols of deities,
statues of great personages, images of animals and birds. Painting also forms part of
architecture.
As preliminary matters, architecture is also concerned with the selection of sites,
testing soil, planning, designing, finding out cardinal points by means of a gnomon,
dialing and astronomical and astrological calculation.
Besides being an all-round good, clever, and intelligent man, why an architect is
required to possess the general knowledge of all sciences (S'astras) and the special
knowledge of mathematics, history, geography, music aesthetics, law, astronomy and
engineering can be imagined when the list of qualifications is read with reference to
the subject-matters of architecture mentioned here. The point is satisfactorily
elaborated by Vitruvius.
Before proceeding further, it is profitable to note that the leading Roman architect,
Vitruvius, suggested in the first century of the Christian era, in a more methodical and
scientific manner, almost the same syllabus. 'An architect " says Vitruvius (Book 1,
Chapter I), "should be ingenious, and apt in the acquisition of knowledge He should be
a good writer, a skilful draftsman, versed in geometry and optics, expert at figures,
acquainted with history, informed on the principles of natural and moral philosophy,
somewhat of a musician, not ignorant of the sciences of both law and physic, nor of
the motions, laws, and relations to each other, of the heavenly bodies."
It is familiar to everybody that for success in any profession in life one must be clever,
industrious, honest and generous. It is also easily understood that an architect, who
has got to do both manual and brain work must not be deformed and must be free
from all disease and disability. According to Vitruvius he is required to be a good
writer also, because an architect is to commit to writing his observations and
experience, in order to assist his memory. Drawing is employed in representing the
forms of his designs. Geometry which forms a part of mathematics affords much aid to
the architect, to it he owes the use of the right line and circle, the level and the square,

225
whereby his delineation of buildings on plane surfaces are greatly facilitated.
Arithmetic estimates the cost, and aids in the measurements of the works; this
assisted by the laws of geometry, determinaton of those abstruse questions wherein
the different prbportions of some parts to others are involved. The science of optics
enables him to introduce with judgment the requisite quantity of light according to the
aspect. Unless acquainted with history, he will be unable to account for the use of
many ornaments which he may have occasion to introduce. For history, the
expression 'Purana' is used in the Indian literature and it implies mythology or
mythological stories which are as a rule depicted in the buildings of a nation. There
are, however, other uses of history for an architect.
REFERENCES
1.The Training of Architects in Ancient India-Acharya, Prasanna Kumar. "The Training of
Architects in Ancient India." Rupam - an Illustrated Quarterly Journal of Oriental Art, no. 12
(1922).
2.sreenivasarao's blogs-Temple Architecture – Devalaya Vastu – Part Five (5 of 9)
Partly edited,reproduced from these erudite articles. My thanks to these amazing and
knowledgable authors

226
227
 CHAPTER XI
ANTARALA- intermediate space in Hindu Temple design

In the temples of South India, the Garbagriha , generally, is  followed by four types
of Mantapas or pavilions. Mantapa means any roofed, open or enclosed pavilion (hall)
resting on pillars, standing independently or connected to the sanctum of the temple.
The first of the Mantapas is the Antarala (sometimes called sukanas or
sukanasi or Ardha-mantapa), a narrow pavilion connecting the Garbha-griha and
the Navaranga. It usually will have niches in the north and south walls, occupied by a
deity, with attendant divinities in secondary niches flanking the central niche.  In a
few temples the Antarala serves as the navaranga too.

The next Mantapa is Nrtta-mantapa or Navaranga, which  is a big hall used for

congregational services like singing, dancing, recitation of mythological texts, religious
discourses and so on. The Navaranga will usually be on a raised platform and will
have nine anganas (openings) and sixteen pillars.

This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a hall used for ceremonial purposes. This
leads to Mukha mantapa the opening pavilion.

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Antarala (Sanskrit: अन्तराल, lit. intermediate space) is a small antechamber or foyer
between the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa, more typical of north Indian
temples.
Antarala are commonly seen in Chalukyan Style temples in which the 'Vimana' and
the 'Mandapa' are connected through the 'Antarala'.
Antarala (Sanskrit: अन्तराल, lit. intermediate space) is a small antechamber or foyer
between the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa, more typical of north Indian
temples.
Antarala are commonly seen in Chalukyan Style temples in which the 'Vimana' and
the 'Mandapa' are connected through the 'Antarala'.

Article Example

Antarala Antarala are commonly seen in Chalukyan Style temples in which the

'Vimana' and the 'Mandapa'

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Article Example

are connected through the 'Antarala'

Antarala Antarala (Sanskrit: अन्तराल, lit. "intermediate space") is a small

antechamber or foyer between

the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa, more typical of north Indian temples.

Manwal It consists of a Garbhgriha (sanctrum) and an Antarala with square Mandapa.

The walls of the Mandapa

have eight niches.

Hindu temple Antarala is a small antechamber or foyer between the garbhagriha/ garbha graha
architecture
(shrine) and the mandapa,

more typical of north Indian temples.

Mahadev The temple consists of garbhagriha, antarala and a pillared Nandi mandapa built

Temple,
Tambdi Surla of basalt. The four pillars,

embellished with intricate carvings of elephants and chains support a stone ceiling

decorated with finely

carved Ashtoken lotus flowers.

Lakkundi The second storey, as in the Jain temple at Pattadakal, is functional and has an antarala-mantapa

in front over the

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 Article Example

vestibule of the lower storey. This raises the total height of the vimana considerably.

Gudimallam The floor of the sanctum is below the floor level of the Antarala and Mukhamantapa.

The figure of Siva carved

on the linga resembles a vigorous hunter. These two names however are not mentioned

in the inscriptions.

The village is referred as Viprapita (Brahmana Agrahara).

Kanchi The temple complex is complete in all respects as it has "garbagriha" (sanctum sanctorum), 
Kailasanathar
Temple antarala (inner enclosure), mandapa, a high compound wall, and an entrance gate, the gopuram.

The mandapa, which was initially detached, was made part of the main shrine by interposing

an "ardhamantapa"

(smaller hall). The pillars of the mandapa have the repetitive features of mythical lion mounts.

Bisaldeo The architectural plan of the temple measures . The building comprises a "garbhagriha" (sanctum),
temple
a "shikhara" (tower), an "antarala" (vestibule), a square "mandapa" (hall) with a hemispherical dome,

and a portico. It features a pancharatha projection. The sanctum houses a linga (a symbol of Shiva).

Example the Khandariya Mahadev temple at Khajuraho

 The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, one of the best examples of temples preserved
from the medieval period in India, is the largest of the western group of temples in
the Khajuraho complex which was built by the Chandela rulers. Shiva is the chief
deity in the temple deified in the sanctum sanctorum.
The Kandariya Mahadeva temple was built during the reign of Vidyadhara (r. c.
1003-1035 CE).[9] At various periods of the reign of this dynasty many famous

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temples dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva, Surya, Shakti of the Hindu religion and also
for the Thirthankaras of Jain religion were built. Vidhyadhara, also known as Bida
in the recordings of the Muslim historian Ibn-al-Athir was a powerful ruler who
fought Mahmud of Ghazni in the first offensive launched by the latter in 1019.
This battle was not conclusive and Mahmud had to return to Ghazni. Mahmud
again waged war against Vidhyadhara in 1022. He attacked the fort of Kalinjar.
The siege of the fort was unsuccessful. It was lifted and Mahmud and Vidhyadhara
called a truce and parted by exchanging gifts. Vidhyadhara celebrated his success
over Mahmud and other rulers by building the Kaṇḍāriyā Mahādeva Temple,
dedicated to his family deity Shiva. Epigraphic inscriptions on a pilaster of
the mandapa in the temple mentions the name of the builder of the temple as
Virimda, which is interpreted as the pseudonym of Vidhyadhara. Its construction
is dated to the period from 1025 and 1050 AD

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The advanced typical Hindu temple structure consists of five compartments:
Entrance porch ( ardh-mandapa ), Main assembly hall ( Mandapa ), Ambulatory
passage hall ( Maha-Mandapa ), Ante chamber between shrine and hall
( Antarala ), Sanctum ( Garbhagriha )
The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, 31 metres (102 ft) in height, is in the western
complex, which is the largest among the three groups of the Khajuraho complex of
temples. This western group of temples, consisting of the Kandariya,
Matangeshwara and Vishvanatha temples, is compared to a "cosmic design of a
hexagon (a yantra or Cosmo gram)" representing the three forms of Shiva. The
temple architecture is an assemblage of porches and towers which terminates in
a shikhara or spire, a feature which was common from the 10th century onwards
in the temples of Central India.
The temple is founded on a massive plinth of 4 metres (13 ft) height.The temple
structure above the plinth is dexterously planned and pleasingly detailed. The
superstructure is built in a steep mountain shape or form, symbolic of Mount
Meru which is said to be the mythical source of creation of the world. [8] The
superstructure has richly decorated roofs which rise in a grand form terminating
in the shikara, which has 84 miniature spires. The temple is in layout of 6 square
kilometres (2.3 sq mi), of which 22 are extant including the Kaṇḍāriyā Mahādeva
Temple. This temple is characteristically built over a plan of 31 metres (102 ft) in
length and 20 metres (66 ft) in width with the main tower soaring to a height of 31
metres (102 ft), and is called the "largest and grandest temple of Khajuraho. A
series of steep steps with high rise lead from the ground level to the entrance to
the temple. The layout of the temple is a five-part design, a commonality with the
Lakshmana and Vishvanatha temples in the Khajuraho complex. Right at the
entrance there is torana, a very intricately carved garland which is sculpted from a
single stone; such entrances are part of a Hindu wedding procession. [4] The
carvings on the entrance gate shows the "tactile quality of the stone and also the

233
character of the symmetrical design" that is on view in the entire temple which has
high relief carvings of the figurines. Finely chiseled, the decorative quality of the
ornamentation with the sharp inscribed lines has "strong angular forms and
brilliant dark-light patterns". The carvings are of circles, undulations giving off
spirals or sprays, geometric patterns, masks of lions and other uniform designs
which has created a pleasant picture that is unique to this temple, among all
others in the complex.[14]

The main temple tower with 84 mini spires/Erotic sculptures on the external walls of the
temple

A section of the detailed sculptural decoration carved in the exterior walls of the
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.
The interior of the temple was also provided with statues of divinities and very
beautiful ceilings, whose superimposed overhangs were used for decorative purposes
by using geometric compositions. The most beautiful temples of this type are, in

234
Bhubaneshwar, the Lingaraja temple (first half of the 11th century) -whose roof
culminates about 50 m above the ground- and, in Khajuraho, the Kandariya Mahadeva
temple (of this same period).

A view of the inner roof of the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.

The
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (meaning “the Great God of the Cave”), is the largest
and most ornate Hindu temple found at Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh, India). It is
considered one of the best examples of temples preserved from the medieval period in
India.
Another floor plan from the same period is that exemplified by the temples at
Khajuraho (temples of Vishvanatha, Lakshmana, etc.): over a common rectangular
terrace are arranged in a staggered pattern (pañcayatana) the sanctuary in the center
and four chapels at the angles.

In the interior space from the entrance there are three mandapas or halls, which
successively rise in height and width, which is inclusive of a small chamber
dedicated to Shiva, a chamber where the Shiva linga, the phallic emblem of Shiva
is deified. The sanctum sanctorum is surrounded by interlinked passages which
also have side and front balconies. Due to inadequate natural light in the
balconies the sanctum has very little light thus creating a "cave like atmosphere"
which is in total contrast to the external parts of the temple. In the interior halls of
the temple and on its exterior faces there are elaborately carved sculptures of gods

235
and goddesses, musicians and apsaras or nymphs. The huge pillars of the halls
have architectural features of the "vine or scroll motif". In the corners of the halls
there are insets which are carved on the surface with incised patterns. There is a
main tower above the sanctum and there are two other towers above the other
mantapas also in the shape of "semi-rounded, stepped, pyramidal form with
progressively greater height". The main tower is encircled by a series of interlinked
towers and spires of smaller size. These are in the form of a repeated subset of
miniature spires that abut a central core which gives the temple an unevenly cut
contour similar to the shape of a mountain range of mount Kailasa of
the Himalayas where god Shiva resides, which is appropriate to the theme of the
temples here.
The exterior surfaces of the temples are entirely covered with sculptures in three
vertical layers.[4] Here, there are horizontal ribbons carved with images, which
shine bright in the sun light, providing rhythmic architectural features. Among the
images of gods and heavenly beings, Agni, the god of fire is prominent.[14] They are
niches where erotic sculptures are fitted all round which are a major attraction
among visitors. Some of these erotic sculptures are very finely carved and are
in mithuna (coitus) postures with maidens flanking the couple, which is a
frequently noted motif. There is also a "male figure suspended upside" in coitus
posture, a kind of yogic pose, down on his head. [4] The niches also have sculptures
of Saptamatrikas, the septad of mother goddesses along with the
gods Ganesha and Virabhadra. The seven fearful protector goddesses include:
Brahmi seated on a swan of Brahma; Maheshwari with three eyes seated on
Shiva's bull Nandi; Kumari; Vaishnavi mounted on Garuda; the boar-
headed Varahi; the lion-headed Narasimhi and Chamunda, the slayer of demons
Chanda and Munda.[4] The image of Sardula, a mythical creature with lion face and
human limbs in lower panel is a unique figure seen in the temple

236
 The design and the architectural elements of the Nageshwar temple have a unique
symbolism and it’s interesting to know more about it. The Nageshwar temple has a
lot of spiritual significance that seeps in through its design elements.

Conceptual Design of Temple

The Nageshwar temple has a unique design that follows the ancient principles of
Vastu Shastra and is in complete affirmation with conservative Hindu temple
design. The temple follows the western style of temple architecture and it faces
west. A devotee who prayers to the divine Shiva Linga in Nageshwara temple also
automatically faces the Sun God.
The temple is planned on the basis of the posture of Sayanam of the Human Body.
The Mahadwar, entrance and porch, prayer halls (Sabha Mandapa), Antarala
(Nandi’s Place), Inner Sanctum (Garbha Griha) are the portions of the temple. Here
the different structures have the following significance.
 Mahadwar is the body’s feet: devotee enters through the feet
 Entrance Porch is between the two sacred idols of Hanuman and Ganesh:
hands of the human body
 Sabha Mandapa contain the payer seats: they are the abdomen and chest of
the body
 Antaralaa is the worship place of Nandi
 Holy Shiva Linga in Garbha Griha i.e. the Body’s head
The total height of the temple is 110’ above Ground’s level and it has many
beautiful elements like arches, rounded flute shaped columns, lotus themed
capitals, jails made of pure marble etc., the whole structure is interspersed with
swastika and Kalash which are traditional Hindu worship signage.
The temple has three different levels. The Garbhagriha or the first level is 6 inches
below ground level while Rangamandapa is 2 inches above the ground level
(second level). The Antarala is situated somewhere in between and it guards the
Shiva Linga in Garbha Griha. The Antaral is believed to be the transition place
between the God (Lingaa) and the devotees in Mandapa. The Antaral is therefore
called as the level of Pujari.

Architecture of the Temple

The temple is constructed according to the basic weather conditions of the area
and it gently slopes towards the Lake of Nageshwar. There is a retaining wall along
the Nageshwar Lake. The foundation of the temple is built in raft style as the size
is huge and there are no rock strata beneath. The whole temple is built out of RCC
or Reinforced Concrete Cement that have anti rust chemical coatings. Porbandar
stone of light and porous texture is cladded on the structure. Huge amount of
labor force was called in from Bombay to complete the temple.

237
 CHAPTER XI
Curvilinear Roof Temples
How do those desiring liberation make a temple for you, O God? 25
And what is the rule for the protectors of the mūrti of the ācārya? And [what is] the regulation for a sacrifice to the
vāstu? And [what is] the rule for the giving of arghya? 26
What is the regulation for the placing of the stones? As well as [what is] the [regulation for] the preparation of the
sacred ground etc.? And [what is] the rule for the temple? And [what is] the rule for the image? 27
[What is the rule with regards to] the entire fivefold temple? Thus also, what is the method of erecting the flag-staff?
And whatever else that would be additional to the temples that [too I] asked about, O Sureśvara. 28
(Hayaśīrṣa Pañcrātra, 1.25cd-28)
At the end of the first chapter of a text called the Hayaśīrṣa Pañcarātra, the god Brahmā asks Viṣṇu the questions
quoted above. These questions are then answered in the rest of the work.

The fundamental of the curved architectural design is based on blending the architect
ure with the surrounding environment. Architects and engineers have been inspired t
he curved forms such as arch; vault and dome from nature, where they have been use 
it in their designs to create large spans. The architects developed the curved forms by 
integrated the curved forms to create unique form and to pass larger spans than previ
ous, where the “curvilinear” term has been launched to describe these forms. But prof
essionals have already faced a challenge in the construction of the curvilinear forms, 
because of the difficulty of implementing them. Architects have been used the curvilin
ear forms by different materials, strategies, styles, and other diversities, which give ea
1
ch architect his/her own features. 

The temples with curvilinear roof (shikhara) appeared towards the 8th century (e.g.
the brick sanctuary of Lakshmana in Sarpur (Rajasthan) and the temples of
Papanatha and
__________________________________________________________________________
Jambulinga).

238
1. Valuation of curvilinear structural systems used by Zaha Hadid’s architecture,
Rasha Tarboush, Ayten Akçay 2019
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336799616_Evaluation_of_curvilinear_
structural_systems_used_by_Zaha_Hadid's_architecture

The Lakshmana temple (Mahasamund district, state of Chhattisgarh, India), a 7th-

century brick temple, mostly damaged and ruined.  Except for the sanctum
(garbhagriha) and the tower, much it is in ruins.The Papanatha temple is located in
the Pattadakal complex of 7th and 8th century CE Hindu and Jain temples in
northern Karnataka (India). This temple in particular has been dated towards mid 8th-
century. The temple is noted for its novel mixture of Dravida, and Nagara, Hindu
temple styles . Like the other temples, the Papanatha temple faces east towards the
sunrise.Also located in the Pattadakal monument complex, is the small temple of
Jambulinga or Jambulingeshwara, probably completed between mid 7th and early 8th
century. The temple was built around a square garbhagriha. This temple also faces
east, greeting the sunrise.

Curvilinear forms of architecture have vital influence on environment-bahaviour in

terms of promoting communication, encouraging movement, lifting the spirit, aiding
orientation, changing perception, enhancing social experience, increasing pleasure,
supporting the sense of community, relieving sense of distance and dissolving social
2
boundaries.

Shikhara, (Sanskrit: “mountain peak”) also spelled shikara, also called shikar, in
North Indian temple architecture, the superstructure, tower, or spire above the
sanctuary and also above the pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most
dominant and characteristic feature of the Hindu temple in the north. Why are Hindu
temples shaped mountains?

Many of them are shaped like mountains because the main deity image, and this
varies with each temple and scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape
is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of
gods according to its ancient mythology.

____________________________________________________________________________-
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2. 1st National Conference on Environment-Behaviour Studies, Faculty of Architecture, Planning
& Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia, 14-15 November 2009
The Influence of Curvilinear Architectural Forms on Environment-Behaviour Faridah Adnan* and
Rodzyah Mohd Yunus https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/277811/1-s2.0-

Brahmanism

Nearly three decades ago, Peter Van der Veer and Steven Vertovec (1991:164)
concluded their precursory article on Brahmanism overseas by arguing that “the
anthropology of Hinduism [could] no longer be exclusively tied to the anthropology of
India” due to the “constant flow of persons, goods, and information between India and
the rest of the world which now makes Hinduism transnational.” Here one may note
that Brahmins first established themselves as ‘ numero Unos’ of Hinduism providing
religious guidance and interpretations and advice to the regants and then became well
established in the temple building activity of the Hindu Kings. Hence, to ignore their
role in temple design is to cast a death knell to study of the Hindu temple evolution.

From the beginning of the ninth century, the use of these curvilinear roofs
extended to the northern kingdoms, where its use was perpetuated until the
contemporary era, at the same time that it diversified following regional styles. Within
these temples with curvilinear roofs, six main styles can be discerned. In first place we
must mention the two most beautiful, not only for their aesthetic value, but because
their study can be done following a continuous progression from the 9th to the 14th
century thanks to a large number of examples grouped in the same place; the style of
Odisha (from northeastern India) under the Somavarpśí and Gangâ dynasties,
represented by the holy city of Bhubaneswar (end of the 9th century to the middle of
the 13th) and the neighboring sanctuaries: the temples of Surya in Konark (mid-13th
century) ) and Jagannatha in Puri (early 12th century, although modified until the
contemporary era).

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In the article From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great
Tradition-Social ScientistVol. 29, No. 3/4 (Mar. - Apr., 2001), pp. 19-50 (32 pages) author
Vijay Nath argues that assimilation to a different culture typically the dominant one
occurred due to agrarian expansion just before and during the Gupta Period in India’s
history typically from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE and this process
of acculturation ihad an impact both social and psychological well-being.

The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location where the
Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment./RIGHDashavatara Temple is a Vishnu Hindu temple built during the
Gupta period. EXTREME RIGHT A tetrastyle prostyle Gupta period temple at Sanchi besides the Apsidal hall
with Maurya foundation, an example of Buddhist architecture. 5th century CE.

The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the
major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving
works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic
carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure
and Jain tirthankara figures, the latter often on a very large scale. The two great
centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the centre of Greco-
Buddhist art. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves
at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including
Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the
monumentality and balance of Guptan style. Ajanta contains by far the most
significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a
mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting
palaces. The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and
its ministers,[  and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the
earliest to survive, with important sculpture.

The Temple of Surya (Sun God) in Konark (about 35 km northeast from Puri on the
coastline of Odisha, India) from the 13th-century CE. The remains of the temple

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complex have the appearance of a (30 m) high chariot with immense wheels and
horses, all carved from stone. Once over 61 m high, much of the temple is now in
ruins, in particular the large shikhara tower over the sanctuary.The Jagannatha
Temple of Puri (Puri, state of Odisha, eastern coast of India) is dedicated to Lord
Jagannatha, a form of lord Vishnu. This temple is an important pilgrimage
destination. The present temple was rebuilt from the 10th century onwards, on the
site of an earlier temple.

The other style of an even more refined aesthetic quality is the style of Bundelkhand
(from central India) developed under the Chandela dynasty, whose religious capital,
Khajuraho, was one of the most prestigious in medieval India (9th century to the
beginning of the 14th century). The other four styles are divided between Rajputana
(the present-day Indian state of Rajasthan, as well as parts of Madhya
Pradesh and Gujarat) and central India, where, since the 11th century, the Muslim
invasion interrupted (as happened in Gwalior) the development of the Hindu religious
architecture; and finally, the Deccan, where this type of curvilinear roofs persisted
from the 11th to the 13th century.

Despite the diversity of regional styles, it is possible to sketch the general evolution of
these temples with curvilinear roofs and, at least, to highlight their essential
characteristics, studying first their floor plans and second the shape and arrangement
of their roofs. Regarding the floor plan, it should be noted first that, in the ancient
phase (7th to 9th centuries), the temple with shikhara is only composed of the
sanctuary (garbhagriha) preceded by a portico and crowned by the curvilinear roof.
Then, in the 9th to 10th centuries, the sanctuary, the vestibule and the pavilion
destined to the faithful were located one after the other; this whole was enclosed
within an enclosure with a door delimited by two large pillars joined at the top by a
decorated arch, thus forming a porch (torana). The most perfect example of this type
is the small temple of Mukteshvara in Bhubaneswar (Odisha) mainly decorated with
beautiful female sculptures. Here, the three elements of the temple are crowned each
by a different type of roof: a shikhara for the sanctuary, a lower pyramidal roof with
close and decreasing cornices for the vestibule, and an even lower, stepped roof for the
pavilion.

From the beginning of the 11th century and throughout the 12th this last type
reaches its peak. The three indispensable architectural elements of the Hindu cult are
thus united in a single sequence and with the passing of time supplementary rooms
were attached to them, arranged one after another on the same axis from East to West
and forming a single block. Its multiplication is a testimony to the prosperity of the
Hindu sanctuaries of this era. The best examples of this style are seen in
Bhubaneswar and in Khajuraho. Above a high base -with a molding- and decorated
with low bas-reliefs, the floor plan of these temples often evokes the cross of Lorraine*,
with multiple arms. In general, this type of temple was accessed by a wide staircase
that led to a portico, then it was followed successively, and at the same level, by a pre-
vestibule (ardhamandapa*) and then a vestibule (mundiupa), illuminated by windows
overlooking the sides and provided with balconies. These elements were followed by a
square hall called the great hall (mahimandapa* or juganbhana), whose roof was
usually pyramidal and which gave access through an intermediate small room

242
(antarala) to the sanctuary itself (garbhagriha). A corridor allowed the rite
of circumambulation* (pradaksiná*) around the hall and the sanctuary.

The temple thus became an imposing ensemble characterized by the roof types of
unequal heights, which were largely dominated by the shikhara of the sanctuary. The
main bodies of the different buildings were adorned externally with characters carved
in very sharp relief, cleverly arranged in registers or sheltered in more or less deep
niches; their presence animate the walls thanks to the dynamic play of shadows and
lights, an almost exclusive characteristic of this style and which also increases its
artistic perfection.

The Vishvanatha Temple (Madhya Pradesh, India) is also located among the western
group of Khajuraho Monuments. The temple is dedicated to Shiva, who is also known
as “Vishvanatha”, meaning “Lord of the Universe”. The temple is believed to have been
commissioned by the Chandela king Dhanga, and was probably completed in 999 CE
or 1002 CE. The Vishvanatha temple is characteristic of the Central Indian
architectural style that begins with Lakshmana Temple (c. 930–950 CE) and
culminates with the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (c. 1030 CE). These three temples
represent the most fully developed style at Khajuraho. The Lakshmana Temple
(Khajuraho monuments complex) was built in the 10th-century and dedicated to
Vaikuntha Vishnu – an aspect of Vishnu. The entire temple complex stands on a high
platform (Jagati). The structure consists of all the elements of Hindu temple
architecture.

Hindu (or Brahmanical) Architecture varies in its three special styles. All three
have the small shrine-cell and preceding porches, the same excessive carving and
sculpture, which are impressive by this evident tribute of labour to the gods. The
principal Brahmanical Temples, like those of Egypt, show progressive additions of
sanctuaries and inclosures, grouped around or attached to the original shrine.
Beyond this, the grandeur of their imposing mass produces an impression of
majestic beauty. The effect depends almost wholly on richness of surface and
outline, rather than on abstract beauty of form, and contrasts very strongly with
Grecian architecture. (a.) The Northern Brahman, in comparison with the
Dravidian style, has a curved pyramidal roof to the “vimana” instead of a storied
one, and is without columns to the preceding porch. (b.) The Chalukyan style is

243
affected by its northern and southern rivals, taking features from each without
losing its special character. The starshaped plan and curved pyramidal tower are
in contrast with the storied towers of the Dravidian style. (c.) The Dravidian

The normal type of plan consists of the vimana or cell crowned with curved
pyramidal roof, and the porch without columns crowned with stepped roof in
stories. Each façade has rectangular projections in the centre, which increased in
depth as the style developed, until they formed the points of a square on plan. In
addition to these two chambers, others were added in more important examples.
The large inclosures and gateways of the Dravidian style are wanting. Orissa, on
the east coast, contains a remarkable series of monuments dating from A.D. 500-
1200. The ancient city of Bhuvaneswar contains some hundreds of examples. The
best known is the Great Temple (A.D. 617-657), quoted as the finest in India. It is
a four-chambered example ; every stone on its facades is carved, the courses being
deeply rusticated. The principal vimana is crowned with the usual northern high
curved pyramidal roof with melon ornament and finial.

Other examples are at Kanaruc (No. 266e: see at right) (the Black Pagoda, ninth
century), and Puri (the four-chambered temple of Juganât, A.D. 1174), the latter
being placed in a large double inclosure surrounded by a wall 20 feet high.

In Dharwar, on the western coast, are examples in which pillars are employed, as
the Temple of Papanetha, a.d. 500, influenced by Dravidian architecture.

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Important groups exist at Chandravati, in Rajputana (a.d. 600), Baroli (a.d. 750),
and Udaipor (a.d. 1060). At Khajuraho (a.d. 954-1000) is a group of thirty
important temples, of which that dedicated to Kandarya Mahadeo is the most
important. It is a two-chambered example, placed on a well-proportioned stylo-
bate, with three rows of sculptured figures, half life-size, nearly one thousand in
number. The sikra is enriched by the addition of sculptured representations of
itself — a favourite Indian method.

Modern monuments exist at Chittore, Gwalior, Kantonugger (a.d. 1704), and

Amritzar (a.d. 1704), the sacred metropolis of the Sikhs.

Civil Architecture

Palaces, tombs, and ghats (landing places) abound. The ghats lining the great
rivers, such as the Ganges, are typical Indian features; they are used by the
Hindus as bathing places, and consist of long ranges of steps, stopped by kiosks
and backed by buildings with ornamental facades, used as shelters, or temples.

MOUNT MERU

What is Mt Meru representing According to Hindu and Buddhist cosmology?

Mount Meru, in Hindu mythology, a golden mountain that stands in the centre of the
universe and is the axis of the world. It is the abode of gods, and its foothills are the
Himalayas, to the south of which extends Bhāratavarṣa (“Land of the Sons of
Bharata”), the ancient name for India. The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by
various circles was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with
a Shikhara (Śikhara) — a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak." Early
examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath
Temple from the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, Western India. This concept also
continued outside India, such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.
In Buddhist temples, the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is the earliest example of
the 5th- to 6th-century depiction. Many other Buddhist temples took on this form,
such as the Wat Arun in Thailand and the Hsinbyume Pagoda in Myanmar.

This type architecturally translates the traditional theme of the divine residence:
the Mount Meru, the “axis of the World”, endowed with five peaks; a theme that was
transmitted to the countries of the South Seas (the countries of the Indochina
Peninsula, Philippines and Indonesia) where it gave rise to great constructions, among
which the most notable is undoubtedly the temple of Angkor Wat, in the Khmer
empire (the predecessor state of modern Cambodia, first half of the 12th century).

Mount Meru: The sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist

cosmology and is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and

245
spiritual universes. Many famous Hindu and similar Jain as well as Buddhist temples
have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain.

Shikara

View of the Angkor Wat (meaning “Capital Temple”) temple complex in Cambodia and
one of the largest religious monuments in the world, on a site measuring 162.6
hectares. It was originally constructed as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu
for the Khmer Empire, gradually transforming into a Buddhist temple towards the end
of the 12th century. The temple has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its
national flag, and it is the country’s prime attraction for visitors.

 
Hsinbyume Pagoda  in Mandalay, Myanmar, representing Mount Sumeru/

246
 meru  of Pura Ulun Danu Bratan  is dedicated to  Shiva and his consort Parvathi/ A Buddhist prang in  Wat
Arun,  Bangkok, representing Mount Sumeru

If we now study the shikhara itself, we can draw its evolution in its main lines. During
the ancient period (7th-9th centuries), it was composed of superimposed cornices that
gave the whole building a horizontally striated appearance that was accentuated in the
course of its evolution; in the angles they alternate, in a vertical superimposition,
cornices adorned with decorative windows (gavaksha*, in Tamil: kudu*) and with the
flattened “pillow” (amalaka*). Each face of the roof is vertically divided into three
segments (triratka), of which the one at the center, which forms a protrusion, always
received a denser decoration than the other two, and at its base there was sometimes
a large kudu forming a pediment. As examples of this type we can cite the temples of

247
 Pattadakal, in particular those of Jambulinga and Papanatha (8th century)

This style was maintained until about the 9th-10th centuries, a time of transition
during which the shikhara becomes increasingly elevated and is heavily decorated (see
the Mukteshvara temple in Bhubaneswar, 10th century, see pictures above); the
vertical segments on each side of the roof changed from three to five (pancharatha*).

The apogee of the shikhara occurred in the 11th and 12th centuries; it was

characterized simultaneously by its much more daring elevation and by the decorative
use, on the shikhara itself, of reduced towers (ańga shikhara), whose disposition was
varied according to the local types and centuries. However, it must be taken into
account that the shikhara without reduced towers was used at the same time and
even became higher (e.g. the temple of Parshvanatha in Khajuraho).

The Lingaraja Temple dedicated to Shiva, is one of the oldest temples in

Bhubaneswar (Odisha, India). To this day, the temple is the most prominent landmark
of Bhubaneswar and the largest temple in the city. The central tower of the temple is
55 m tall. The temple represents the quintessence of the architectural tradition at
Bhubaneswar. The temple complex has 50 other shrines and is enclosed by a large
compound wall.

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The second category show an excess of the ańga where the shikhara are arranged
on the central projection of each face; first in few numbers (one, then two or three),
and later reaching up to four in the largest constructions with some
smaller ańga shikhara framing them at the base of the roof. Several temples of
Khajuraho (mainly the Kandariya Mahadeva temple) are the best examples of this
category; the central shikhara is more slender than in the preceding category and
the ańga shikhara seem to climb, by their ascending progression, towards the top of
the main tower. This arrangement conferred a surprising dynamism to the whole
building.

The main shikhara of the Kandariya Mahadeva temple with its 84 mini spires.
The third category, from the 12th century onwards, used the reduction of structures
in a  more systematic way, filling with their silhouettes, regularly aligned in several
overlapping registers, the intervals between the protrusions of each face (e.g. the
temple of Nilakhapteśvara in Udaypur, Gwâlior).

Although during medieval times the temple with shikhara was widespread throughout

Northern India, other architectural types also existed. The most notable example is
perhaps the Vimala temple on Mount Abu (Rajasthan), one of the oldest and most
complete examples of the Jain* architecture.

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The “dome” at the Vimala Vasahi Temple.The central “domed” room surrounded by the hypostyle
cloister of the Vimala Vasahi temple.

The Vimala Vasahi temple of mount Abu (Abu town),

southwestern Rajasthan state, India), built in marble about 1031.
With a cruciform floor plan, it was built in 1031 in white marble over an equally
cruciform platform. The central body, surmounted by a false dome, is surrounded by a
hypostyle cloister with domes.

An example of the decorative elements at the interior of the Vimali Vasahi temple.
The center is octagonal and rests on eight pillars joined together by jagged arches
(which can be also seen elsewhere, especially in the temple of Surya in Modhera, State
of Barod, from the 11th century, and which may have been influenced by the Indo-
Muslim architecture); a circular dome with a central pinjabe and with rays in the
form of characters unfolds under the tower.

Although the external appearance of this building is relatively simple, the heavy use of
sculptures on the pillars, arches and roofs is excessive, and illustrates however a
typically medieval style, whose taste for over-decoration is also seen in certain
southern styles.

250
Amalaka: A segmented or notched stone disk, usually with ridges on the rim, that sits
on the top of a Hindu temple’s shikhara or main tower. The amalaka either represent
a lotus, and thus the symbolic seat for the deity below, or the sun, and is thus the
gateway to the heavenly world. Other interpretations relate that the shape of the
amalaka has been inspired by the fruit of Phyllanthus emblica, the Indian gooseberry,
or myrobolan fig tree.This is called āmalaki in Sanscrit, and the fruit has a slightly
segmented shape, though it is much less marked than in the architectural shape. The
amalaka itself is crowned with a kalasam or finial, from which a temple banner is
often hung.

Ardhamandapa: (meaning “half-open hall”).  In a Hindu temple architecture, a

passage in front of the Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) whose proportions are
relative to those of the Garbhagriha itself. Apart from being used as a passage it is also
used to keep the articles of worship including food offerings on special occasions.

Circumambulation: (from the Latin circum meaning

“around” and ambulātus meaning “to walk”). Refers to the act of moving around a
sacred object or idol. Circumambulation of temples or deity images is an integral part
of Hindu and Buddhist devotional practice (known in Sanskrit
as pradakśina or pradakshinaṇā). It is also present in other religions, including
Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.

Cross of Lorraine: A heraldic two-barred cross, consisting of a vertical line crossed by

two shorter horizontal bars. In most renditions, the horizontal bars are “graded” with
the upper bar being the shorter, though variations with the bars of equal length are
also seen.

251
 

Gavaksha: (from the Sanskrit meaning “bull’s or cow’s eye”). (Also known as kudu in
Tamil). In Indian architecture, is a term used to describe the motif centered on
an ogee, circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many examples of Indian rock-cut
architecture and later Indian structural temples and other buildings. In its original
form, the arch is shaped like the cross-section of a barrel vault.  In Hindu temples,
their role is envisioned as symbolically radiating the light and splendor of the central
icon in its sanctum. Alternatively, they are described as providing a window for the
deity to gaze out into the world.

Jain architecture: (Or Jain temple). The place of worship for Jains, the followers

of Jainism, an ancient Indian religion in which the devotees see a path of victory in
crossing over life’s stream of rebirths through an ethical and spiritual life. The word is
generally used in South India. Its historical use in North India is preserved in
the Vimala Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples of Mount Abu.

Mahimandapa: (Mahi or Maha, meaning “big”). In Hindu temple architecture, when a

temple has several Mandapas, Mahimandapa refers to the biggest and the tallest of
them all. It is used for conducting religious discourses.

Pancharatha: (From Snaskrit Pancha meaning “five” and Ratha meaning “Chariot”).

A Hindu temple is referred to a Pancharatha when there are five rathas (on plan) or
pagas (on elevation) on the tower of the temple (generally a shikhara). The rathas are
vertical offset projection or facets. There are also temples with three rathas (triratha),
seven rathas (saptaratha) and nine rathas (navaratha).

Pradakśina: The act of circumambulation in the Hindu devotional practice. It refers to

the marching round the temple towards the right hand, which is done three times.

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The presence of God, according to Burckhardt, in, Sacred Art in East and West: its
Principles and Methods, ( translated [from the French] by Lord Northbourne.
Middlesex, Eng. Perennial Books, 1967:17).is expressed in the design of the temple by
emphasizing cardinal directions, proportions and symmetry. The design represents the
world. By the architectural construction, the movement within the universe is
rendered by a (relatively) permanent form. The South Asian temple, through its
square form, has been understood to symbolize the completed world (as opposed to
the circular form, which represents the world driven onward by cosmic movement). 3
Indeed the square is perhaps the most basic form for architectural construction. From
the square, the grid is easily developed. Though the grid is arguably a cumbersome
tool13, it has been used throughout history in multiple cultures to plan the layout of
.3
buildings and cities, and it is still used today

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

3 Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Motilal Banarasidass Publ., Delhi, 1946/2007:21-
22.

253
 CHAPTER XII
The Tortoise and Angkor Design
A unique box with hinged lid made as a lucky tortoise carrying Mount Meru (looks like
The Sri Yantra or Sri Chakra) on its back narrates in the Hindu legend of the
Churning of the Milky Ocean.The gods and the demons churned the Milky Ocean in
order to acquire the Nectar of Immortality. In this grand spectacle, Vishnu, the
preserver of the cosmic order, had taken the form of a massive tortoise (Kurma Avatar)
in the middle of the Milky Ocean. His humped shell acted as a pivot for Mount
Mandara or Mount Meru, which served as the churning stick, while the serpent
Vasuki was the cord for the churn. Sri Yantra is a form of mystical diagram (yantra)
used in the Shri Vidya school of Hindu tantra. It consists of nine interlocking triangles
that surround a central point known as a bindu. This beautifully crafted piece
personifies the event in a magnificient way.

If one looks at the Khemer Architecture, then the most constant aspect of it whether
individual structure, sanctuary complex, or city, is that of “architecture-image,” that
is, the representation in architectural form of images provided by the texts. All forms
of religious architecture in Angkorian Cambodia must therefore be as close as possible
to the image suggested by the texts.

Khmer epigraphy often refers to a monument’s precise place in Indian cosmography.

As mentioned above, in the Indo-Khmer religious perspective the sanctuary could be
likened to a mountain. In the case of Phnom Bakheng, the quincuncial arrangement of
the five sanctuary towers at the summit corresponds in a very concrete way to the
peak of Mount Meru buttressed by four other strong mountains.

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Consecrated in A.D. 967-968 near Angkor, the Banthey Srei projects the image of a
divine home, - that of Siva, and is shown in what seems to have been its most
important form in two famous bas-reliefs on the Banteay Srei temple. The reliefs
occupy the tympana of the pediments on the southern library in the monument’s first
enclosure. They show us Siva surrounded by many divine or semi-divine personages
in his private celestial home of Kailasa; he is seated at the summit of a stepped
pyramid. It is thus perfectly appropriate to designate the stepped pyramid
monuments at Angkor as temple-mountains, even if it hints of redundancy in that
every sanctuary in the Indian tradition is akin to a mountain. In building their
pyramids, the Khmer simply solidify this image.

The bas-reliefs of the library present another picture of the inhabitants of Siva’s home:
hybrid figures with human bodies and animal heads. These figures are also found on
the stairs leading to the monument’s three sanctuary towers and, again, permit us to
regard these temples just as though they were divine mountains. Such temples are
also found in India,Sri Kurmam Temple in Srikakulam, Gavi Ranganatha Swamy
Temple in Hosadurga and Sri Kurma Varadharaja Swamy Temple in Chittor are the
three prominent temples where Lord Vishnu is worshipped in the form of tortoise.
Kurma literally means ‘the tortoise’.

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Kurma

The devas (gods) and the dānavas (demons) started churning the kṣīrasamudra, the
ocean of milk, for obtaining amṛta or ambrosia on the suggestion of Mahāviṣṇu. The
mount Meru was the churning rod and Vāsuki, the serpent king was the rope. During
the process of churning, the mount Meru started sinking. Hence at the request of the
two parties, Mahāviṣṇu took the form of a huge kurma or tortoise and supported the
Meru mountain on his back. This is considered as the Kurmāvatāra or Kurma
incarnation of Mahāviṣṇu.
1. Iconographically, he is shown either as a tortoise or with the lower part as a
tortoise and the upper part in the human form. The human form exhibit four
hands. These hands display having:
2. Two hands carrying the emblems of Viṣṇu - śañkha or conch and cakra or the
discus
3. Two hand showing the poses of abhaya (protection from fear) and varada (giving
of boons
4. Sometimes the gadā (mace) is shown in the right hand instead of the discus

5. Kurma, an upaprāṇas
6. Kurma is also the name of one of the five upaprāṇas[1] responsible for opening
the eyelids.

7. Kurma, a Mudrā
8. Kurma is also the name of a handpose used in pujā or worship.

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The role of Kurma in the Samudra manthan is essentially the same in all cited
versions of the Ramayana, whereby after the mountain-churning-rod begins to sink
into the ocean, Vishnu assumes the form of the gigantic tortoise, Kurma, as a pivot to
hold it, while in another simultaneous incarnation also helps to turn the tide in favour
of the Gods in the warring factions. He is an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu.
Originating in Vedic literature such as the YajurVeda as being synonymous with
the Saptarishi called Kasyapa, Kurma is most commonly associated in post-Vedic
literature such as the Puranas with the legend of the churning of the Ocean of Milk,
referred to as the Samudra manthan. Also synonymous with Akupara, the world-
turtle supporting the Earth, Kurma is listed as the second incarnation of
the Dashavatara, the ten principal avatars of Vishnu.

Kurma avatar at Saptashrungi of Shaktism// Kurma Avatar on a brass chariot of

Searsole Rajbari, West Bengal, India

Iconography
Kurma is depicted either zoomorphically as a tortoise, or more commonly
in murtis and images anthropomorphically as half-man (above the waist) and half-
tortoise (below the waist).
Locations
There are four temples dedicated to this incarnation of Vishnu in India:

 Kurmai (Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh)

 Sri Kurmam (Srikakulam District of Andhra Pradesh)
 Gavirangapur (Chitradurga District of Karnataka)
 Swarupnarayan (Goghat village in Hooghly district of West Bengal).
The name of the village mentioned above originates from the historical temple of
Kurma called Varadarajaswamy (Kurmavatar of Lord Vishnu), regarding the deity of
this village.

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The Kurma Purana  is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, and a medieval
era Vaishnavism text of Hinduism. The text is named after the tortoise
avatar of Vishnu.
The manuscripts of Kurma Purana have survived into the modern era in many
versions. The number of chapters vary with regional manuscripts, and the critical
edition (edited by Anand Swarup Gupta, and published by the All-India Kashiraj
Trust, Varanasi) of the Kurma Purana has 95 chapters. Tradition believes that
the Kurma Purana text had 17,000 verses, the extant manuscripts have about 6,000
verses.
The text, states Ludo Rocher, is the most interesting of all the Puranas in its
discussion of religious ideas, because while it is a Vaishnavism text, Vishnu does not
dominate the text Instead, the text covers and expresses reverence
for Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti with equal enthusiasm. The Kurma Purana, like other
Puranas, includes legends, mythology, geography, Tirtha (pilgrimage), theology and a
philosophical Gita. The notable aspect of its Gita, also called the Ishvaragita, is that it
is Shiva who presents ideas similar to those found in the Bhagavad Gita.
The original core of the text may have been composed about the start of the 8th-
century CE, and revised thereafter over the centuries.
The Kurma Purana, like all Puranas, has a complicated chronology. Dimmitt and van
Buitenen state that each of the Puranas is encyclopedic in style, and it is difficult to
ascertain when, where, why and by whom these were written:
As they exist today, the Puranas are a stratified literature. Each titled work consists of
material that has grown by numerous accretions in successive historical eras. Thus no
Purana has a single date of composition. (...) It is as if they were libraries to which new
volumes have been continuously added, not necessarily at the end of the shelf, but
randomly.

— Cornelia Dimmitt and J.A.B. van Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in

the Sanskrit Puranas[

The Kurma Purana exists in many versions, but all of them consist of two parts -
the Purva-vibhaga (older part) and Upari-vibhaga (upper part). The number of chapters
vary with the manuscripts. The critical edition of the different manuscripts contains
fifty one chapters in Purva-vibhaga and forty four in Upari-vibhaga.
The Padma Purana categorizes Kurma Purana as a Tamas Purana. Scholars consider
the Sattva-Rajas-Tamas classification as "entirely fanciful" and there is nothing in this
text that actually justifies this classification.
Kurma is, states Rocher, the most interesting religion-themed Purana, because even
though it is named after one of the Vishnu avatar, it actually contains a combination
of Vishnu and Shiva related legends, mythology, Tirtha (pilgrimage) and theology. The
stories are similar to those found in the other Puranas, but neither Vishnu nor Shiva
dominate the text. The text presents a tour guide to medieval Varanasi (also known as
the holy city of Banaras or Kashi), but mostly about the Shaiva sites, while
elsewhere Pancharatra stories present Vishnu prominently but with Sri as the
Supreme Shakti who is energy and power of all gods including Vishnu,
Shiva, Brahma.

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The Kurma Purana, like other Puranas, includes a philosophical Gita. It is titled
Ishvaragita, and its eleven chapters are an adaptation of Bhagavad Gita in a Shiva-as-
spokesman format. These eleven chapters are in the Uttaravibhāga.
The Ishvara-gita borrows and refers to the Upanishads such as the Katha
Upanishad and Shvetashvatara Upanishad. It presents yoga and vrata like the
Bhagavad Gita, but as a discourse from Shiva. The discourse begins after Vishnu and
Shiva give a hug to each other, according to the text, and then Vishnu invites Shiva to
explain the nature of the world, life and self. Shiva explains Atman (soul,
self), Brahman-Purusha, Prakriti, Maya, Yoga and Moksha. The philosophical theme,
states Rocher is built on Advaita Vedanta ideas, that is emphasizing the identity of the
Atman (individual soul) and the Ultimate Reality concept of Brahman. The text is
notable for asserting that anyone from any varna can achieve liberation through
Bhakti yoga.
The Nārada Purāṇa (I.106. 1-22) gives a brief overview of the sections of the Kurma
Purana, along with summaries of other Puranas. [Whether the text influenced those
who created the temple, or whether the temple—well-known, important and
prestigious—influenced the description in the Kurrnapurana matters relatively little,
given the text’s uncertain date.

According to Professor Jean Filliozat, the conformity of the architecture to the texts is
such that some of the texts may have been inspired by the architecture (1961).
Professor Filliozat concludes that the description of the Hari (Vishnu) Temple in the
Indian text KurmaPurana may have been purely and simply inspired by the temple-
mountain of Angkor Wat. Its builder, the great king Stuyavarman II (A.D. 1113 to at
least 1145), was a fervent devotee of Vishnu.

An Example of a Hindu temple based on the Tortoise

concept is the:
The Kurmanathaswamy temple, also known as the Kurmanatha
temple or Srikurmam temple, is a Hindu temple dedicated to Kurma – the second
avatar of Vishnu. It is located in Srikurmam village, Srikakulam district in Andhra
Pradesh, India. Built in the 11th-century in the Eastern Chalukyan style, this Dravida
architecture temple was expanded in later centuries, and it is dedicated to Vishnu as
Kurmanathaswamy and his consort Lakshmi as Kurmanayaki.
Srikurmam is the only known pre-14th-century Indian temple that is dedicated to the
Kurma avatar. The sanctum of Kurmanatha temple has both a tortoise image and the
anthropomorphic Vishnu with Lakshmi. The temple was an important centre
of Vaishnavism in the medieval period along with Simhachalam. Later Naraharitirtha,
a disciple of Madhvacharya, was instrumental in making Srikurmam the seat of
Vishnavite religious activities.  The temple has two dhvajasthambas, 108 ekasila
(single-stone) pillars, with none resembling each other. These bear numerous
inscriptions. A tortoise park has been built within the temple to honor and conserve
the adult and young star tortoises. The temple has primarily Vaishnava iconography
and murals, but also reverentially includes Shaiva (Ganesha, Shiva) and Shakti
(Lakshmi, Durga) icons.

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Srikurmam follows both Shaivite and Vaishnavite traditions of worship. Four daily
rituals and four annual festivals are celebrated in Srikurmam, out of which the three-
day Dolotsavam is the major one. Gajapathi Rajus of Vizianagaram are the trustees of
the temple, which is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and
Endowment Board of the Government of Andhra Pradesh. The Indian postal
department issued a stamp featuring the temple on 11 April 2013.
History:

One of the inscriptions in the temple, written in Telugu language

The temple is situated in the Gara mandal of the Srikakulam district, which is located

at a distance of 130 kilometres (81 mi) from Visakhapatnam. Considered the only
Indian temple where the Hindu deity Vishnu is worshipped in the form of a tortoise,
Srikurmam is 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) away from Srikakulam town and 3.5 kilometres
(2.2 mi) away from the Suryanarayana temple, Arasavalli. Inscriptional history of the
temple begins in the 11th-12th centuries. The temple is popular among the Tamil
diaspora as well because it is a Vaishnavite temple. Ramanuja's disciples
established Vaishnavism in the temple with the support of Kalinga
king Anantavarman Chodaganga, the eastern Ganga king. After this incident, a group
of devadasis were employed to sing and dance daily before the deity in the morning
and evening.

Live tortoises in the Kurmanatha Swamy temple's premises, its preservation efforts

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Srikurmam was regarded as an important centre of Vaishnavism in the medieval
period along with Simhachalam and others.[3] It was also regarded as
the Gurupitha (sacred place of the master) of the Ganga kings of Utkala.
Naraharitirtha, the disciple of Madhvacharya, was instrumental in making Srikurmam
the seat of Vishnavite religious activities. He also defended the place from an attack of
the Sabaras, a group of savage inhabitants of the Ganjam forests. Srikurmam
influenced the kings, officials, and Vaishnavite devotees to change their names in
accordance with the religious faith they followed. Due to his close association with the
eastern Ganga kings, Naraharitirtha created the office of Bhoga Pariksha (religious
head) with the aim of having the successive Madhwa saints supervise religious matters
and pray for the welfare of the royal family and kingdom. Naraharitirtha later built a
temple dedicated to Yogananda Narasimha in front of Srikurmam.[  The temple
inscriptions mention Narasimha Dasa Pandita and Purushottama Deva as the Bhoga
Parikshas. Currently, Srikurmam is under the trusteeship of the Gajapathi Rajus
of Vizianagaram.

Legands:

Kurma Narayana, one of the avatars of the Hindu deity Vishnu

During the reign of king Swetha Chakravarthi, this area was referred to as Swetha
Giri. Swetha Chakravarthi's wife Vishnu Priya was a devotee of Vishnu. When she was
observing a fast on an Ekadasi day, Swetha Chakravarthi approached her with the
intention of making love. When she refused, saying the time was not ideal, the king
became adamant. She prayed to Vishnu, who created a stream of water, separating
the couple. Swetha Chakravarthi was carried away in the ensuing flood and Vishnu
Priya followed him to the hilly terrains of Swetha Giri. The sage Narada initiated
an upadesam of the Kurma Narayana mantra and asked the king to pray to Vishnu
using it. By the time Vishnu appeared in the form of the Kurma (tortoise) avatar, the
king's health had deteriorated. Vishnu then made his Sudarshana Chakra make an
impression in the nearby land, forming a lake.
Swetha Chakravarthi bathed in the lake and regained his health, after which it was
referred to as Swetha Pushkarani.Upon the king's request, Vishnu manifested as the
deity of Kurmanatha. According to the Padma Purana, Brahma officiated the celestial
rituals and consecrated the deity with Gopala Yantra. Vishnu is worshipped as
Kurmanatha Swamy or Kurma Narayana, along with his consort Lakshmi, who is
referred to as Kurmanayaki.

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Later, a tribal king visited the Swetha Pushkarani and was impressed with it. After
learning about the story of its origin from Swetha Chakravarthi, the tribal king
constructed a tank around the lake and began worshipping the deity regularly. The
tribal king used to stay in Sage Sampangi's monastery, which was situated in the
Western side of the temple. Upon the king's request, the deity started facing west.  The
sage Durvasa is said to havde visited the temple later with his disciples; the event of
his arrival was considered-significant. Rama's sons Lava and Kusha were said to have
worshipped Vishnu as Kurmanatha in Srikurmam. In Dvapara Yuga, Balarama visited
the temple and was denied entry by Bhairava, who was serving as the
temple's Kshetrapala (guardian deity). Infuriated, Balarama threw Bhairava away from
the temple premises. Kurmanatha came to know this and gave Balarama permission
to enter the temple. Balarama, in resentment, cursed that Srikurmam would be the
only temple where Vishnu would be worshipped in the form of Kurma Narayana.
Legends also say that upon Vishnu's request, Anjaneya agreed to guard the temple.

(top) A part of the complex which features the 108 ekasila (single-stone) pillars

(bottom) A view of the Swetha Pushkarani with mandapa.

ARCHITECTURE
Srikurmam temple is known for its distinctive architectural style. The design of
the gopuram is different from the regular style seen at other Vaishnavite temples. It
also has two dhvajasthambas, one on the west and the other on the east, which is
another rare element in a Vaishnavite temple. The upper part of the sanctum
sanctorum is built in the form of an ashtadala padmam (eight-petaled lotus). The
devotees can directly enter the sanctum sanctorum to offer prayers, unlike the method
specified by the traditional rules of Vaishnavism

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The utsava deities of Govindaraja Swamy and his consorts Sridevi and Bhudevi were
found in the Swetha Pushkarani in the 12th century AD. The utsava deities of Rama,
Sita, and Laksmana were presented by Naraharitirtha. All these deities are located in a
small room near the sanctum sanctorum and are worshipped daily. The deity of
Kurmanathaswamy is made of black stone, but due to regular applications of
sandalwood paste, it appears yellow It sits on a platform made of stone with a length
of 5 feet, a height of 1 foot, and a width of 4 feet. The deity is 2.5 feet (0.76 m) long
and consists of three stone structuresThe stone representing the head faces the west;
the middle stone represents the body of the tortoise; the small stone at the rear end,
covered with swirling circles, represents either the tail of the tortoise or the
Sudarshana Chakra.
Beside the sanctum sanctorum of Kurmanatha, there is a temple dedicated to
Kurmanayaki in which a deity of Andal is found.  Hatakeswara, Karpureswara,
Koteswara, Sundareswara, and Pathalasiddheswara are among the temple's guardian
deities.[12] The temple's tank Swetha Pushkarani is also known by the name Sudha
Kundam. In the middle of the temple tank, there is a small construction named
Narasimha mandapam.  The sand below the waters of the temple tank is white in
colour, and is known as Gopi Chandanam. Legends say that Krishna played
with gopikas in these waters, after which the sand turned white when a sage saw
them. The temple contains 108 ekasila (single-stone) pillars, with none resembling
each other. They bear few inscriptions related to the royal lineages that existed in this
area in the past.
In the temple's premises, a tortoise park has been built to conserve the adult and
young star tortoises, which are found in the foothills and fields of Srikakulam.
Srikurmam is the only conservation centre for this species. Devotees offer these
tortoises from the nearby fields. They also feed gongura leaves to these tortoises as a
token of respect for the deity. The Endowment Board of the Government of Andhra
Pradesh and NGO Green Mercy took on the responsibility for the conservation of these
star tortoises.  As of September 2015, the temple hosted a total of 255 tortoises. The
temple also contains 42 mural paintings of Krishna on its walls.

A statue of Vishnu being worshiped in the temple

Srikurmam is one of the rare Indian temples that follow both Shaivite and Vaishnavite
traditions. Abhisheka is performed daily to the deity, and devotees are allowed to
participate in person; this is a feature seen more often in Shaivite temples than in
Vaishnavite temples. Akhanda Deeparadhana (Lamp worship), Nitya Bhogam (Daily
offering) and Kalyanam (Marriage) are regularly performed to the deities. [  Devotees
visit the Pathalasiddheswara temple before entering the sanctum sanctorum of
Kurmanathaswamy.

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Ancestor worship is famous in Srikurmam, because of which it is known
as pitrukshetra. People believe that their ancestors' souls shall gain salvation if offered
prayers here. Because of this, hundreds of devotees perform ancestor
worship. Devotees use the Gopi Chandanam while applying thirunamam on their
forehead. The three-day Dolotsavam is the major festival celebrated in the
temple. Kamadahanam is celebrated on the first day, followed by Padiya and
Dolotsavam. The annual Kalyanotsavam is celebrated on Vaisakha Suddha
Ekadasi. Other festive activities include Kurma Jayanthi on Jyeshta Bahula Dwadasi
and Mukkoti Ekadasi.
From 7–20 July 2014, 55 tortoise hatchlings were bred in the temple, which Green
Mercy claimed to be a world record.  In September 2015 The Times of India reported
about an incident of mass mortality among those 55 tortoises due to infections and
poor maintenance, said to be caused by a number of environmental and man-made
factors. The number was reduced to 24, and the park's curator K. V. Ramana Murthy
pointed out that the forest department agreed to conserve them, but the offer was put
on hold by the high court after a petition filed by devotees and a few religious
organisations. Apart from lack of manpower and proper funds, the Hudhud
cyclone caused severe damage to the tortoise park

Mount Meru

Mount Meru:  मे रु, also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred

five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and is considered to be
the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes.[1]
Many famous Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples have been built as symbolic
representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" 須彌座 xūmízuò style base is a
common feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat,
a Burmese-style multi-tiered roof, represents Mount Meru.
Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru  to which is added the
approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful
Meru".Meru is also the name of the central bead in a mālā.
The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru which all refer to it as a part of the Cosmic
Ocean, along with several other statements that describe it in geographically vague
terms (e.g., "the Sun along with all the planets circle the mountain") — make the
determination of its location most difficult, according to most scholars.
Some researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs, northwest
of Kashmir.
The Suryasiddhanta mentions that Mt. Meru lies in the middle of the Earth ("bhuva-
madhya") in the land of the Jambunad (Jampudvīpa). Narapatijayacharyasvarodaya
a ninth-century text, based on mostly unpublished texts of Yāmal Tantr, mentions:
"Sumeruḥ Prithvī-madhye shrūyate drishyate na tu"
(Su-meru is heard to be in the middle of the Earth, but is not seen there).

Several versions of cosmology can be found in existing Hindu texts. In one of them,
cosmologically, the Meru mountain was also described as being surrounded by

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Mandrachala Mountain to the east, Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda
Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the south.[

The cosmic tortoise, and Mount Meru

Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high, about

1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's diameter. The Sun,
along with all the planets in the Solar System, revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit.
One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles), though its magnitude
seems to differ over time periods — e.g., the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas
according to Varahamihira and slightly less so in the Aryabhatiya, but is said to be
5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya Purana and the Bhagvata Purana,
along with some other Hindu texts, consistently give the height of 84,000 yojanas to
Mount Meru, which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers.
Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in antiquity.
According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount Meru. One
description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made
of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli. It is a pillar of the world and is located at the
heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus.

Painting of Mount Meru from Jain cosmology from the Samghayanarayana

According to Jain cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre of the

world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa, in form of a circle forming a diameter of

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 100,000 yojans. There are two sets of sun, moon and stars revolving around
Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind Mount Meru.
The 24th and last Tirthankara, Lord Mahāvīra, was taken to the summit of
Meru by Indra shortly after his birth, after putting his mother Queen
Trishala into deep slumber. There, he was bathed and anointed with precious
unctions. Indra and other Devas celebrated his birth.
Javanese Hindu Legands also mentions this mythical mountain of gods was in
the Tantu Pagelaran, an Old Javanese manuscript written in the 15th-
century Majapahit period. The manuscript describes the mythical origin of the
island of Java, as well as the legendary movement of portions of Mount Meru to
Java. The manuscript explains that Batara Guru (Shiva) ordered the
gods Brahma and Vishnu to fill Java with human beings. However, at that
time, Java island was floating freely on the ocean, always tumbling and
shaking. To stop the island's movement, the gods decided to nail it to the Earth
by moving the part of Mahameru in Jambudvipa (India) and attaching it to
Java. The resulting mountain is Mount Semeru, the tallest mountain on Java.
Mount Semeru, a large active volcano on Java, is named after the mount.

A R C H I T E C T U R E

The five central towers of Angkor Wat, before a Hindu and later a Buddhist
temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia, symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru.

The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles was

incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara)
— a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak." Early examples of
this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath
Temple from the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, Western India. This concept
also continued outside India, such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru
towers.

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In Buddhist temples, the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is the earliest example of
the 5th- to 6th-century depiction. Many other Buddhist temples took on this form,
such as the Wat Arun in Thailand and the Hsinbyume Pagoda in Myanmar. IN THE
ARTICLE- THE ANGKOREAN TEMPLE-MOUNTAIN-Diversity, Evolution,
Permanence Thierry Zephir says:
( https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-angkorean-temple-mountain/)

Permanence: The “Architecture-Image”

The most constant aspect of Khmer architecture, whether individual structure, sanctuary complex, or
city, is that of “architecture-image,” that is, the representation in architectural form of images
provided by the texts. Khmer epigraphy often refers to a monument’s precise place in Indian
cosmography (see Eoisselier 1970). As mentioned above, in the Indo-Khmer religious perspective
the sanctuary could be likened to a mountain. In the case of Phnom Eakheng, the quincuncial
arrangement of the five sanctuary towers at the summit corresponds in a very concrete way to the
peak of Mount Meru buttressed by four other strong mountains. All forms of religious architecture in
Angkorian Cambodia must therefore be as close as possible to the image suggested by the texts.

Angkor Wat. Siem Reap, Cambodia, 1116-1150

An aerial view of Angkor Wat demonstrates that the temple is made up of an

expansive enclosure wall, which separates the sacred temple grounds from the
protective moat that surrounds the entire complex (the moat is visible in the
photograph at the top of the page). The temple proper is comprised of three galleries (a
passageway running along the length of the temple) with a central sanctuary, marked
by five stone towers. The five stone towers are intended to mimic the five mountain
ranges of Mt. Meru—the mythical home of the gods, for both Hindus and Buddhists.
The temple mountain as an architectural design was invented in Southeast Asia.
Southeast Asian architects quite literally envisioned temples dedicated to Hindu gods

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on earth as a representation of Mt. Meru. The galleries and the empty spaces that they
created between one another and the moat are envisioned as the mountain ranges and
oceans that surround Mt. Meru. Mt. Meru is not only home to the gods, it is also
considered an axis-mundi. An axis-mundi is a cosmic or world axis that connects
heaven and earth. In designing Angkor Wat in this way, King Suryavarman II and his
architects intended for the temple to serve as the supreme abode for Vishnu. Similarly,
the symbolism of Angkor Wat serving as an axis mundi was intended to demonstrate
the Angkor Kingdom’s and the king’s central place in the universe. In addition to
envisioning Angkor Wat as Mt. Meru on earth, the temple’s architects, of whom we
know nothing, also ingeniously designed the temple so that embedded in the temple’s
construction is a map of the cosmos (mandala) as well as a historical record of the
temple’s patron.

HINDU MYTHOLOGY
Nandi is the greatest ever, selfless devotee of Shiva.
Nandi is born only to do service to His God Shiva. Nandi is the Vehicle for Shiva and
he is even the gate keeper for Shiva's abode, Khailash (everyone needs Nandi’s
permission, to enter Khailash and to meet Shiva).
Shiva was so impressed with Nandi’s selfless devotion , that Shiva blessed him and
said “ Nandi, you are dearest to me. I hereby give you a boon that whatever my
devotees tell in your ears , will for sure reach me ! Hence, Nandi is always placed in
front of Shiva.

In few temples , we see Even a Turtle placed in front of Shiv linga.

The reason may be Turtle represents Lord Vishnu’s kurma Avatar, thus indicating that
Shiva and Vishnu are one and the same.
The other reason may be , How a turtle closes itself into a shell , and is strong as a
mountain in the outer side. In the same way, We should also have control over our 6

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avgun (kaama, krodha, moha, lobha, madha and matsaryam) and thus be detached
with the outer materilastic world , and sync to our Chitt ( Shiva), thus evolve
spiritually.

Nandi Theertha Kalyani temple Kalyani - Turtles

Nandi always looks at Shiva , telling us to stop thinking of everything else and just
concentrate on God Shiva. Shiva Temple is representation of Kundalini & Chakras. In
Kundalini Yoga , practitioner brings Atman from heart to base of Kundalini , then

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Atman travels though various chakras and meets the Paramatman through
Sahastrara chakra. Shiva Temple represents this travel of soul through various
chakras .

Kundalini reside in base chakra ( Muladhara ) , this is represented by turtle.

Next Four chakras ( Swadhistan, Manipur, Anahat and Visudhi) are represented by
Nandi. The Shiva Lingam represents Agya Chakra, the final destination of soul before
it merges in Sahasara and then with parmatmanIndian Rishis realized Kundalini
yoga , to teach common masses they created Shiva temples.They tried to explain
esoteric knowledge through sculpture.Nandi is symbol of selfless devotion,
strength and wisdom. Nandi (Ox) is a hard working animal and thus became
Shiva’s Vehicle (mount).

So, Nandi represents selfless devotion and Turtle represent

Archaeologists Discover Ancient Stone Turtle in Drained Angkor Reservoir. Last

Wednesday, archaeologists conducting excavations at the Angkor temple complex in
Cambodia unearthed a large stone turtle statue thought to date to the tenth century
A.D., reports Sopheng Cheang for the Associated Press. via Khmer Times, A second,
smaller, statue is discovered in the ongoing Srah Srang excavations. This time, an
attempt was made to look inside the shell but the excavators are taking it slow. A
turtle sculpture was discovered earlier last week, along with metal tridents and crystal
stones. Apsara National Authority (ANA) yesterday unearthed one more ancient turtle
statue buried at the bottom of the temple in the middle of Srah Srang pond in Angkor
Archaeological Park.

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According to ANA, the statue is found to be in good condition. The size of the second
discovery is smaller than the previous statue found on Wednesday.
Besides the turtle statue, there are more ancient objects which have been discovered
such as crystal stones and metal tridents. Currently, the statues and objects are being
kept for further assessment. 09 May 2020

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 CHAPTER XIII
Medieval temple architecture: North Indian style

North Indian temples generally consist of a sanctum enshrining the main

image, usually square in plan and shaped like a hollow cube, and one or more
halls (called maṇḍapas), aligned along a horizontal axis. The sanctum may or
may not have an ambulatory, but it is invariably dark, the only opening being
the entrance door. The doorway surrounds are richly decorated with bands of
figural, floral, and geometrical ornament and with river-goddess groups at the
base. A vestibule (antarāla) connects the sanctum to the halls, which are of two
broad types: the gūḍhamaṇḍapas, which are enclosed by walls, light and air let
in through windows or doors; and open halls, which are provided with
balustrades rather than walls and are consequently lighter and airier. The
sanctum almost invariably, and the maṇḍapas generally, have śikharas; those
on the sanctum, appropriately, are the most dominant in any grouping.
Internally, the sanctum has a flat ceiling; the śikhara is solid theoretically,
though hollow chambers to which there is no access must be left within its
body to lessen the weight. The ceilings of the halls, supported by carved pillars,
are coffered (decorated with sunken panels) and of extremely rich design.
The sanctum is often set on a raised base, or a plinth (pīṭha), above which is a
foundation block, or socle (vedībandha), decorated with a distinct series of
moldings; above the vedībandha rise the walls proper (jaṅghā), which are
capped by a cornice or a series of cornice moldings (varaṇḍikā), above which
rises the śikhara. One, three, and sometimes more projections extend all the
way from the base of the temple up the walls to the top of the śikhara. The
central offset (bhadra) is the largest and generally carries an image in a niche;
the other projections (rathas), too, are often decorated with statuary.

The entire temple complex, including sanctum, halls, and attendant shrines,
may be raised on a terrace (jagatī), which is sometimes of considerable height
and size. The attendant shrines—generally four—are placed at the corners of
the terrace, forming a pañcāyatana, or quincunx, arrangement that is fairly
widespread. The temple complex may be surrounded by a wall with an arched
doorway (toraṇa).

The śikhara is the most distinctive part of the North Indian temple and
provides the basis for the most useful and instructive classification. The two
basic types are called latina and phāmsanā. Curvilinear in outline, the latina is
composed of a series of superimposed horizontal roof slabs and has offsets
called latās. The edges of the śikhara are interrupted at intervals with grooved
discs, each one demarcating a “story.” The surface of the entire śikhara is

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covered with a creeper-like tracery, or interlaced work, composed of diminutive
ornamental candraśālās.

Elevation of a North Indian temple with the latina type of superstructure.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The śikhara is truncated at the top and capped by a shoulder course
(skandha), above which is a circular necking (grīvā), carrying a large grooved
disc called the āmalasāraka. On it rests a pot and a crowning finial (kalaśa).

Unlike the latina, the phāmsanā śikhara is rectilinear rather than curvilinear

in outine, and it is lower in height. It is composed of horizontal slabs, like
the latina, but is capped by a bell-shaped member called the ghaṇṭā. The
surface of this type of śikhara may have projections, like the latina śikhara,
and be adorned with a variety of architectural ornament.

From the 10th century onward, the śekharī type of spire, an elaboration of

the latina type, became increasingly popular. In its developed form it consisted
of a central latina spire (mūlaśṛṅga) with one or more rows of half spires added
on the sides (uraḥ-śṛṅga) and the base strung with miniature spires (śṛṅgas).
The corners, too, are sometimes filled with quarter spires, the whole mass of
carved masonry recalling a mountain with a cluster of subsidiary peaks.

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Elevation of a North Indian temple with the śekharī type of superstructure.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The latina and śekharī spires are generally found on the sanctum, while
the phāmsanā and its variants are usually confined to the maṇḍapas, or halls.
The sanctum spires also have a large and prominent projection in front
(śukanāsā), generally rising above the vestibule (antarāla). These projections
are essentially large ogee arches of complex form, which often contain the
image of the presiding deity.

A particularly rich and pleasing variety of North Indian śikhara, popular in

Mālwa, western India, and northern Deccan, is the bhūmija type. It has a
central projection on each of the four faces, the quadrants so formed filled with
miniature spires in vertical and horizontal rows right up to the top.

Although basically reflecting a homogeneous architectural style,

temple architecture in northern India developed a number of distinct regional
schools. A detailed elucidation of all has yet to be made, but among the most
important are the styles of Orissa, central India, Rājasthān, and Gujarāt. The
style of Kashmir is distinct from the rest of northern India in several respects,
and hardly any examples of the great schools that flourished in modern Uttar
Pradesh, Bihār, and Bengal are left standing. The North Indian style also
extended for some time into the Karnataka (formerly Karṇāṭa) territory, situated
in the southern Deccan, though the architecture of Tamil Nadu was relatively
unaffected by it.
Medieval temple architecture: South Indian style of Tamil Nadu
(7th–18th century)

The early phase, which, broadly speaking, coincided with the political
supremacy of the Pallava dynasty (c. 650–893), is best represented by the
important monuments at Mahābalipuram. Besides a fine group of small cave
temples (early 7th century), among the earliest examples of their type in
southern India, there are here several monolithic temples carved out of the
rock, the largest of which is the massive three-storied Dharmarāja-ratha
(c. 650). The finest temple at this site and of this period is an elegant complex
of three shrines called the Shore Temple (c. 700), not cut out of rock but built
of stone. The Tālapurīśvara temple at Panamalai is another excellent example.
The capital city of Kānchipuram also possesses some fine temples—for
example, the Kailāsanātha (dating a little later than the Shore Temple), with its
stately superstructure and subsidiary shrines attached to the walls. The
enclosure wall has a series of small shrines on all sides and a small gopura.
Another splendid temple at Kānchipuram is the Vaikuṇtha Perumāl (mid-8th
century), which has an interesting arrangement of three sanctums, one above
the other, encased within the body of the superstructure.

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The 9th century marked a fresh movement in the South Indian style, revealed
in several small, simple, but most elegant temples set up during the
ascendancy of the Cōḻa and other contemporary dynasties. Most important of a
large number of unpretentious and beautiful shrines that dot the Tamil
countryside are the Vijayālaya Cōḻīśvara temple at Nārttāmalai (mid-9th
century), with its circular sanctum, spherical cupola, and massive, plain walls;
the twin shrines called Agastyīśvara and Cōḻīśvara, at Kīḻaiyūr (late 9th
century); and the splendid group of two temples (originally three) known as
the Mūvarkovil, at Koḍumbāḷūr (c. 875).

These simple beginnings led rapidly (in about a century) to the mightiest of all
temples in the South Indian style, the Bṛhadīśvara, or Rājarājeśvara, temple,
built at the Cōḻa capital of Thanjāvūr. A royal dedication of Rājarāja I, the
temple was begun around 1003 and completed about seven years later. The
main walls are raised in two stories, above which the superstructure rises to a
height of 190 feet (60 metres). It has 16 stories, each of which consists of a wall
with a parapet of shrines carved in relatively low relief. The great temple
at Gaṅgaikoṇḍacōḻapuram, built (1030–40) by the Cōḻa king Rājendra I, is
somewhat smaller than the Bṛhadīśvara; but the constituent elements of its
superstructure, whose outline is concave, are carved in bolder relief, giving the
whole a rather emphatic plasticity. The Airāvateśvara (1146–73) and
Kampahareśvara (1178–1223) temples at Dārāsuram and Tribhuvanam follow
the tradition of the 11th century but are smaller and considerably more ornate.
They bring to a close a great phase of South Indian architecture extending from
the 11th to the 13th century.

From the middle of the 12th century onward, the gopuras, or entrance buildings, to
temple enclosures began to be greatly emphasized. They are extremely large and
elaborately decorated with sculpture, quite dominating the architectural ensemble.
Their construction is similar to that of the main temple except that they are
rectangular in plan and capped by a barrel vault rather than a cupola, and only the
base is of stone, the superstructure being made of brick and plaster. Among the finest
examples are the Sundara Pāndya gopura (13th century) of the Jambukeśvara temple
at Tiruchchirāppalli and the gopuras of a great Śiva temple at Chidambaram, built
largely in the 12th–13th century (see photograph). Even larger gopuras, if not of such
fine quality, continued to be built up to the 17th century. Such great emphasis was
placed on the construction of gopuras that enclosure walls, which were not really
necessary, were especially built to justify their erection. In the course of time several
walls and gopuras were successively built, each enclosing the other so that at the
present day one often has to pass through a succession of walls with their gopuras
before reaching the main shrine. A particularly interesting example is the Ranganātha
temple at Srīrangam, which has seven enclosure walls and numerous gopuras, halls,
and temples constructed in the course of several centuries. The gopuras of the Mīnākṣī
temple at Madurai are also good representative examples of this period.

276
Southern gopura of the Shiva temple at Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India, c. 1248.P. Chandra

In addition to the gopuras, temples also continued to be built. Although they

never achieved colossal size, they are often of very fine workmanship. The
Subrahmaṇya temple of the 17th century, built in the compound of the
Bṛhadīśvara temple at Thanjāvūr, indicates the vitality of architectural
traditions even at this late date.
Medieval temple architecture: South Indian style of Karnataka

The early phase, as in Tamil Nadu, opens with the rock-cut cave temples. Of
the elaborate and richly sculptured group at Bādāmi, one cave temple is dated
578, and two cave temples at Aihole are early 8th century. Among structural
temples built during the rule of the Cālukyas of Bāẖāmi are examples in the
North Indian style; but, because the Karnataka region was more receptive to
southern influences, there are a large number of examples that are basically
South Indian with only a few North Indian elements. The Durgā temple (c. 7th
century) at Aihole is apsidal in plan, echoing early architectural traditions; the
northern latina śikhara is in all probability a later addition. The Mālegitti
Śivālaya temple at Bāẖāmi (early 8th century), consisting of a sanctum, a hall
with a parapet of śālās and kūṭas (rectangular and square miniature shrines),
and an open porch, is similar to examples in Tamil Nadu. The Virūpākṣa at
Pattadkal (c. 733–746) is the most imposing and elaborate temple in the South
Indian manner. It is placed within an enclosure, to which access is through
a gopura; and the superstructure, consisting of four stories, has a projection in
the front, a feature inspired by the prominent projections, or śukanāsā, of
North Indian temples. Belonging to the 9th century is the triple shrine (the
three sanctums sharing the same maṇḍapa, or hall) at Kambaḍahalli and the
extremely refined and elaborately carved Bhoganandīśvara temple at Nandi.
The Chāvuṇḍarāyabasti (c. 982–995) at Śravaṇa-Beḷgoḷa is also an impressive
building, with an elegant superstructure of three stories.

With the 10th century, the Karnatic idiom begins to show an increasing

individuality that culminates in the distinctive style of the 12th century and
later. The Kalleśvara temple at Kukkanūr (late 10th century) and a large Jaina
temple at Lakkundi (c. 1050–1100) clearly demonstrate the transition. The
superstructures, though basically of the South Indian type, have offsets and

277
recesses that tend to emphasize a vertical, upward movement. The Lakkundi
temple is also the first to be built of chloritic schist, which is the favoured
material of the later period and which lends itself easily to elaborate sculptural
ornamentation. With the Mahādevā temple at Ittagi (c. 1112) the transition is
complete, the extremely rich and profuse decoration characteristic of this
shrine being found in all work that follows. Dating from the reign of
the Hoysaḷa dynasty (c. 1141) is a twin Hoysaḷeśvara temple at Halebīd, the
capital city. The sanctums are stellate in form but lack their original
superstructures. The pillars of the interior are lathe-turned in a variety of
fanciful shapes. The exterior is almost totally covered with sculpture, the walls
carrying the usual complement of images; the base, or socle, is decorated with
several bands of ornamental motifs and a narrative relief. Among other temples
that were constructed in this style, the most important are the Chenna Keśava
temple at Belūr (1117), the Amṛteśvara temple at Amritpur (1196), and the
Keśava temple at Somnāthpur (1268).

278
Medieval temple architecture: South Indian style of Mahārāshtra,
Andhradeśa, and Kerala

The traditions of cave architecture are stronger in Mahārāshtra than in any

other part of India; there, great shrines were cut out of rock right up to the 9th
century AD and even later. Of those belonging to the early phase, the most
remarkable is a temple at Elephanta (early 6th century); equally impressive are
numerous temples at Ellora (6th–9th centuries). The Karnatic version of the
South Indian style extended northward into Mahārāshtra, where the Kailasa
temple at Ellora, erected in the reign of the Rāṣṭrakūṭā Krishna I (8th century),
is its most stupendous achievement. The entire temple is carved out of rock
and is over 100 feet (30 metres) high. It is placed in a courtyard, the three sides
of which are carved with cells filled with images; the front wall has an
entrance gopura. The tall base, or plinth, is decorated with groups of large
elephants and griffins, and the superstructure rises in four stories. Groups of
important temples in the southern style are also found in the Andhra country,
notably at Biccavolu, ranging in date from the 9th to the 11th centuries. The
13th-century temples at Palampet are the counterparts of the
elaborate Karnatic style of the same period, but without its overpowering
elaboration. The temples of Kerala represent an adaptation of the South Indian
style to the great main fall of this region and are provided with heavy sloping

279
roofs of stone that imitate timber originals required for draining away the
water.

Kailasa temple (cave 16), Ellora Caves, northwest-central Maharashtra state,

India.

280
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 ABOUT THE AUTHOR DR UDAY DOKRAS

About the Author

The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He
was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human
Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human
Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant
to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of
Business Management and Research, Nagpur.

In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi

millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of
Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done

282
 his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a
MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he
has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.

A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was
invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of
Seychelles.

Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English.
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”

RESEARCH PAPERS-320 + in Researchgate and academia.edu & scribd

Followers(readers) 65,000 consolidated as on 26 th September,2020.

Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India

283
 Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and
failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project
marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN

284
From the Newspaper Times of India March
24, 2018

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Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in
which is about Dr Uday Dokras

286
Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA
releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA
gimes( May 2010)

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Some of my books

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 Unravelling the

SCIENTIFIC
BORUBUDUR

Dr Uday Dokras-Srishti Dokras - Kinjal Shah

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 Indo Nordic Author’s Collective
Indo Nordic Gem research Institute

51 BOOKS BY DR UDAY DOKRAS

Published by
The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Stockholm
The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Finland

Dr. Uday Dokras

Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers

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 The Cambodian Trilogy

I.HINDU CAMBODIA

II.HYDROLOGY of ANGKOR
ANGKOR is known as a Hydraulic city- full or canals and river and
waterways. It is this water system they say that brought the downfall of this
intrinsic kingdom. But is that TRUE?

III.ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT

VANISHED- Angkor

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Building Materials of the Hindu Temple
Indo Nordic Author's collective, 2021
In depth study of how Building Materials of the Hindu Temple was used in
India,Indonesia and Cambodia and India

The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE

COMPLEX, AMRITSAR

Mathematics in Temple Designs

299
 Jain ART
Book on Jain Art and Iconography

Jain Temples- Part I -Complete Compendium-

Book I
A to Z of the architecture, Design,Cosmology,Philosophy of Jain temples in

Jain Temples II
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF JAIN TEMPLES AND THE
ACTUAL PHOTOGRAPHS(ORIGINAL) OF 3JAIN TEMPLES of Nagpur

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DWARKA- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost
CITY of KRISHNA

TIRUPATI TEMPLE Book part I

TIRUPATI TemplePart II

Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods

Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods. Animals in Hinduism. demi Gods

301
SATYANARAYAN PUJA-The Complete Compendium
Satyanarayan Puja or 9 Graha Puja( a puja of 9 planets) has been
performed by most Hindus not only now but for 1,000’s of years.

MAHALAXMI Puja
Hindu Goddess MAHALAXMI Puja

ARCHITECTURE OF PALESTINE

Palestine my Love
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Palestine my Love is about the culture arts and crafts of palestine so we
recognize it as a entity that is fighting for recognition of not only its
legitimacy but also its cultural heritage

QUINTET (5) BOOKS ON MANDALA

Unravelling the MAZE of the MANDALA BOOK I

First part of a two book treatise on MANDALAS. This introductory phase
introduces mandalas

Maze of MANDALA BOOK II

Advanced Mandala routine for those who want to know more about
MANDALAS

Mandala BOOK III on Nakshatra

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BOOK IV MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE
The Use of Mandalas in Building Temples and Modern Buildings

Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms

Islamic Architectureal Arts of of Imam Ali's 2

Shrines

Hindu Gods in Scandinavia

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Did the Hindu Gods originate or live in Scandinavia once? Find out

Book on Divinity and Architecture

What is divinity? How has man tried to harness architecture to create magic
in space

Virat Hridaya Padma-sthalam CHIDAMBARAM

Temple -Celestial Mysteries
This book is about a mysterious and revered tempe built by the Chola
Kings of South India 2000 years ago

T2- Temple Tech. A Book

How are Hindu temples built and the technology that follows this craft.
From A to Z Complete Guide.

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Rendezvous with Sri RAM Portfolio of Temple Art
by Srishti Dokras, Architect Special section on
Hindu Foods by Karan Dokras, Product Guru

Best Foot Forward

The story of Footwear through the ages up to COVID times

Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial Mysteries

A to Z of Temples. A total Panoramic View of design and architecture of
Hindu temples in 350 page...

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 DUOLOGY (2) on JAINISM
Ativir
ATIVIR means Very Brave and is the name given to Lord Mahavir the 24 th
Saint(TIRTHANKAR) Contains rare translations of the Dialogue of the
Mahavir with his disciples called GHANDHARVAVAD

Vardhaman-वर्धमान
IThis book is about Jainism- written by a non-

THE TRILOGY(3) on DEVRAJA The God

kIngs of Khemer

Book I DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo China-

Cambodia.
This is the first Book of a Trilogy that traces the growth of Hinduism in
South East Asia.

BOOK I I DEVRAJA- The Great Civilizations of

South East Asia -HINDU Era

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How Hinduism reached Cambodia and how the Hindu Kings called Devraj
Built these magnificent structures

Devraja BOOK II I Devraja and Raj Dharma God

King and Kingly Religion The HINDU Era of
Great Civilizations of Khemer
Book 2 of a Trilogy that traces the advent of Hinduism on South East Asian
and Indo-Chinese

Vayu- Man's taming of the winds

Man's conquest of nature spans a million years. How was wind tamed by
him. Here is the full story... more 

VIMANA Ancient Conquests of Wind

308
Ancient flying machines of Gods and Men(?) Were they true. Did they really
exist. 7000 years ago?

LIGHT HOUSES In words and pictures

BOOK Architecture of the Lighthouse of

Alexandria-BOOK
Indo Swedish Author's Collective, 2020
The lighthouse was built on an island off the coast of Alexandria called
Pharos. Its name, legend

Cosmology of lotus
Indo Nordic Author's Collective, 2020
The Lotus is the king of the flower world but few know it as a part of
creation. Find out the Cosmology.

309
Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple
Borobudur remains a mystery even today. The largest Buddhist Stupa in
the world has many unanswered...
Win with this new DIET

Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and Indonesia

Hindu Temples dot India, Cambodia and Indonesia

DISRUPTION-Book

310
Book Architecture Creativity
Creativity and Architecture are linked and go hand in hand. This Book is a
culmination of 16 publications that have been put together as a book

Project HR Management
Indo Swedish Author's Collective
PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/'Dr UDAY DOKRAS The
project sphere has not been valued appropriately

Human Resource Engineering in Theme Parks.

by Dr. Uday Dokras and Mansse Bhandari
As theme parks evolve into facilitating for greater thrill seeking
audience,the role of human res... more 

Health Human Resource Management

Management of Health care workers in hospitals and the human resource
practices to be followed in hospitals.

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WIN DIET Lose fat-Diet and Exercise Book ONLY BODY
SHAPING GUIDE YOU NEED

The Act on Co-determination at Work – an Efficacy study

Thesis of the Author for the degree of Doctor of Law
Stockholm University, SWEDEN 1990

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Scientific Angkor & Borobudur

Dr. Uday DOKRAS

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 SCIENTIFIC ANGKOR &
BOROBUDUR

Dr UDAY DOKRAS
INDO NORDIC AUTHOR’s COLLECTIVE

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