Chapter 9

The Standard Styles Of Writing

OPENING ACTIVITY

-Think about any topic that you can passionately talk about. Then, in the space provided below, write a formal essay about that
topic as if you are writing an academic paper. Provide a title for your work as well. Afterwards, each student will share his or her
work to the class.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to

1. Differentiate the style of research writing and

2. Apply the styles of research writing in the proposed research study.

DIFFERENT STYLES OF RESEARCH WRITING

- In research writing, there are many different style guides that are followed by researchers. However, the three most common
styles followed at present are the Modern Language Association (MLA) Style, American Psychological Association (APA) Style,
and Chicago Style or Tirabian

MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION

The modern language association (MLA) is an American professional organization for scholar of literature and language based
in new york city. It publishes the MLA style book titled MLA style manual and guide to scholarly publishing with it first edition
printed in 1985 and its third edition in 2008.The MLA began in 1883 at pursue university as a discussion group for literature and
modern language . Today, several regional associations compose the MLA.

FORMATTING A PAPER USING THE MLA STYLE

BY: PETER GALLAGHER AND BRIAN SCOTT

1. Alignment- Align the text flush left. If your word processor, such as Microsoft Word, has a "full justify" setting, which spreads
the text and aligns it both left and right, do not use it. Leave the text ragged on the right side.

2. Binding- MLA Style calls for binding the pages with a simple paper clip or spring clip. Do not use a staple or other permanent
binding system, unless your instructor requests it.

3. Endnotes and footnotes- You may use endnotes and footnotes with MLA Style, but they should only be used to further
explain a term or a complex idea beyond what you are able to include in the main text. Endnotes and footnotes should not be
used to cite sources. Save those for the "Works Cited" page.

4. Font- MLA Style calls for a 12-point font size along with an easily readable font such a Times New Roman.

5. Headings- In MLA Style, headings and subheads that breakup the text is optional. Check with your instructor before using
them.
6. Indentions- You will need to indent the first line of any paragraph by one-half inch from the left margin. If you are not using
word processing software, indent by five spaces.

7. Italics- You should use italics for titles of longer works. MLA Style also allows the use of italics within the body of the text for
emphasis of a particular word or phrase, but use such items sparingly.

8. Margins- All four sides of the MLA paper-top, bottom, right, and left- require margin of 1 inch. The only items that should
appear outside the margins are the page numbers.

9. Page numbering- Place the page number in the upper right corner of every page. Use Arabic numerals for the page numbers.
The page number should appear one-half inch from the top of the paper and even with the right margin (1 inch from the edge
of the paper). If you choose to use an optional title page, instead including the title and other relevant information on the first
page of the main text, you must use "1" as the number of that page.

10. Paper type- Use standard, 20-pound white paper that measure 8.5 by 11 inches.

11. Punctuation- Follow all standard punctuation marks with just one space, including colons, commas, periods, and
semicolons. Some instructors still prefer the old rule of using two space after periods that end sentences. MLA Style does allow
some flexibility in punctuation when the instructor requests a change from the standard MLA style.

12. Quotation blocks- Whenever using a quotation that will be longer than four typed lines, set the entire quotation block apart
by intending it from the left margin 1 inch(or 10 spaces).double -space within the quotation block. You don’t need to use
quotation marks with a quotation block.

13. Spacing-You will need to double -space of all the text within the paper, except in special circumstances as directed by your
instructor. All quotation, notes, and lists of works cited should be double-spaced.

14. Tittle-MLA style does not require a separate title page. You can include the information used for the tittle on the first page
of the paper, and begin the paper's main text on the same page. All text should be double -spaced on the first page. You can
place the page number in the upper right corner. In the upper left corner, flush left, and beginning at the margins, include your
name, the instructor name, the course, and the date. Then, center the text for the title, mixing uppercase and lower case
letters. If you choose to skip the separate title page you can begin the main text immediately after the title text.

15. Underlining-With the third edition of the MLA style manual, the new guidelines have eliminated the use of underlining.
Now, italicize all published works, rather than underlining.

AMERICAN PYSCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)

The American psychological association or APA developed its own uniform style of formatting written works. Originally, the
resulting style book was provided to their associates as a guide for composing scientific publications, articles, handbooks,
journals, and the like for the organization. It was in 1929 when the original APA style guidelines were featured in a magazine
writes up. It was only in 1959 when an official APA style manual became publicly available. Because of the practicability it
brings, many education institutions use the APA style as the standard for writing research paper.

FORMATTING PAPER USING THE APA STLYLE

BY PETER GALLAGHER AND BRIAN SCOTT

1. Abbreviations-Avoid using abbreviations in your paper. However, if you need to use an abbreviation or acronym that is
recognized in your language and you can find it in the dictionary, then you can use it.

2. Hyphenations-Do not separate and hyphenate words at the end of a line. Rather leave one line slightly short and put the
complete word on the next line; otherwise, proceed a couple of characters past the right margin to adjust the complete word
on the line
3. Indentions-Indent paragraphs within the primary text of the paper one -half inch if using a word processing program or
indent five to seven spaces in if typing on a typewriter. However, do not indent in these unique circumstances; the abstract,
block quotations, figure captions, notes, reference list entire, table titles, and titles or headings.

4. Margins- Use 1-inch margins n all four sides of the paper top, bottom, right, and left. Old rules required 1.5-inch margins, but
these rules are now obsolete.

5. Page numbering- Number nearly every page in the paper, including the title page. Put the number in the upper-right correct
of the page, and use only Arabic numbers. Put the number "1" on the title page and the number "2" on the abstract page. Begin
the main body of the text on page "3" Do not number pages that consist of only statistics of illustrations.

6. Paper type- Use regular white, 20-pound bond paper that has measurement of 8.5 by 11 inches if printing from a computer
use an inkjet or laser printer to print the paper; if you must use a tractor-feed prioter make sure to tear off the pinhole borders
from the sides of the paper.

7. Parentheses- Aim to restrict parentheses to separate or divide items that are structurally independent, such as listing a
number or illustration that is associated with a sentence if you are enclosing a full sentence in parentheses position that
punctuation inside the parentheses If you are enclosing only a piece of a sentence inside parentheses then place the
punctuation outside the parentheses.

8.Punctuation- In most cases, use single space after all common punctuation marks, such as period, commas, colons, and
semi colons. There are three exceptions to this norm: (1) do not use a space after periods inside an abbreviation, such as when
writing U.S for United States; (2) do not use a space after a colon in a ratio such as 4:7 and (3) some professor like the outdated
rule of using two spaces after periods that end sentences. If you are using Courier or another mono-space FONT, APA Style does
permit two spaces between sentences, although one space is recommended.

9. Short title- A short title is a two- or three-word introduction of the main title. Put it on every page in the top right corner,
except for pages that consist of only number or illustrations. The short title should appear slightly to the left of the page
number.

10. Slash mark- Do not use slash marks in your paper. For instance rather than writing ‘”blue and/or purple”, It is better to right,
“blue, purple, or both”.

11. Spacing- Use double spacing throughout the whole paper, unless your professor expressly asks for single spacing in specific
situation, such as with block quotations.

12. Text alignment- Always format the text flush left. do not use the ”full justify” feature on your word processor’s toolbar
because this will spread the text fully across the paper and align sentences both left and right.

13. Title- Center the title on the title page, creating a combination of uppercase and lowercase letters if the title is long enough
to warrant a second line, double space between the lines. After the title includes your name, followed by the college, you can
substitute the city and state. Double space between each line on the title page. Put the number ‘1’ in the upper right corner of
the title page.

14. Typeface- If using a word processor like MS-Word opt for a serif font, such as Times New Roman. Use text in a 10- or 1-point
size.

CHICAGO STYLE AND TURABIAN STYLE

The University of Chicago Press manages the standards and rules for the Chicago style. The principal handbook entitled The
Chicago Manual of Style is sometimes shortened to ‘CMS’ or ‘CMOS’ The University of Chicago Press produced the original
Chicago Style Manual in 1906.

Chicago style also has a second handbook entitled A Manual for Writers of Term Papers often refer to them in combination.
Turban style permits the use of footnotes for citing sources ,which splits it from other styles on writing formal papers. Papers
that adhere to Chicago styles typically are less formal papers and not designed for publication .However ,Chicago style is
versatile enough to deal with any style paper, including research papers, essay, reports, theses, or dissertation.

Formulating a Paper Using the Chicago Style or Turban

By Peter Gallagher and Brian Scott

1 Abbreviating, Abbreviation are more acceptable in academic papers than they were ten years ago. If you need to abbreviate,
use the customary, well-known ones such as “AIDS” or “ADHD”. One exception is not abbreviating phrase of ranges, such as
“yards” or “miles”, if your abbreviation contains two periods, such as “U.K”. Or “N” do not include a space after the first period .

2 Text alignments. Justify all text to the left (excluding indentions), but you may also use ragged right justification or use full
(block) justification. If you opt for full justification, you must make sure that you space minimally between words and you
hyphenate text with these two guidelines for full justification, except if you have multi –syllable big words in your paper.

3 Capitalizing. Use “headline-style” capitalization to capitalize all words aside from articles, some prepositions, and
conjunctions. Use “sentence-style” capitalization to capitalize only the first word, a word following a colon and proper noun.

4. White out. You can apply white correcting fluid to mask black dots and stray spots on the final paper.

5. Date format. You can use either one of two date formats: “23 April 2012” (day, month, year) or April 23, 2012” (month, day,
year). When you choose one format, you must stick with the same one throughout your paper. Do not use a combination of the
two.

6. Font style. Always use a Serif font, such as Times New Roman, for the primary text of your paper. Use a font size between 10-
and 12-point sizes. A computer-generated font is exceedingly better than any mechanical type because it creates perfect
italicized and solid boldface text.

7. When to hyphenate. You can hyphenate words at the end of two successive lines.

8. When to indent text. Indent paragraphs within the primary text of your paper by one and a half inch or approximately 5 to 8
spaces. Chicago Style does not mandate a precise measure of indention, but you must use the same space of indention in your
entire paper.

9. Margin sizes. Use the standard 1-inch margin on all four sides of your sides of your paper. However, if you are going to bind
your paper on the left side, then you can use a wider left margin.

10. Numbers. Always spell out and use words for each number, one through one hundred. For numbers exceeding 100, use
basic numerals. Adhere to these exceptions: (1) spell out every number that begins sentence; (2) use numerals for every
percentage and decimal number; and (3) use numerals for every number within a set of amounts.

11. Numbering your pages, Uses Arabic numerals to number every page in your paper, except for pages that introduce the
body text, such as (1) the copyright page; (2) the dedication page; and (30 the table of content page. Chicago style dubs these
pages as ‘display’ pages, and you must number these pages with lowercase roman numerals, do not put a number on the title
page, but you MUST count the title page as part of the ‘display’ pages. You do not number the copyright page (or the blank
space) either. Number the next page ( after the copyright or blank space ) ‘’’iii’’’ in roman numerals, centered at the bottom of
the page. When you begin (body) text, change from roman numerals to Arabic numbers, Put the number ‘1’ in the upper right
corner of the page. If your page has a chapter heading or main heading, you can enter the Arabic numeral at the bottom the
page. Number all blank pages, including any other pages. Your page number must run consecutively. Position all page numbers
about three quarters of an inch from the side of the paper.

12. Paper type- Use standard 20 pound regular white bond paper that is 8.5 by 11 inches.

13. Spacing- Double space between sentences and paragraphs for your entire papers body text. However, you can single space
block captions, endnotes, footnote, headings and quotations.
14. Title- Center all the text in title page, using both horizontal and vertical alignment. Uppercase all text and double space too.

REVIEW
Using your output in the opining activity, format you essay according to you chosen research writing style.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

1. The three common writing format are the AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)
Style , Modern Language Association (MLA) Style, Turabian, and Chicago style of writing style.

2. MLA published the first edition of its manual in 1985 and the third edition in 2008.

3. The origin of MLA STYLE is in Perdue University in New York City.

4. The APA manual was first published in 1952 and at present, it is the more popular standard for
writing academics paper used by most universities and colleges

5. The Chicago style manual was first published in1906 by the university of Chicago press.

6. Kate Turabian, a senior disquisition assistant in university of Chicago, published the second
handbook . A MANUAL FOR WRITERS OF TERMS PAPERS, THESES, and dissertation, as a
supplement to the Chicago style manual.

DIFFERENTIATE THE THREE STYLES OF WRITING BY COMPLETING THE TABLE

Indicators APA MLA csw
Alignment
Font
Indentations
Margins
Page Type
Punctuation
Spacing
Titles
Page Numbering

APPLICATION

Write an essay about the different research writing styles. Use the question below as a guide in writing
your essay.

1. If given the chance to research any topic, which style will you use?
2. Why did you choose that style?
3. Do you think that the style you have chosen is easier than the others? Why or why not/
4. Why do you think there many writing style if it does not affect the research study itself?

ASSIGNMENT

Format your research paper according to your chosen writing style or the writing style assigned by your
teacher (whichever is set to your class ). The chosen style should be consistently used throughout the
paper.
CHAPTER 10: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to

1. Discuss relevant theories and

2. Formulate relevant theories for the study.

OPENING ACTIVITY

Divide the class into eight groups. One theorist will be assigned to each group . Each group will be given
time to research about their respective theorist and their theories. Then, the member of each group will
discuss the theories of the theorist assigned to them. Their collective ideas will be presented to the
class.

1. Robert Owens 5. George Elton Mayo

2. Frederick Taylor 6. Abraham Maslow
3. Max Weber 7. Kenneth Blanchard
4. Henri Fayol 8.Robert Greenleaf

GUIDE QUESTION

1. What are significant ideas, concepts, and theories proposed by this theorist?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the significant applications of these theories?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3. To which disciplines or areas these theories most relevant?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
INVESTIGATION

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
A framework is defined as ‘ s set of ideas that provide support to something ‘(Merriam Webster, n.d)
Essentially, any concept theory requires a strong frameworks to establish its general feasibility. In the
case of research, serves as the building blocks for the foundation of the study. There are two types of
research framework: theoretical framework and conceptual framework.

THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework is formulated from existing theories and serves as the foundation of the
study. The present study can adopt the original model used by the cited theorist. However, the
researcher can modify the variables of original framework to better suit the study, provided that the
whole theory is utilized
In contrast, the conceptual framework is derived from a combination of theories or parts of theories.
The framework guides the researcher in synthesizing the different theories used in formulating a new
one.

Ideally. The theoretical framework is more suitable for student researcher than the conceptual
framework because of the former’s simple approach. That is, it is less complicated to directly base on
existing theories than to formulate a new one. Although creativity and variability in research are
valuable, student researcher should also consider the extent of his or her access to resource materials,
which may be limited. With the consideration in mind, the following chapter discussions are tailored for
theoretical framework.

ELEMENTS OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Since the theoretical framework prefaces the entire study by providing background information, it
should be supported by establish facts from different resource materials. In order to formulate the
framework of the study, the following major elements should be present:

1. RELEVANT THEORIES- These are theories that are partially or fully relevant to the present study and
are discussed to provide a basis for the variables being tested.

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE – These are published materials that compare the study with
existing knowledge on the research topic. These parts defines, classifies, and facilitates objective
comprehension of the variables being studied

3. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES- These parts includes the these or dissertations on research topic
carrying the same variables. The finding from the previous studies defines the approach that the
researcher took in measuring the variables.
 4. Paradigm of the study. This is the diagrammatic presentation of the study used to visually summarize
the whole study. It is the result of a clearer understanding of the theoretical or conceptual framework. It
is usually comprised of symbols and figures as such lines, shapes, and arrows.

One of the most commonly used paradigms is the IPO ( input-process-output) model, It is used when the
research seeks to discuss a factor or a major variable that causes a problem, phenomenon, or
transformation in the subject.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

(The variables that causes (the method by which the (the problem,
the problem, variables are collected and phenomenon, or
phenomenon, or synthesized) transformation; the
transformation) outcome of the variables)

*Profile of entrepreneurs Analysis of data through:  Improved role of

entrepreneurs
a. age  Questionnaires
b. sex  Informal interview  Higher returns
c. seminars  Statistical and scientific  Better quality of
treatment services
*Roles of entrepreneurs

a. assessment
b. planning
c. implementation
d. evaluation

*Special collection
*Performance

Figure 10.1- Paradigm for entrepreneurs’ Roles Toward Improved Work Performance
DEVELOPING THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A theoretical framework serves as the basic of the research. It point out, through its cited theories,
which specific variables will be focus of the study. In doing so, the approach that the researcher will
adopt in evaluation and interpretation of the data is better established. It also prefaces the new
knowledge introduced in the research by validating or challenging theoretical assumption. Thus, writing
a sound theoretical framework provides the reader a better understanding of the research study.

The University of South California (2016) provides the following strategies in formulating the
theoretical framework:

1. Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research problem should be well founded since
it serves as the foundation of the theoretical framework.

2. Brainstorm about what is considered as the key variables in the research. The factors that are
presumed to have significant bearing on the result of the study should be identified.

3. Review related literature and studies. The basis of the research should be supported by relevant
literature and studies from authors who had conducted an extensive research on the topic.

4. List the contracts and variables. Contracts are information inferred of observation while variables are
research factors that are measured in the study. These should be identified to create the framework.

5. Review the theories. The theories that best explain the relationships between the key variables in the
study should be identified.

6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions. The relevance of the study cited theories to the research
should be established to effectively support the framework of the study.

RELEVANT THEORIES

The word ‘theories’ is derived from the Greek word theoria , which means ‘’vision’’. Singh (2009) defines
theory as a non-observable construct that is inferred from observable facts and events that are through
to have an effect on the phenomenon under study and is primarily concerned with determining cause
effect relationships among variables.

In this part of the theoretical framework, the researcher cites and discusses related theories that serve
as the foundation of the variable and their relevance to the study. It prefaces the readers on what
theories are used as the basis of the research story.

In the discussion of relevant theories, the following parts are mentioned:

1. Name/s of the author/s

2. Title/s of the author/s

3. Theoretical statement or principles

4. Explanation of the theoretical statement

5. Relationship of the theory to the present study

RELEVANT THEORIES EXAMPLE 1

Correlates of English performance of second year students in selected high school congressional district
II, Nueva ecija (Valenton, 2009)

There are four theories on how children learn a language: behaviorism, linguistics, social
interactionism, and the neurobiological perspective ( Vukelich, 2002). Only the theory of social
interactionism (theory title) is adopted in this study.

Social interactionism theory does not come from either side of the nature or nature debate rather; it
acknowledges the influence of genetic and parental teaching (theory statement). However, it shares
with behaviorists the belief that the environment plays a central role in children’s language
development. Likewise, along with nativists, it poses the belief that children possess an innate
predisposition to learn language. Parents and teachers also support the children’s effort to learn
language by focusing the child’s attention on objects in the immediate environment and labeling each
object and it’s action (theory explanation)

This social interactionism theory was conceptualized in English language, since English is the
Philippine’s second language. This study assumed that the English performance of second year high
school student in terms of their English factors such as social demographic, school, and home
( relationship to the present study ). Considering the generally recognized performance of students in
the achievement tests and poor command of the English language, this study aims to find out what
influences their performance for the school year 2008-2009.

RELEVANT THEORIES EXAMPLE 2:

High School Classroom Climate Quality:

Basis For Creating Faculty Development Activities (Lander, 2008)

As cited by jarvilehto (1999), environment is defined not as it is perceived and experience. This
phenomenological approach was expanded by lewin’s (1936) field theory of life space as discussed by
smith (2001). Lewin defined behavior not as a function of the objective physical properties of the
stimulus environment, but as an environment transformed into an “innerworld” by a cognizing
organism. Thus, it is the psychological environment rather than the physical environment that
determines, the ways an individual will respond.

Dorman (2002), in this review of the classroom environment research, described that on lewin’s
approach, Murray (1938) developed a “need-press model.” Murray introduced the terms “alpha press”
that describes the environment from the point of view of someone involved in the experience.
 In the need press model, personal needs are motivated by personality characteristics representing
tendencies to move in the direction of certain goals. On the other hand, environment press provide an
external situational counterpart that supports or frustrates the expression of internalized personality
needs. Furthermore, the theory holds that people have needs for human fulfillment that include
students needs for classroom involvement and the students ‘ needs for affliation. Building upon need
press theory, knight and Waxman (1990) reasoned that students perceiving that their classroom
environments are fulfilling their needs for classroom involvement and classroom affiliation tend to be
environmentally encourage toward developing positive academic self-concepts, while for frazer, fisher,
and macrobble (1996), environmental measures were rarely considered, but various numbers of
measures of personality were developed from murray’s need-press theory in early studies. They argued
that when the study of human environment was being established, researchers recognized different
people bring different perspectives to research, which in turn may lead to different interpretations of
results.

The prevailing model for assessing school climate involves the use of survey-type objective inventories
in this present study. This approach in assessing school climate is typically used by the researcher to also
determine the present classroom climate in the area of study.

The assumed interplay of the student’s profile and classroom climate quality could influence the
nature and the kind of faculty development activities a school may create. Likewise , the faculty
development activities, to some extent, may directly or indirectly affect the classroom climate quality
and aspects of the student’s profile. Recognizing the cognitive and affective needs of the teacher’s
ability to provide and adapt instruction to meet the needs of each individual student is assumed to lead
in establishing and maintaining a harmonious and dynamic classroom climate. Assessing the present
classroom climate quality of high school students will help the school plan and implement a feasible
intervention program if a need warrants it.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. A framework is defined as “a set of ideas that provides support to something “In the case of research,
it serves as the building blocks for the basis of the study.
2. The word “theory” is derived from the Greek word theory, which means “vision”.
3. A theory is a non-observable construct that is inferred from observable facts and events that are
thought to have an effect on the Phenomenon under study and is primarily concerned with determining
cause-effect relationships among variables.
4. The theoretical framework is formulated from existing and serves as the foundation of the study. It
points out, trough its cited theories, which specific variables will be focused in the study.
5. The conceptual framework is derived from the combination of theories or parts of theories. This
framework guides the researcher in synthesizing the different theories used in formulating a new one.
6. the element of the theoretical framework are the relevant theories, review of the related literatures,
review of the related studies, and the paradigm of the study.
7. the following are some strategies in the formulating the theoretical framework.
a. Examine your thesis title and research problem.
b. Brainstorm about what is considered as the key variable in the research.
c. Review related literature and studies.
D. List the constructs and variables.
E. Review key theories.
F. Discuss the assumption or proposition.
8. In writing the relevant theories, the following must be included: names of the authors; title of their
theories; theoretical statement or principles; explanation of the theoretical statement; and relationship
of the based theory of the present study.

CHECK UP

Using the researched information on the assigned theorist for your group in the opening activity,
provide the required information below.

1. Theory title- ___________________________________________________________________

2. Theorist-_______________________________________________________________________

3. Theory statement-
______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
_

______________________________________________________________________________
_

4. Theory explanation-______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

5. Relationship of the theory to the present study-_______________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

APPLICATION
Using the IPO model, create a paradigm for your research study. Refer to the example provided in the
lesson as a guide. Write your answer in the space provide below. You can use your work in your actual
research paper if you prefer.
 RESEARCH ACTIVITY 5
RELEVANT THEORIES
Research on theories that are relevant to your proposed study. Then, provide the required
information below.

Proposed study:
____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

1. Theory title: ________________________________________________________________________

Theorist: ___________________________________________________________________________

Theory statement: ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Theory explanation: __________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

Theory’s relationship to the present study:

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Theory title: _________________________________________________________________________

Theorist:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

Theory statement:
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Theory explanation:
__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Theory’s relationship to the present study:

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

3. Theory title:
_________________________________________________________________________________

Theorist:
___________________________________________________________________________________

Theory statement:
_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

Theory explanation:
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Theory’s relationship to the present study:

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________

4.Theory title: _________________________________________________________________________

Theorist:
_________________________________________________________________________________

Theory statement:
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

theory explanation:
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Theory's relationship to the present study:

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________

CHAPTER
11 RELATED LITERATURE
_____________________________________________________________________________________

OBJECTIVE
At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to
1.describe the variables and sub variables of the study and
2. write a review of related literature

OPENING ACTIVITY
Visit your library and browse through its book and resource collection. List down the titles of ten
possible resources that you can use in your study.

1.________________________________________________________________________________

2.________________________________________________________________________________

3._________________________________________________________________________________

4.___________________________________________________________________________________

5._________________________________________________________________________________

6.__________________________________________________________________________________

7._______________________________________________________________________________

8.________________________________________________________________________________

9.

10.__________________________________________________________________________________

INVESTIGATION
RELATED LITERATURE

The related literature examines facts and principle from other resources that are related to the present
study. That is, a research study on the learning curves of high school student would utilize literatures
that deal with the same subject. These resource materials include books, encyclopedia, published
journals, newspapers, and magazines.
the central concept of the research. As the literature is gathered, the different major variables, as well as
the sub variables. Are clarified end the delimitation of the study is established. The indicators for each
The major variable is the central idea of the entire literature. Its sub-variables help specify which
particular aspect of the major variable is being referred to. The indicator, on the other hand, are specific
information that describes the sub-variable’s.
Examples;
A .Major variable; study habits
B .Sub-variable; time required for studying. Methods of studying. And place for studying
C. indicator; employing patterned time intervals for effective studying; using mnemonics in
memorizing the terms; and studying in one’s ideal environment

The American Psychological Association (2001) states that review article (called the literature review
for research papers) are crucial in the review process. A review article summarize all the related
literature and their relation to the study. Readers who are not knowledgeable on the topic are provided
with a basic understanding of the research before the new findings are presented.

APA provided the following definition for a review article:

Review articles, including meta-analyses, are critical evaluation of materials previously published. By
organizing, intergrating, and evaluating such materials, the author of a review article considers the
progress of current research towards clarifying a problem. In a sense, a review article is a “tutorial” in
which the author defines and clarifies the problem, summarizes previous investigation in order to inform
the reader of the state of current research; identifies relations, contradictions, gaps and inconsistencies
in the literature; and suggests the next step in solving the problem. {p. 7}

The different variables used in the study are the focus of the review of literature. The title, statement
of the problem, scope and delimitation, as well as the framework of the study are the elements that give
the researcher an idea of its relevance to his or her own research.

The number of resource materials to be gathered for the review of literature depends upon the
researcher’s judgement. If he or she believes that the important concepts and variables have been
adequately explained and that enough indicators have been established, then the review of related
literature is considered sufficient.

It is a traditional practice that the review of related literature is divided into foreign and local
literature. It is highly recommended that the researcher use the different variables and sub variables
being studied as subtitles in the review. This is very beneficial to the researcher and to the future
investigators studying similar problems as there is a clear and logical organization of the variables under
investigation. With the system, the researcher can systematically define and important concepts and
variables as well as the discussions, descriptions, and other information gathered from the different
sources. When the related literature is arranged systematically, the construction of the research
instrument (e.g., questionnaire) will be easier since the indicators are presented logically and
sequentially.

Related literature also includes works of experts in refereed or peer-reviewed journals. Expert readers
of peers who are recognized authorities on the topic are consulted to review the written works of the
researchers to determine if they meet the standards of a good reference material, i.e., reliability and
timeliness. Refereed journals are published nationality and internationality.

REVIEW

It is important for a researcher to fully comprehend the significance of using validated resources. As a
high school student, what do you think is the purpose of using refereed or peer-reviewed resources?
Write a short essay about this.

WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

In her book, Conducting Research Literature Review: From the Internet to Paper, Fink (2009) defines a
literature review or review of literature as a presentation of the analysis, patterns, and critiques of
individual sources or the body of literature as a whole. Its purpose is to offer a wide review of referred
scholarly articles, and other sources like journals, theses, and dissertation.

It is important to note that in reviewing literature, understanding and comprehension both matter.
Thus, the write-up expressed in one’s own words is the measure of the researcher’s synthesis of the
reviewed matereials.

Essential Elements of a Literature Review

The literature review serves as in-depth summary of the related literatures to the study. It does not
only restate facts but rather critique and highlight their relevance to the research. In doing so, several
elements should be observed in writing this selection:

1. Overview of the subject or topic, issues, or theories to be considered

2. Division of works such as those that support a particular position, those against, and those that
offer other ideas
3. Explanation of the comparison of the gathered literature
4. Conclusion and the best arguments

Stages Observed in Writing the Literature Review

Since a literature review serves to preface the purpose of the study, the related literature cannot be
evaluated without setting the foundation for the review. A literature review, therefore follows a
systematic approach in writing its content. The premise of the review should be clarified and the relation
of the cited resource materials to study should be established, Thus,difference stages are observed
when writing the literature review:

1.Problem formulation- The researcher must determine the research problem before the review of
literature is conducted to fully understand the variables considered in the study.

2.Literature research-Any reading material that is related to study must include a discussion and
explanation of at least one of the variables.
3.Data evaluation-The indicators that are synthesized from various relevant sources must further build
the researcher’s confidence as the variables of his or her study are made clear.

4.Analysis and interpretation-Breaking the entire reading article into smaller part parts will help the
researcher correctly interpret the information in the reviewed materials.

FORMAT OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

In writing the literature review, the researcher can be flexible in utilizing different related literature.
However, as stated earlier, the literature review is not merely a restaurant of facts. Thus, the
organization of thought should be duly considered when writing the review.

The general format of a literature review is as follows:

1.The introduction
a. The general problem and the variables should be defined.
b. Every important data should be highlighted to effectively discuss the problem or the variables such as
the theory, methodology, evidences, conclusions, or even gaps.
c. The criteria in selecting the literature should be considered to assess which resources are pertinent
and should be included, and which are irrelevant and should be removed.

2.The Body
a. Chosen approaches, conclusion of authors, specific objective, and the like should be included.
b. Studies and literature should be summarized. For the studies, primary consideration must be given to
the result of the studies that includes the variables.

In choosing the literature, the following should be considered:

i. Provenance-This refers to the author’s credentials and the empirical basis of the article or
literature.
ii. Objectivity-This refers to the rationally of every data or facts cited.
iii. Persuasiveness-This refers to the degree of credibility of the data.
iv. Value-This refers to the degree of the contributions of the literature to clarify variables.

3. THE CONCLUSION

A. Major contribution of the studies or articles should be summarized.

B. Current developments and new information should be evaluated

C. The review should be concluded by relating the gathered data to the central theme or problem

PRACTICAL TIPS IN WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Now that the technical aspects are laid out, one should have a better understanding of the purpose of
the literature review in a research paper. Since it prefaces the entire research study, the researcher
should observe meticulous writing of the each section of the paper. After all, a well-written literature
review can help readers to easily grasp the actual content.

The Following are helpful tips in writing the review:

1. Sources, scholarly works, references, and other materials that are refereed and indexed should
to be used. Electronic resources should be properly scrutinized since the contained information
are sometimes inaccurate or erroneous.
2. Each sources should be selected based on its contribution of the topic under review.
3. The relationship of one source to another should be described.
4. Interpretation should be done appropriately by looking into gaps of previous research.
5. Conflicts or contradictions shoulde he resolved.
6. Areas of prior scholarship should be identified.
7. One’s original work should be placed in the context of existing literature.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE EXAMPLE 1:

Skipping Breakfast of High School Students (Bacsal, et al., 2015)

ON EATING BREAKFAST. Breakfast is often called the most important meal of the day
(Henager,2010). Eating breakfast allows one’s body to start the day of right. With the right nutrients,
your breakfast can be a great way to function properly. It is true that many students are coming to
school without eating breakfast for various reasons including: not enough time in the morning, eating
habits, and food preferences. According to baley (2003), any of these can lead to a lack of concertation
at school or throughout the day or even weight issues in the future. Poor breakfast choices can be
blamed on education, historical developments, and income and social determinants. In addition,
children who skip meals barely meet the required dietary intake. This results to lethargy and difficulty in
doing mental tasks (Bailey and earl, 1993).
ON THE TYPES OF BREAKFAST PREPARED. Choosing the right breakfast food is very
important to make sure you get 1/3 of your daily nutrient requirments. That is why you must realize that
skipping meals is not a quick way to lose weight(Bailey,1993).
Creveling(2014) noted that a morning meal will help you power through a workout, as compared to
those who fasted until noon. Control of food choice like starchy carbohydrate intake must be considered
to avoid fat gains (Medhi,2009). Thus, one should adopt healthy habits such as regularly exercising,
eating healthy foods such as fruits, vegetable, and whole grains.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE EXAMPLE 2:

The Intrapersonal and interpersonal Competencies of Principles

(Cristobal,2003)

ON MANAGEMENTS ROLES. A manager of an organization plays various roles that need specific skills and
competencies in order for him or her to be effective.

According to George (1994), a manager needs the following competencies to be termed as a “total
quality manager”:
 1. Courage- A courageous manager stands up in unpopular ideas, does not avoid confrontations,
and gives feedback to subordinates and superiors; his confident is his own capability;
2. Dependability- A dependable leader follows through, upholds commitments, meets deadlines,
takes and accepts responsibilities for actions, admits mistake to superiors work effectively with
little or no supervision from supervisors, and keeps supervisors informed of his/her progress;
3. Flexibility- Functions effectively in an changing environment, provides stability, remains
objective when confronted with many responsibilities at once, and handles several problems
simultaneously;
4. Integrity- Adheres to a code of ethics and moral values, behaves in a manner that is inconsistent
with organizational climate and professional responsibility, does not abuse management
privileges, gains trust and respect, and serve as a model to his or her peers;
5. Judgment- Carries logical and intellectual assessment to reach sound evidence of alternative
actions, bases decisions on logical and factual information, and consider the welfare of other
people in his or her judgment; and
6. Respect for others- Honors rather than belittles the opinions or work of other and demonstrates
a belief on each individual’s value regardless of their status in the organization.

On management practices. There are five behavioral management practices in order to become
effective manager according to Posher (1987). These are as follows:
1. They challenge the process. They are willing to take the status que. They make mistakes to push
innovations.
2. They inspire shared vision. They have a dream and purpose, a goal, or agenda. They live their
lives backwards by studying a practice in their work. They are interested to share passionately
that vision and make it happen.
3. They enable others to act. They focus on “we” to build coalition and encourage collaboration.
They build teams and empower others.
4. They model the organization. They are clear about their beliefs and act consistently within their
beliefs. They show others their values by behaving as they expect others to act.
5. They encourage the heart. They celebrate and offer dramatic encouragement and rewards. They
show their members they can win and that winning exciting.

Allen (in De Guiana, 1998) presents only four major functions: planning, organizing, leading and
controlling. He reduced the five functions to four by incorporating Payol’s “coordinating” with
“organizing” to the less autocratic “leading”; and retaining to planning and controlling.

He broke down all four functions into nineteen specific activities:

1. Planning - forecasting, establishing objectives, programming, scheduling, budgeting, formulating
policies, and establishing procedures
2. Organizing - developing organization structure, delegating, and establishing relationship
3. Leading - decision-making, communicating, motivating, selecting people, and developing
4. Controlling – establishing performance standards, performance measuring, evaluating, and
correcting.
The school managers are endowed not only with a higher degree of responsibility, but also of
discretionary powers. Thus, this responsibility and authority include coordinating all resources of their
work group to achieve set goals. They have to organize direct, motivate, communicate, control,
evaluate, and develop people in his work group. Leveriza (1995) regards the managers as supervisors or
overseers. This is because they deal not only with people but also with objectives. In actual practice, the
supervisor is more than a manager or an overseer of people. He is the organization’s man responsible
for the conduct of others in the achievement of various organizational tasks: the maintenance of quality
standard, the protection and care of materials, and the services to be rendered under his control.

Likewise, Bittle(1991) looks at the school manager’s responsibilities in the five direction, enabling them
to fill effectively the following five different roles: leaders and trainers of their employees; implementers
of ideas; co-workers with other super visors; subordinates to their own super visor; and mediators of
employees ‘ needs.

Clearly, these roles indicate that a manager is not only responsible for the development of his people,
but also for the maintenance of things, materials, and equipment within the organization.

On intrapersonal competency . It is the ability to relate effectively with subordinates, colleagues,

superiors, and representative of other organization. In the US, an ASCR- sponsored research project
yielded 12 dimensions of outstanding supervisor, gleaned from the literature of the past 15 years and
verified by experts. These are community staff development, instructional program, planning and
change, motivating and organizing, observation and conferencing, curriculum, problem solving and
decision making, service to teacher. Personal development, community relation, and research and
program evaluation.

Telephone surveys were made to confirm further the importance of the 12 dimension. There was
strong belief in the importance of human relation and that a key to a super visors effectiveness is the
“love and like of people “. A supervisor should be willing to give other people credit for success and
should be more of a “cheerleader” than a “scorekeeper.”

Supervisors, according to pajak (1990), are a very person-oriented activity. They require knowledge and
skill but the human element is paramount. As asserted by one of the respondents in his study, “You
always have to remember that people are important”.

Intrapersonal competency is termed by holmes (1999) as intrapersonal intelligence. According to him,

it includes the thoughts and feelings of an individual. The more one can bring into his own
consciousness, the better he can see his inner world to the outer world of experience. It helps an
individual understand his desires and goals and emotional nature. He describes a person with a well-
developed intrapersonal competence as one who is aware of his range of emotions; finds approaches
and outlets to express his feelings and thoughts; develops an accurate model of self; is motivated to
identify and pursue goals; establishment and lives by an ethical value system; works independently: is
curious about the big questions in life: meanings, roles, and purposes; manages ongoing learning and
personal growth; attempts to seek out and understand inner experience; gains insight into the
complexities for self and human condition; strives for self-actualities; and empower others.

Dr.Howard Gardner (1992), in his theory of eight multiple intelligence, defines intrapersonal
competence as referring to having an understanding of oneself and of knowing whole is, what he can
do, what he wants, how to act on things, which to avoid and which things he can have. He seeks to know
what he cannot do and tends to know where to go if he needs help. The individual loves to control his
own feelings and moods, pursue personal interest and set his individual agenda, learn organization by
observing and listening, and use meta-cognitive skills. Another scholar, chase (2000), termed
intrapersonal competency as personal mastery. According to him, and life experiences. The focus may
be on overcoming one’s limitations such as or dependency. Stress may also fail under personal mastery;
as does the actual day-to-day implementation of the idealistic time management program you would
like to adopt. An often overlooked dimension of personal mastery is the development of an ethical
stance on all aspects of the organizational life.

To be an effective agent of change, this intrapersonal competence is necessary. According to

Whittaker (2000), those involved in works as agent of change need to appreciate that the personal lives
of individuals are characterized by a struggle to secure and find fulfillment. The ways that an individual
behaves in an organization and reacts to the change in expectations may be determined similarly with
the developed struggle, as described by Erickson with regard to the particular details of the
organizational issues at stake. A curiosity about human behavior and sensitivity for the psychological
struggle of human beings are important parts of being an effective manager and leader. Many educators
and scholars used personality in vie of intrapersonal competence. According to Apodaca (1997), to
better understand how to work effectively with people, it is necessary for a manager to first understand
himself. Studying and understanding one’s own desires and mental make-up can accomplish this. This is
better known as looking at one’s personality.

Personality is the sum total of the qualities and characteristics of a person as shown in his manner or
walking, talking, dressing, attitude, interests, and ways of reaching out to other people. It refers to all
the factors within the person that influence his character, behavior, thinking, and feelings (Santos,
1997). Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that
determine his unique adjustment to his environment. It is the sum total of ways in which an individual
reacts to and interacts with other (Robbins, 1996). It is also a secondary description of psychological,
which is concerned, with the distinctive pattern of thoughts, behaviors, and experiences, which
characterize the individuals unified adjustment to his or her life situation (Allyn, 1999).

Personality needs personal skills and abilities in order to be effective according to Boak (1998).
Personal skills and abilities include the three areas of managing self. These are self-awareness; the
practical understanding of one’s self and one’s own innate reactions and preferences; personal
effectiveness, the number of key skills and competencies that can be used to help people achieve their
goals; and self-development, to help people learn to cope with changing circumstances and demands in
their skills and competencies. Self-awareness, as mentioned by Boak, is synonymous to intrapersonal
competencies. It has five useful mental models. These are assertive behavior, foundations of
assertiveness, life position, drivers, and personality. Personality, as one of the factors, is given
importance in this study. AS defined by Boak, these are more or less stable internal factors that make
one person’s behavior consistent from one time to another and different from the behaviors that other
people would manifest in comparable situations.

Personality plays an important role in an individual’s personal, educational, vocational

adjustment, and success. The probability of success in these three areas is determined to a large extent
by personality factors. There have been studies of failure and maladjustments in these areas which are
usually attributed to the lack of necessary personality traits. Employers of big firms resort to personality
testing to meet and get an objective, unbiased, and accurate assessment of their prospective
employee’s personalities.

An individual’s written account of his past behaviors, feelings, and wishes can also be a good
source of information about his personality, since the kind and quality of behavior directly affect work
output or performance. Plunket (1990) mentioned that aptitude areas of a person’s personality may or
may not be developed. They are related to different competencies because they are the areas in which
competencies are developed. A person with an aptitude for determining special relationships has the
potential to become effective managers.

Moreover, Santos (1997) continued that knowing one’s personality is so important that through
understanding of it and the personalities of others, it will spell the difference between success and
failure in dealing with others. An understanding of one’s own personality and others can make the
difference between satisfactory and unsatisfactory adjustment. One of the most widely used personality
framework is called the Myers-Briggs Type indicator (MBTI) Test. It is essential a 100-question
personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in a particular situation.

On the basis of the answer of individuals in the test, they are classified as extroverted or
introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and perceiving or judging (P
or J). There is also the five factor model of personality dimensions (Robbins, 1996). These are as follow:

1. Extroversion and introversion – This dimension captures one comfort level with relationships.
Extroverts tend to be friendly and outgoing and spend much of their time maintaining and enjoying a
large number of relationships and they are more comfortable being solitary than most people.

2. Agreeableness – This dimension refers to an individual’s propensity to differ with one another. Highly
agreeable people value harmony more than they values having their say or their way. They are
cooperative and trusting with others. People who score low on agreeableness focus more on their own
needs than on needs of others.

3. Conscientiousness – This dimension refers to the number of goals on which a person focuses on. A
highly conscientious person pursues fewer goals in a purposeful way. A highly persistent person tends
to be more easily distracted, pursues many goals, and is more hedonistic.

4.Emotional stability – This dimension taps a person ability to withstand stress. People with positive
emotional stability tend to be characterized as calm, enthusiastic, and secure. Those with high negative
scores tend to be nervous, depressed, and insecure.

5.Openness to experience- The final dimension addresses one’s rage of interests. Extremely open people
are fascinated by novelty and innovations. They tend to be imaginative, artistically sensitive, and
intelligent. Those at the other end of the openness category appear more conventional and find comfort
in the familiar.

The terms used by ormrod (1995), which are related to intrapersonal competence, are self-concept and
self-esteem. Self-concept, according to him, is the belief in one’s self, character, strengths, and
weaknesses. Self esteem is the extent to which your believe yourself to be capable and worthy
individual. Individuals who have positive self-concept and high self-esteem are more likely to succeed
academically, socially, and athletically. There are also factors to negative and positive self-concept.
These are behavior and performance; behavior of other individuals and expectations that others hold
for performance. She also gave reasons why self-concept is resistant to change.

1.People usually behave in ways consistent with that they believe about themselves, so their behaviors
are likely to produce reactions on others that confirm their self-concept.
2.People tend to seek out information that confirms what they already believe about themselves.
Individuals with positive self-concept are more likely to seek positive feedback whereas those with
negative self-concept may actually look for information about their weakness and limitations.
3.People often put themselves in situations where they believe they would not succeed, thereby
eliminating any possibility of discovering that they can succeed.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE EXAMPLE 3:

On Leadership Competencies and Management Skills (Seongkil, 2010) On leadership skills. Thereare
two factors to consider in leadership. These are as follows (Barron, 2010; Hayden, 2005; Hersman, 2007)

1.Spiritual factors
a. He must be called by God.
b. He must meet the biblical requirements in his life.
c. He must be empowered by the Holy spirit to accomplish his job.
d. He must have an understanding of the biblical principles and be able to apply them to the ministry of
the Sunday school.
e. He must be a man of prayer.

2.Natural factors
a. He should understand basic human relationship and how to get along with people.
b. He should understand how to motivate people to get job done.
c. He must know to train the people, Both technically and in informal settings.
d. He should have the ability to supervise and evaluate workers.
e. He should solve interpersonal problems, produce a cohesive staff, and keep everyone working toward
to goal.

Leader seem to arise in almost all societies and organizations, large and small, simple and complex, in
every historical period and in every part of the world. Some observer’s claims that leader exhibit special
traits that compel people to accept their authority. Despite decades of research on the long list of
leadership traits, the results remain inconclusive. Leaders, it turns out, come in all shape and sizes.
Everywhere, the search is on for new leaders, different categories of leaders, and more relevant forms
of leadership.

Beerel (1998) list the various foundational principles of leadership touch personality and traits and
principles:

1.We are not the center of the universe; we are tiny part in an infinite system.
2.As living creatures, we are in continuous process of evolution and we must adapt in order to survive.
3.We must be attentive to the power of the unconscious in influencing human behavior (Aamodt,2009;
Hersman,2005).
4.All things are relative.
5.All systems comprise interrelated networks linked by a complex of relationships that ere in perpetual
change and motion.
Leadership is necessary, So it is written:

According to Barkley (1997), “without a vision, the people perish. Sheep without a shepherd are
scattered. How can people hear without someone preaching to them? Someone needs to guard the
good deposits that were entrusted to us by God. Someone must teach what is in accord with sound
doctrine. So God supplies leaders-someone to be apostles, some to be prophets, some to be evangelists,
and some to be pastors and teachers—to build up the body of Christ.”

There are five exemplary practices of a good leader (Haber, 2009; Barron, 2010): modeling the
way: inspiring a shared vision: challenging the process, enabling others to act: and encouraging the
heart.

On leadership models. There are also leadership models that were mentioned (Kouzes and
Posner, 2008):

1. Relational leadership model – It involves a relational and ethical process of people attempting to
accomplish together a positive change (Hayden, 2005: Hers man, 2007). It is an inclusive,
empowering, purposeful, and ethical process.

2. Social change model – This is anchored on the premise that leadership is inclusive of people in
positional or non-positional roles. It is a process that promotes values of equity, social justice,
self-knowledge, service, and collaboration. This model emphasizes three major values: individual
values like consciousness of self (Barron, 2010), congruence, and commitment; group values like
collaboration (Aadmodth, 2000), common purpose, and controversy with civility; and
community values like citizenship (Hayden, 2005). Its major objective is change and to make a
better world and a better society for one’s self and others (Hayden, 2005; Barron, 2010). It
conveys the belief that individuals, group, and communities have the ability to work together to
make the change.

3. Servant leadership- It is characterized as a natural feeling that one wants to serve first. A servant
leader is one who listens intently and receptively, exercise empathy, natures healing and
wholeness, unflinchingly and consistently applies ethics and values, build cooperation within the
team through persuation, dreams big dreams, exercises foresight, understand service and
stewardship as the first and foremost priority, natures the growth of employees, and builds
community within the
(Barron,2010;Hersman,2007).

4. Emotionally intelligent leadership- This involves three areas of consciousness: context, self, and
others. Consciousness of context includes environmental awareness and group-savvy. Consciousness of
context includes emotional self- perception, honest self-understanding, healthy self-esteem, emotional
self-control, authenticity, flexibility, achievement, optimism and initiative. Consciousness of other includes
empathy, citizenship, inspiration, influence, coaching, being an agent of change, conflict management,
developing relationship, teamwork, and capitalizing differences(Barron, 2010;Aadmodth, 2001).

5. Leadership identity development - this is compose of the following stages: awareness;

exploration/engagement; leader identified; leadership differentiated; generativity; and
integration or synthesis.
 Literatures of McShane (2005), Hayden (2005), Goodbog (2009), and Aamodt (2001) explain the
five perspective of leadership; behavioral perspective; contigency perspective; transformational
perspective; and implicit leadership perspective.

On leadership competencies. The construct competency (trait) perspective of leadership began

when expert reexamined the trait approach but with more emphasis on specific competencies.
Encompass a broader range of personal characteristics such as knowledge, skills and abilities, and
values, expert identified seven competencies (traits) of an effective leader.

1. Emotional intelligence – this is an ability to perceive and express emotion and thought,
understand and reason with emotions, and regulate them with others. This requires a strong
self-monitoring personality because leaders must be sensitive to situational cues and readily
adapt their own behavior appropriately (Barron, 2010; Hayden, 2005).

2. Integrity- This refers to a leader’s truthfulness and tendency to translate words into deeds.
Integrity is sometimes called “authentic leadership” because the individual acts with sincerity.
He or she has a higher moral capacity to judge dilemmas based on sound values and acts
accordingly (Aadmodt, 2001)

3. Drive – Leaders should have a high need for achievement. This represents the inner
motivation that leaders possess to pursue their goals and encourage others to move forward
with theirs. A drive inspires unbridled inquisitiveness and a need for constant learning.

4. Leadership motivation – Leaders have a strong need for power because they want to influence
others. However, they to have a need for socialized power.

5. Self-confident- They possess self-efficacy that they are capable to lead others.

6. Intelligence- Leaders have above average cognitive ability to process enormous amounts of
information. Leaders are not necessarily geniuses, but rather have a superior ability to analyze
alternative scenarios and identify potential opportunities (Barron, 2010).

7. Knowledge of business- effective leaders understand the business environment in which they
operate. This assists their intuition to recognize opportunities and understand their
organization capacity to capture those opportunities.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

1. The related literature serves to clarify the different variables being studied and the central
concept of the research study.

2. Through a review of literature, the major variables of the study, sub-variables, and indicators are
defined and clarified.

3. A literature review is a specific type of research paper that focuses on published literature on a
given topic. It serves as the initial step in doing a research.
 4. The stages involved in writing the literature are problem formulation, literature research, data
evaluation, analysis, and interpretation.

5. The common format in writing the literature review include an introduction and a conclusion.

6. The following tips can be followed in literature review: choose refereed sources and check
electronic sources; select sources based on their contribution; describe relationships among
sources; and identify areas of prior scholarship.

CHECK-UP
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________

Identify the major variables, sub-variables, and indicators of the examples of literature review featured
in the discussion. Write your answers in the space provided below:

1. Example 1: Skipping breakfast of High School Students

a. Major variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________

b. Sub-variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________

c. Indicator/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________

2. Example 2: The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of Principals

a. Major variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________

b. Sub-variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________

c. Indicator variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________

3. Example 3: On leadership Competencies and Management Skills

a. Major variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

b. Sub-variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

c. Indicator variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________

APPLICATION
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________

Recall your favorite book. Write simple review about it in the space provided below. Try to include all
elements and follow the proper format of a literature review.

Title:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________

Name:________________________ Date:______________

RESEARCH ACTIVITY 6
REVIEW OF LERATED LITERATURE
Outline the Related Literature section of your research paper by providing the required information
below:

Proposed study:
_________________________________________________________________________

1.Major variable:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Sub-variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Indicators:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Reference:
_____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Major variable:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Sub-variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Indicators:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Reference:
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3.Major variable:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Sub-variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Indicators:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Reference:
_____________________________________________________________________________________ ________

4. Major variable:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Sub-variable/s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Indicators:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Reference:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER
12 RELATED STUDIES
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

OBJECTIVES OPENING ACTIVITY

At the end of this chapter, Complete the table below. Think of five pivotal events in your

the students will be able to life, Then, write about how it helped you improve yourself in
the long run. Afterwards, answer the following guide
questions.
1. Described the different research
literatures that are related to
the problem and

2. Construct a review or related

studies for a research study.

Life Events Realizations, Benefits

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

GUIDE QUESTIONS:

1. How can you describe in general these “pivotal events” In your life?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Do you think other people can benefit from learning about your experience to infer some
helpful guidelines for themselves? Why do you think so?

3. How can you relate this activity to research and the review of related studies?

INVESTIGATION

RELATED STUDIES
The review of related studies is an essential part of the planning and research stage of the study. That
is determining if the research is objective and empirically based entails the surveying of previous studies
that involves similar variable. In doing so, it provides insight into the methods through which validity of
the result is to be established.

The review of the related studies serves as the basis of the analysis of result because it allows the
researcher to compare and contrast his or her finding with those of past studies. The result of a study
are verified by similar findings or negated by different findings from other researcher. The studies can be
in the form of these, dissertation, or journal articles.

The gathered studies are related to the present study when they have the following similarities :

1. They use the same variables, sub variables, concepts or construct.

2. They have the same subject or topic.

The researcher should be reminded however, that even if a previous research used the same variables
as his or her study. The two studies may vary in the delimitation in terms of the sub variables
investigated or in terms of focus and purpose,
 In writing a review of a related study, the following data must be indicated:

1. The name of the author, and date, and the setting of the study

2. The title

3. The salient findings, which are the most important “ingredients” to include discussion of the
varibles and their relationship/s will be based on them.

RELATED STUDIES EXAMPLE 1:

THE Intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of school manager: Basis for the formulation of
the human relation intervention program (Cristobal,2003)

As this study is focused on the effectiveness of managers, a study conducted by Catacutan (1992) us
related. Its objective is to analyze the effectiveness of middle level managers in six selected private
elementary schools in metro manila where she analyzed 42 subjects coordinators, 25 head teachers, 6
principals, and 275 teachers. The study utilized variables like educational attainment, years of
experience as managers, and management trainings, as well as kind of respondents. She found out the
following

1. 42 years old , female, married, has a doctorate degree in education, has earned MA units, has
received no honors, has administrative experience of 15 years, has attended more than 40
seminars, and has “very satisfactory” performance rating.

2. Excellent in the performance of the four management skills and the five leadership styles.

3. The correlation of the effectiveness of middle level managesrs are the teachers rating on
management skills, school where they graduated, age , honors, and awards received.

4. The best prediction of the middle level managers are the school where they graduated from,
housing n and honors and awards received.

Becoming (1993) determined the teachers relating and effective behaviors among mentors with or
without SEDP training and their personality variables among faculty members of five private schools in
Pablo City. She arrived at the following conclusions:

1. Trainings such us SEDP have minimal effect on both relating and affective behaviors among
teachers.

2. Some personality variables relate to relating behavior of teachers. However such correlations
are moderately small.

3. Some personality variables relate in varying degree with affective behavior of teachers. The
correlation is negligible to low. This study is related to the present because some personality
variables of mentors that are also variables under the study and the effects of training in their
personality.
 Buenafe (1983) conducted as study that was designed to determine tha relationship between the job
performance of principals and teachers, and the principals’ managerial attitudes, needs,personality
tralts, and mental ability among 50 principals’ and 388 teachers in three dioceses in Abra, Ilocos Sur, and
Ilocos Norte. She found out that there was significant relationship existed among variable measured.
Teacher’s performance correlated meaningfully to the principals attitudes, personality, and mental
ability. There was also a positively marked relationship between the teacher’s and principals
performance. Some variables on personality and on performance of both the teachers and principals
and the respondents are similar with the present study. It differs on needs and mental ability since these
are not taken variables of the present research.

Another research on personality was conducted by dela cruz (1996) that aimed to assess the
personality traits and leadership effectiveness skills of the public elementary school principals in the
division laguna. Her respondents were 34 public elementary school principals, 68 teachers, 13 education
supervisor, and 9 districts. Her findings were as follows:

1. The public elementary schools principals possessed the personality traits in terms of ability,
occupation achievement, decisiveness, self actualization, and initiative. Majority of the
principals obtained scores above the average and in the borderline.

2. There was a significant difference in the personality traits of public elementary principals:

3. The highly favorable and evident leadership effectiveness should reveal that a public elementary
school principals possessed technical, human relation, and conceptual skills.

4. The leadership effectiveness skills in terms of technical and human relation skills deferred
significantly while leadership effectiveness skill in terms of conceptual skills were similar as
prescribed of the principal themselves, peers, teacher, and education experience.

5. Among the demographic variables, only years of teaching experience correlated significantly
with personality traits in terms of decisiveness . The present study differs for it will focus on high
school principals and not utilize the response of supervisors, But the study of dela Cruz is mostly
related in most aspects.

Del Rio (1993) conducted a study about the influence of management competencies of school
principals in the performance of pupils. Her study aimed to determine the perceived influence of
management competencies of the grade school principals, on teachers’ and pupils’ performance among
the elementary schools in San Pablo City. She had the following results:

1. That the grade school principals perceived themselves as “very satisfactory” in their
management competencies;

2. That the teachers with “very satisfactory” performance tended to rate the principals higher than
those teachers with understanding performance;
 3. That the VI pupils’ perception of the teaching performance of their teachers indicated to some
extent the perceived influence of the management competencies of the grade school principals;
and

4. That the scholastic performance or ability is not a factor in the perception of teaching
performance among the pupils. Del Rio’s study is similar to the present study for it assessed the
relationship of the management competencies of principals to the performance of teacher and
pupils. Only conducted it in elementary schools.

Also, a study was conducted by fontenilla (1996) who identified the correlates of professionalism and
competencies among tertiary school middle-level managers of three colleges in Nueva Viscaya. Findings
of his study revealed that the correlates of competencies, which came out very high, are organizational
skills, work values and attitudes, vision, external service, and community relation.

Cortes (1992) conducted study in the competencies of presidents of state colleges and universities in
the Philippine, Some of her finding were as follow:

1. In terms of decision making , the presidents were rated most effective as perceived by
themselve.

2. The correlates of competencies of presidents of state colleges and universities are education,
scholarship, experience, travel, training fellowship, and study grants.

3. The factors that affect performance of these presidents are professional development,
professional maturity, and recognition.

Years of experience, self-concept, and personality characteristics are some of the variables studied
by brawner (1980). These are variables that are also considered in the present study. Her study found
out the non-promoted principals had the highest profile on four aspects of promotion: policies,
pressures, smooth interpersonal relations, and personality factors.

Ramos (1986) gave the five most important skills/competencies, listed in the order of priority, which are
expected of teachers generally at all levels;

1. Fluency and proficiency in the language of instruction.

2. Skills in the use of teaching methods appropriate for the class activities of the day.
3. Mastery of the subject/discipline be teachers.
4. Skills in maintaining order and discipline in class.
5. Skills in evaluating the achivements.

Related Studies Examples 2:

On the Spending Habits of Students (Abas, 2015)
The study entitled “Let the games Begin: Gaming technology and Entertainment Among Students,”
which was conducted by Steve Jones, a professor in the Department of Communication at the University
Illinois at Chicago found out that there is a significant impact of video games on young people’s lives.
Through gaming, extra expenses are incurred by students. Another study by Rosenthal (1989) when she
studied how and where the male and female students spend their money, she found out that female
students are more interested in social activities than males. Also, female have significantly higher
interest than males hobbies, social funs, trips and church but significantly less interested in sports.

“Your Spending Habits as an Adult are Affected by Your Childhood Experiences” is a research conducted
in the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management by Charlene Owen in 2013, which is
based from the theory of life “life history” or that the events in an organism’s life are guided by its need
to procedure the largest possible number of surviving offspring and is dependent on its environment. In
the study, she hypothesized that how a person uses money during dire times is affected by their
lifestyles during their younger years. She found out that in two experiments, volunteers were asked to
complete tasks related to risk-taking with the premise of experiencing economic recession. Those who
grew up in low-income homes tended to be more impulsive; they gravitated quicker toward luxury
goods, and were loose with money whenever they had a lot of it. On the other hand, those who grew up
in financially stable homes were more cautious; they gravitated less toward luxury good and believed in
delayed gratification.

The studies conducted by Rosenthal and Owen are related to the present study since the two researches
and the new study focuses on the spending habits of the high school students.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. Related studies serve as the basis of the analysis of results because it allows the researcher to
compare and contrast his or her findings with those of past studies.
2. Studies are related when they used the same variables, sub-variables, concepts, or construct,
and they have the same subject or topic of the study.
3. In writing a review of related study, the following data must be indicated: the name of the
author, the date and the setting as in when and where the study was conducted; the title; and
the salient findings.

CHECK-UP
Read the questions below and then write a short essay for your answer.
1. What is the purpose of the review of the related studies in a research paper?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between a review of related literature and a review of related studies?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
3. Do you think a research can withstand on its own without having to compare with related
literatures or studies? Why or why not?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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APPLICATION
Read the sample review of related studies below. Then, on a separate sheet of paper, list down the
researchers and their respective studies mentioned in the text. Provide a short explanation for each
study.

Correlates of Leadership Competencies and Management Skills of Classroom Managers: Basis for a
Management Intervention Program (Seongkil 2010)

The studies of Lao (2007), Vostakalei (2009), and McGoran (2005) enumerated the common leadership
skills used. These are administrative functions, professional competence, supervisory skills, moral and
spiritual qualifications, integrity, passion for work, responsibility and trustworthiness, and managerial
skills like planning, communication, technical, and people skills. Lao (2007) found out that profile
descriptions like gender and educational attainment were highly significant, while age, civil status, and
years of experience were not significantly related to managerial skills.

McGoran (2005), Cheng (1994), and Richard and Fisher (1996) concentrated on leadership qualities like
service, authenticity, empowerment and delegation, community involvement, confidence, and
friendliness. They found out that these variables are significantly and positively correlated to school
effectiveness like influencing with fellow students’ motivation and their relationship with fellow student
teachers, and finishing tasks (MacGoran, 2005), the students’ attitude, and effective performance like
self-concept and self-efficacy (Cheng 2006; McGoran 2005).

In classroom management studies conducted by Stalling (2005), Muello (2002), and Garcia (2009),
variables like policies and rules, use time, class intrusions, and legal and ethical principles were found to
be significantly associated with teacher morale and student behavior. They further found out that there
are few class misbehaviors, lower absence rates, less littering and strengthened classroom relationships.
In Muello’s study inadequate facilities, poor scheduling, overloading of faculty, and inconsistencies in
rules and policies were assessed as common problems encountered by managers. Thus, an intervention
program on leadership and management skills was proposed.

The study of Goodbog (2009) on transformational leadership was found leadership was found to be
associated to student learning and student perception which is similar with the study of Barrameda
(2000). Though in the latter study, there is a low association but the one variable of transformational
leadership which is a low association but the one variable of transformational leadership which is a
stakeholder focus that appear to be a significant correlate to student achievement furthermore, amonf
the total quality management competencies, information and analysis, school performance results,
faculty and staff focus, educational support process management, and student and stakeholders focus
show a low level of correlation with the teacher’s competence.

Although the studies of Muello’s Barrameda’s, Vostakele’s and Lao’s were focused on middle-level
managers like supervisors and principals, these are also related to this study since they experienced
being classroom manager before they were promoted as school managers.

Name: __________________________________
Date:___________________
 RESEACRH ACTIVITY 7
REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

Gather related studies to your proposed study and complete the following items below.

Proposed
Study:________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

1. Title of the thesis:

________________________________________________________________

Author:
__________________________________________________________________________________

School: _______________________________________________________________

Relevant findings: _______________________________________ Year:______________

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Relationship to the present study:

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_______

2. Title of the thesis:

________________________________________________________________________

Author: ___________________________________________________________________________

School: ________________________________________________ Year:________

Relevant Findings:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________

Relationship to the present study:

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
 3. Title of the thesis:
_______________________________________________________________________
Author:
__________________________________________________________________________________

School: __________________________________________ Year: __________________________

Relevant Findings:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________

4. Title of the thesis: ______________________________________________________________

Author:
_______________________________________________________________________________

School: ________________________________________________________ Year: ______________

Relevant findings:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________

Relationship to the present study:

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________