Geosphere’s Internal Structure and Surface FeaturesRecall that Earth has

three main layers: the crust, mantle, and core. The different layers change in
density, mineral composition, and thickness with depth. Modern technology has
allowed the identification of materials in the interior of Earth through seismic
waves. As a basic concept, there are two types of waves traveling through Earth:
the p-waves, which travel fast through both solids and liquids, and the s-waves,
which slowly travel only through solids. Seismologists and volcanologists study the
components of Earth through seismic waves. The succeeding discussions on the layers
of Earth show new findings obtained from the study of seismic waves (see figure
2.2).a. Crust. The crust consists of a 5- to 70-km thick layer of oceanic and
continental crust overlaying another thick layer of rocks and metals. The
continental crust is thicker than the oceanic crust. Most of the crust is composed
of elements that include oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium,
potassium, and magnesium. These are the same elements we know now as inorganic
materials that we process to produce things we commonly use today, such as glass
(SiO2), concrete (CaCO3), and steel

Just above the upper mantle and still part of the crust is the Mohorovičić
discontinuity. This boundary was discovered by Croatian seismologist Andrija
Mohorovičić (1857–1936) in 1909 while studying the seismic waves in an earthquake
in Croatia. The velocity of the seismic waves behaved differently as they traveled
through the layer before the mantle (which is why it was termed as
“discontinuity”). The Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho is now recognized as the
transitional boundary that divides the crust and the mantle (see figure 2.2).b.
Mantle. The mantle is made of solid rock. It is also considered the largest part of
Earth, and makes up 84% of Earth’s total volume. It lies between the extremely hot
core and the thin outer layer, the crust. At the upper part of the mantle directly
below the crust is the asthenosphere. The extreme temperature and pressure in the
asthenosphere causes the rocks to become ductile and thus move like liquid. The
asthenosphere radiates heat from the mantle toward the surface. The flow of molten
rocks forces some brittle parts of the crust to break, causing faults to form. Some
rigid parts of the crust, on the other hand, just “float” or move about slowly on
this liquid like layer, supporting the movement of plates as described in the plate
tectonics theory

The rocks that make up the mantle are made mostly of silicate minerals. Common
silicates found in the mantle include pyroxene, olivine, and garnet. The limited
knowledge that scientists have on the mantle is derived from the xenoliths, or
rocks embedded within another rock. When magma flows from Earth’s surface, it cools
and various rocks are formed. Rocks may be embedded in the magma as it cools.
Apparently, the rocks trapped inside the magma contains most of the primary rocks
that originated from the interior of Earth. Hence, these are thought to be the
rocks in the mantle.Reflect UponWhat do you think will happen if the crust was as
thick as the mantle? Will it have any impact on the organisms living on the crust?
Fig. 2.4 The Gutenberg discontinuityAdapted from:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Earth-G-force.png Fig. 2.3
Xenoliths embedded in magma during cooling stageSource:
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/xenolith/ The transitional
boundary between the mantle and the core is known as the Gutenburg discontinuity.
It was named after its German discoverer, Beno Gutenburg (1889–1960). This boundary
is not fixed because of changes in heat flow. When heat in the mantle slowly
dissipates, the molten core gradually solidifies and shrinks, moving this boundary
deeper and deeper within Earth’s core

Core. The core is made up of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni). The iron in the outer core
is in liquid form, which is why the iron core is known to be liquid while the inner
core is solid. The iron is particularly important because it is the primary source
of Earth’s magnetic field. The magnetic field, particularly in the outer core,
extends outward to protect Earth from the solar winds by deflecting these winds
towards outer space. Without this magnetic field, solar winds could destroy Earth’s
atmosphere and will destroy all living forms on the planet. Similar to the
discontinuities discovered in the other layers, there is also a transitional
boundary between the inner and the outer core—the Lehmann discontinuity which was
discovered in 1936 by Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann (1888–1993). When a large
Fig. 2.5 The iron-made core serves as shield from the sun as it deflects radiation
through its magnetic field.Adapted from: http://www.popsci.com/scitech/
article/2008-09/baby-earthWhat Have I Learned So Far?1. Distinguish the different
layers of Earth through a drawing, and show how energy flows from within Earth.
2. Why is it important for energy to flow in the geosphere? earthquake
occurred near New Zealand, Lehmann studied the shock waves and realized that these
waves had traveled some distance into the core and then bounced off some kind of
boundary. With this distinct behavior of the waves, Lehmann believed that there
indeed lies a unique layer that separates the liquid inner core from the solid
outer core.

The HydrosphereThe hydrosphere is the total amount of water found on Earth. This
includes water in various forms—whether in ice, vapor, or liquid – found on or
below the surface of Earth and in gas in the atmosphere. Water covers 70% of the
entire Earth’s surface and most of it is ocean water.Water has been associated with
the existence of life. When water or traces of water are found in other planets,
the possibility of life is always speculated. It is a critical component for most
organisms given that drying up would mean dying.The Hydrological CycleWater
circulates everywhere on Earth (see figure 2.6). This is made possible by the
interaction of energy and matter that prompts the transformation of water from one
phase to another, allowing it to circulate and travel to different regions on the
planet. Water moves through the hydrosphere in a cycle. The sun’s energy is the
power that drives the water cycle. Light and heat cause water to evaporate from
oceans, lakes, rivers, and other sources of surface water.Water on the surface of
Earth changes from its liquid state to its gaseous state or water vapor when
temperature increases. The water vapor rises to the atmosphere as gas
(evaporation). When water vapor combines with tiny particles of dust, smoke, or
salt in the air, water droplets form. When the water droplets increase in number,
they form clouds. As the water droplets form clouds, precipitation may occur.
Depending on condensing temperature changes, water may fall from the atmosphere in
the form of rain or snow. Liquid water goes back to rivers, lakes, and oceans or
seeps through rocks and soils to reach the water table. Water underground finds its
way back into the ocean through slopes and cracks.

In some regions where temperature is below zero degrees Celsius, solid water is
found in glaciers. Precipitation in the form of snow may recrystallize to form
thick masses of ice called glaciers which contain most of Earth’s water supply.
Again, when water is in the atmosphere, it can go back to the ground during
condensation and evaporation and start the cycle all over again. This whole process
is called the hydrological or water cycle. Because organisms depend mainly on water
for survival, the hydrological cycle makes possible the accessibility of water for
organisms in different areas of Earth.Distribution of Water on EarthAll the water
found on Earth are natural but not all is considered safe for drinking. In fact,
only 2.5% of the world’s water is considered freshwater. Water is divided into two
groups: surface water and groundwater. Surface water, as the name implies, is found
on Earth’s surface, as opposed to groundwater which is found below the ground. The
surface water and groundwater also differ in the type and amount of minerals
contained in them

Surface water may either be salt water or freshwater. Salt water has higher salt
content and is found in larger bodies of water such as oceans, seas, bays, and
gulfs. Freshwater, on the other hand, is found in lakes, rivers, streams, springs,
and falls. Because of its lower salt content, freshwater is the best source of
drinking water for all organisms. Sadly, freshwater accounts for only 2.5% of the
world’s water. This is precisely the reason for advocacies on water conservation.
While it is evident that water is found almost everywhere on Earth, most of it is
salty, and thus is not readily fit for drinking.

Groundwater, on the other hand, is the water found beneath Earth’s surface in the
zone of saturation (where every pore space between rock and soil particles is
saturated with water). This area underground is called an aquifer, a layer of rocks
that carry or hold water. Because the water is found beneath soil layers, it may
contain large amounts of minerals such as magnesium and calcium.

The AtmosphereThe primitive atmosphere of Earth may have been similar to the
composition of the solar nebula from which Earth came from. Because of its exposure
to various interstellar interactions, it eventually lost its primitive features to
space, and was further replaced by compounds released from the crust and impacts of
comets and other planetary objects rich in volatile materials.Composition of the
AtmosphereThe atmosphere, at present, is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and
1% other gases such as carbon dioxide, argon, and water vapor. This composition has
significantly deviated from the original profile of the primitive atmosphere. In
the early atmosphere, carbon dioxide was predominant because it was one of the
gases that escaped from the interior of Earth. As Earth’s atmosphere evolved, its
composition changed. The present atmosphere consists of large proportions of
nitrogen. Nitrogen gas was thought to have come from ancient planetary bodies that
float around during the formation of the early Earth. Oxygen, on the other hand,
did not have the same levels as in the modern atmosphere. It dramatically rose to
its current levels only after the first organisms were formed and multiplied. It is
said that these organisms were mostly plants that would release oxygen into the
atmosphere, which were then captured and stored by oxygen-rich rocks
Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is composed of various layers which differ in thickness,
temperature, and density.
These layers protect Earth from many external threats in space, such as impacts
from celestial bodies
and radiation. The boundaries of the different layers of Earth were also
established based on the
temperature trends observed in each layer (see figure 2.10
Layers of the AtmosphereThe atmosphere is composed of various layers which differ
in thickness, temperature, and density. These layers protect Earth from many
external threats in space, such as impacts from celestial bodies and radiation. The
boundaries of the different layers of Earth were also established based on the
temperature trends observed in each layer (see figure 2.10
Troposphere. The troposphere is considered to be the densest among the layers of
the atmosphere because of the weight of all the other layers compressing it.
Because temperature drops with altitude, warm air on the surface of Earth rises
readily. Air molecules travel up and back down causing the formation of clouds and
eventually rain from the moisture in the air. The vertical movement of air
molecules also forms air pockets that cause turbulence in this layer. Most types of
clouds are in the troposphere which can be as high as 19.31 kilometers near the
equator and 6.44 kilometers over the poles in winter. The bottom part of this layer
is on Earth’s surface. Almost all weather variations occur within the troposphere.
Most jets and planes would fly slightly above the troposphere to avoid this
turbulence in weather. Prior to reaching the next layer above the troposphere is a
thin buffer zone called tropopause. It differs from the troposphere in that it is
relatively characterized by a constant temperature.
Troposphere. The troposphere is considered to be the
densest among the layers of the atmosphere because
of the weight of all the other layers compressing it.
Because temperature drops with altitude, warm air on
the surface of Earth rises readily. Air molecules travel
up and back down causing the formation of clouds and
eventually rain from the moisture in the air. The vertical
movement of air molecules also forms air pockets that
cause turbulence in this layer. Most types of clouds are in the troposphere which
can be as high as
19.31 kilometers near the equator and 6.44 kilometers over the poles in winter. The
bottom part of
this layer is on Earth’s surface. Almost all weather variations occur within the
troposphere. Most
jets and planes would fly slightly above the troposphere to avoid this turbulence
in weather. Prior
to reaching the next layer above the troposphere is a thin buffer zone called
tropopause. It differs
from the troposphere in that it is relatively characterized by a constant
temperature.
Troposphere. The troposphere is considered to be the
densest among the layers of the atmosphere because
of the weight of all the other layers compressing it.
Because temperature drops with altitude, warm air on
the surface of Earth rises readily. Air molecules travel
up and back down causing the formation of clouds and
eventually rain from the moisture in the air. The vertical
movement of air molecules also forms air pockets that
cause turbulence in this layer. Most types of clouds are in the troposphere which
can be as high as
19.31 kilometers near the equator and 6.44 kilometers over the poles in winter. The
bottom part of
this layer is on Earth’s surface. Almost all weather variations occur within the
troposphere. Most
jets and planes would fly slightly above the troposphere to avoid this turbulence
in weather. Prior
to reaching the next layer above the troposphere is a thin buffer zone called
tropopause. It differs
from the troposphere in that it is relatively characterized by a constant
temperature.
With further studies, it was determined that certain sprays and chemicals used in
modern appliances
use ozone-depleting substances (ODS) that directly destroy the ozone molecules in
the ozone layer.
Most kinds of ODS contain chlorine. When these substances reach the stratosphere,
its contact
with the ultraviolet radiation causes the release of chlorine which reacts with the
ozone molecules.
It is speculated that one chlorine atom can actually destroy 100 000 ozone
molecules. Unlike other
air pollutants, ODS are invisible and odorless and hence were not immediately
recognized to have
been depleting the ozone layer. Now that these have been identified, ODS are banned
all over the
world. Examples of ODS are some hair sprays, insulating foams, refrigerants, and
solvents.
With further studies, it was determined that certain sprays and chemicals used in
modern appliances use ozone-depleting substances (ODS) that directly destroy the
ozone molecules in the ozone layer. Most kinds of ODS contain chlorine. When these
substances reach the stratosphere, its contact with the ultraviolet radiation
causes the release of chlorine which reacts with the ozone molecules. It is
speculated that one chlorine atom can actually destroy 100 000 ozone molecules.
Unlike other air pollutants, ODS are invisible and odorless and hence were not
immediately recognized to have been depleting the ozone layer. Now that these have
been identified, ODS are banned all over the world. Examples of ODS are some hair
sprays, insulating foams, refrigerants, and solvents.
Above the stratosphere is another thin buffer zone called stratopause. This zone
separates the stratosphere from the mesosphere.3. Mesosphere. The mesosphere is
the layer above the stratosphere. The temperature here reaches a minimum of –90ºC
and is considered to be the coldest layer. The mesosphere layer may be the coldest
because the heat from the sun is decreased as absorbed by the thermosphere which is
directly above it and because of the absence of radiation-absorbing gases.
Additionally, radiative emission of the carbon dioxide in this layer allows for
absorption of solar heat and emits the heat back to space. The mesosphere is
important in protecting Earth from planetary debris. This is where most of the
space rocks, like meteors, burn up or break down into smaller pieces. The thin
buffer zone above the mesosphere is called mesopause. This zone is actually the
coldest region in the entire Earth.
Thermosphere. The thermosphere layer is the hottest because it absorbs highly
energetic heat from
the sun. Depending on the solar activity, the temperature in this layer can rise
higher and reach beyond
1 000º C. This extreme heat causes the atmospheric particles to become electrically
charged making it
possible for radio waves to bounce off and be received beyond the horizon.
Thermosphere. The thermosphere layer is the hottest because it absorbs highly
energetic heat from the sun. Depending on the solar activity, the temperature in
this layer can rise higher and reach beyond 1 000º C. This extreme heat causes the
atmospheric particles to become electrically charged making it possible for radio
waves to bounce off and be received beyond the horizon.
The lower part of the thermosphere is the ionosphere where most collisions of
oxygen and nitrogen particles are electrically charged by the solar wind. The solar
wind is a stream of energized, charged particles flowing from the sun. The charged
particles, called ions, consist of electrons and protons with high kinetic energy
and the high temperature of the corona. The ions which stream continuously from the
sun’s surface are called solar winds. As the solar winds get blocked by Earth’s
magnetic field, some of the ions are able to reach the ionosphere. In the
ionosphere, the solar wind ions collide with Earth’s oxygen and nitrogen atoms. The
energy released during the collisions causes a colorful glow around the poles,
called auroras. Auroras occur at about 60–1 000 kilometers above Earth’s surface.