Open Channel Hydraulics Target Group: 3rd year civil engineering

Table of Contents
Objective ............................................................................................................................................................ III
Preface................................................................................................................................................................ III
CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction to open channel flow ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Types of Open Channel ................................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Classification of Open Channel Flow ............................................................................................................. 2
Steady and unready flow: Time as the criterion ............................................................................................. 2
Uniform flow and varied flow: space as the criterion .................................................................................... 3
1.4 Continuity Equation....................................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel................................................................................... 6
Solved problem ................................................................................................................................................. 13
Chapter two ....................................................................................................................................................... 21
Energy Principles in open channel flow ............................................................................................................ 21
Main Objective ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
2. 1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 21
2.2 Specific Energy and Critical Depth............................................................................................................... 22
2.3 Channel Transitions ..................................................................................................................................... 29
2.3.1 Channel Transition with Hump..................................................................................................................... 29
Sub-critical flow ................................................................................................................................................. 29
2.4 Momentum Principle................................................................................................................................... 33
Solved Problems ................................................................................................................................................ 38
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................................... 48
FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS ........................................................................................................................ 48
3.1 Critical flow .................................................................................................................................................. 48
The section factor for critical flow computation ........................................................................................... 49
3.2 Computation of critical flow .................................................................................................................... 50
Control section (flow control) ....................................................................................................................... 51
3.3 Uniform flow ............................................................................................................................................... 52
Establishment of uniform flow ...................................................................................................................... 53

Compiled by: Yesuf Esleman Addis Ababa Science & Technology University
Open Channel Hydraulics Target Group: 3rd year civil engineering

3.4 Computation of Uniform flow ..................................................................................................................... 54

Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity .................................................................................................... 58
Solved Problem ................................................................................................................................................. 65
CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................................................................... 73
GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF) .......................................................................................................................... 73
4.1 General Equation for Gradually varied flow.......................................................................................... 73
4.2 Classification of Flow Profiles ...................................................................................................................... 77
Summary of Flow Profiles.............................................................................................................................. 80
4.3 GVF Computations....................................................................................................................................... 84
Solved Problem ................................................................................................................................................. 89
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................................................ 98
RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF) ................................................................................................................................ 98
5.1 Characteristics of RVF .................................................................................................................................. 98
5.2 Approach to the problem ........................................................................................................................ 98
5.3 Flow over spillways...................................................................................................................................... 99
Round-Crested overflow spillway.................................................................................................................. 99
Aeration of the Nappe ................................................................................................................................. 103
5.4 Hydraulic Jump .......................................................................................................................................... 106
Practical Applications .................................................................................................................................. 106
Jump in Horizontal Rectangular channel ..................................................................................................... 106
Types of Jump .............................................................................................................................................. 106
Basic characteristics of the Jump ................................................................................................................ 107
Length of Jump: ........................................................................................................................................... 108
Flow under Gates ............................................................................................................................................ 108
Solved Problem ............................................................................................................................................... 110

II

Compiled by: Yesuf Esleman Addis Ababa Science & Technology University
Open Channel Hydraulics Target Group: 3rd year civil engineering

Objective
The objective of the module is to assist female students to realize the different types of
flows in open channels, to classify open channel flows, to adapt the basic principles of
energy and momentum in open channel flows and to compute various types of flows. At
the end of the module students can also differentiate between gradually varied flow and
spatially varied flow types and their characteristics; analyze uniform, critical, gradually-
varied, rapidly-varied, spatially varied and unsteady flows in open channels.

Preface
This module consist of a study guide which contains a discussion steady flow in open
channels: classification of open channel flows, Energy and momentum principles in
open channel flows, Flow computations: critical flow, uniform flow, transitions,
gradually varied flow: differential equation of gradually varied flow, gradually varied
flow profiles, computations of flow profiles, Rapidly varied flow: flow characteristics,
flow over spillway, flow under gates, hydraulic jump and its use as energy dissipater,
Spatially varied flow, Unsteady flow in open channels.

Proceed through this module at your own pace. Be sure you completely understand each
section before moving on. If you have questions or need help, please request assistance
from your Instructor.

Be sure to write your answers to the included problems. This will help to reinforce your
learning. After completing each activity, compare your answers with the included
solution.

III

Compiled by: Yesuf Esleman Addis Ababa Science & Technology University
Open Channel Hydraulics Target Group: 3rd year civil engineering

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to open channel flow

Objective of this Chapter

i. Give basic difference of pipe flow and open channel flow

ii. Basic Understanding of Open Channel properties and its classification
iii. Differentiating types of Open channel flow with time and space
iv. Giving idea of Velocity and pressure distribution in different types of open channel geometer and
longitudinal slopes

1.1 Introduction
Open channel flow is the passage in which the liquid is not completely enclosed by a solid boundary,
but has free surface exposed to atmosphere.

Example:-
Flow in natural rivers, streams
Flow in irrigation channels
Flow in sewers
Flow in culverts with a free surface
Flow in pipes not running fully

Figure 1.1 Open Channel Flow and Pipe flow to show the basic differences

Differences between open channel flow and pipe flow

open channel flow

Height of Total energy level
from datum is (Z+Y+V2/2g)

Has free surface

Flow takes place due to
component of gravity force in
the flow direction

Analysis is complicated due to
non-uniform cross section,
bed slope and roughness’s

Hydraulic grade line (HGL)
coincides with free surface
and is at a height of (Z+Y)

Surface tension is negligible,
only considered at a very low
depth
pipe flow

Height of Total energy level from
datum is (Z + ƿ/ɣ+V2/2g)

Run fully, has no free surface

Flow takes place under pressure

Analysis is simple due to uniform
cross section

HGL is at a height of (Z + ƿ/ɣ)
above the datum

Surface tension is dominant if
diameter is small

Compiled by: Yesuf Esleman Addis Ababa Science & Technology University
Open Channel Hydraulics Target Group: 3rd year civil engineering

1.2 Types of Open Channel

Depending on the channel is manmade:-

Natural channel
Artificial channel

Based on boundary characteristics

Rigid boundary:- lined channel no problem of sediment

Mobile boundary:-unlined channels where sediment problem exists

Based on cross section and slope

Prismatic: - Cross section and slope remain constant in the reach.

Non-Prismatic: - cross section and slope vary with space and time.

1.3 Classification of Open Channel Flow

Open channels flow can be classified into many types and described in various ways. The following
 dy dy 
classification is made according to the change in flow depth with respect to time and space  ,  .
 dt dx 

Steady and unsteady flow: Time as the criterion

Flow in an open channel is said to be steady if the depth of flow does not change or if it can be
assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration at a fixed point. In steady flow
the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) do not vary with time at the spatial point
in the flow. In steady flow streamline is also the path followed by an individual water particle.

The flow is unsteady if the depth changes with time. In most open channel problems it is necessary
to study flow behaviour only under steady conditions. If, however, the change in flow condition with
respect to time is of major concern, the flow should be treated as unsteady. In floods and surges, for
instance, which are typical examples of unsteady flow, the stage of flow changes instantaneously as
the wave pass by, and the time element becomes vitally important in design of control structures. In
unsteady flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) vary with time at the
spatial points in the flow.

Examples of unsteady flow:

Oscillatory sea waves,

Dam breaks flood waves,

Surges due to gate operation,

Floods

For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by

Q = VA Equation 0-1
2

Compiled by: Yesuf Esleman Addis Ababa Science & Technology University
Open Channel Hydraulics Target Group: 3rd year civil engineering

Where v is the mean velocity and A is the flow cross sectional area normal to the direction of the
flow, since the mean velocity is defined as the discharge divided by the cross-sectional area.

In most problems of steady flow the discharge is constant throughout the reach of the channel under
consideration; in other words the flow is continuous. Thus, using equation1-1

Q = V1 A1 = v2 A2 = - - - - Equation 0-2
Where the subscripts designate different channel sections

This is the continuity equation for a continuous steady flow.

Equation 1.2 obviously invalid, however, where the discharge of a steady flow is non-uniform along
the channel, that is, where water runs in or out along the course of the flow. This type of flow is
called spatially varied or discontinuous flow. Spatially constant flow occurs when the density
and average velocity are the same in all points in a flow field. If these quantities change along or
across the flow lines the flow is spatially variable. Examples are side channel spillways, roadside
gutters, and the flow in uniform canal of constant slope receiving inflow or having outflow (e.g. main
drainage channels and feeding channels in irrigation systems).

The law of continuity of unsteady flow requires considerations of the time effect. Hence, the continuity
equation for continuous unsteady flow should include time element as a variable.

Uniform flow and varied flow: space as the criterion

Open channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow is the same at every section of the
channel. A uniform flow may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth changes
with time.

Steady uniform flow is the fundamental type of flow treated in open channel hydraulics. The depth
of flow does not change during the time interval under consideration. The establishment of unsteady
uniform flow would require that the water surface fluctuate from time to time while remaining
parallel to the channel bottom. Obviously, this is a practically impossible condition. The term
“uniform flow” is therefore, used here after only to steady uniform flow.

Flow is varied if the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow may be
either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term “unsteady flow” is used
hereafter to designate unsteady varied flow exclusively.

Varied flow may be further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied. The flow is rapidly
varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is gradually
varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as a local phenomenon; examples are the hydraulic jump
and the hydraulic drop. For clarity, the classification of open-channel flow is summarized as:

Compiled by: Yesuf Esleman Addis Ababa Science & Technology University
Open Channel Hydraulics Target Group: 3rd year civil engineering

Uniform flow

Steady Flow
Gradually Varied (non-
uniform) Flow
Varied Flow
Rapidly Varied (non-
Flow
uniform) Flow
Unsteady uniform flow
(Quasi uniform flow)
Gradually varied unsteady
Unsteady Flow Flow

Unsteady Flow (i.e.

unsteady varied flow)
Rapidly varied unsteady
flow

Figure 1.2 Classification of open channel flows

Compiled by: Yesuf Esleman Addis Ababa Science & Technology University
Open Channel Hydraulics Target Group: 3rd year civil engineering

1.4 Continuity Equation

It is the law of conservation of matter (matter neither gained nor loosed but transformed from one
matter to other). In open channel flow the continuity principle for a constant discharge Q is:
− −
Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2

A = the cross-sectional area in sections 1 and 2,

−
V = the mean velocity in sections 1 and 2

If the mean velocity remains constant (V1 = V2) then the cross-sectional area A (A = Q/V) remains
constant. The open channel has a prismatic cross -section. This means for uniform flow a constant
water depth in all section. Uniform flow is a result from an exact balance between the force of gravity
and the frictional resistance.

Figure 1.3 Continuous flows in different channel section and shape

Application of the continuity principle to unsteady, open channel flow is more difficult. In unsteady
open channel flow the water surface will change over a certain distance ∆X = X 2 − X1. and during a
certain time ∆t .

During ∆t : Inflow-Outflow = Storage

∆Q ∆t = ∆y ∆x T

As the velocity and the discharge will change over a distance

∆x : ∆Q = Q2 − Q1 = (δQ / δx) ∆x.

The discharge Q will vary with time t and with the distance along the canal.

If y is the water depth and T the width at the water surface, then the increase of volume between the
sections 1 and 2 during time ∆ t : ∆ Q ∆ t = ∆ Vo1 = ∆ y T ∆ x.

The two terms derived are equal in magnitude, but different in sign:

Compiled by: Yesuf Esleman Addis Ababa Science & Technology University
Open Channel Hydraulics Target Group: 3rd year civil engineering

δQ δy
+T = 0
δx ∆t

This is the equation of continuity for unsteady open channel flow.

1.5 Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel

Velocity Distributions: - Owing to the presence of free surface and to the friction along the channel
wall, the velocities in open channel are not uniformly distributed. The measured maximum velocity in
ordinary channels usually appear to occur below the free surface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the
depth, the closer the banks the deeper the maximum.

As a result of non-uniform distribution of velocities over the channel section, the velocity head of an
open channel flow is generally greater than the value computed according to the expression V2/2g,
where V is the mean velocity. In practice usually average velocity across the flow is taken and
correction coefficients are applied. A correction coefficient called Coriolis coefficient (energy
coefficient) α is used in computations when energy principle is used, i.e. the velocity head will be
expressed as αV2/2g. Non-uniform distribution of velocity also affects computation of momentum
(mv = βQgV), where β is momentum coefficient or Boussinesq coefficient. For channels of regular
cross section and fairly straight alignment the effect of non-uniform velocity on velocity head and
momentum is small especially in comparison with the uncertainty involved in the computation.
Therefore, α and β are assumed to be unity and greater in all other cases.

Figure 1.4 Velocity distributions in open channel flows

Determination of coefficients (α and β):-Mean velocity (V) for the entire cross section of the channel
is defined depending on the longitudinal component velocity (u) as

V =   udA--------------------------------------------------1

Discharge passing through a section can be expressed

Q =  udA = V ∗ A-----------------------------------2

Compiled by: Yesuf Esleman Addis Ababa Science & Technology University
Open Channel Hydraulics Target Group: 3rd year civil engineering

To compute kinetic energy flux average velocity is used. Average velocity (V) is less than real
velocity (u), so that correction factor α is used. For an elemental area (dA), the kinetic energy
flux (KE  ) can be expressed as:-

KE  = ----------------------------------------------3
Multiplying the right side of equation (3) by mass/mass

 
KE  =  ∗ ------------------------------------4



In other way mass (m) for an elemental area (dA) =ƍ*L*dA and  =  ∗  !! ∗ " , therefore
substituting these into equation (4)
  !! ƍ∗'∗(
KE  = [$ ∗  ∗ " ] ∗  ()-------------------------------------5
!!

It is obvious that u=L/t in real flow and substituting this to equation (5)
  !! 
KE  = * ∗
$ 
∗ " + ∗ (ƍ ∗ u ∗ dA) = $ ∗ ƍ ∗ ", dA----------6
!!

For the total area KE  can found by integrating equation (6)
 
KE  =  ∗ ƍ ∗ ", dA = $ ∗ α ∗ V . ∗ ƍ ∗ A-----------------7
$

 8, 9:
α= ; <= ∗: ≥ 1.00
Therefore, ----------------------------8

Where α=kinetic energy correction factor

ƍ=fluid density

V= mean velocity normal to flow direction

u= real velocity normal to flow direction

A= Total Channel cross sectional area normal to flow direction

dA= elemental cross sectional area of the channel normal to flow direction

Similarly momentum correction factor β at a section for an elemental area of dA can be determined
from momentum flux as follow:-

Momentum flux in the longitudinal direction = ∗ velocity----------------9


=ƍ" dA---------------------------------------10

For the total area Momentum flux can found by integrating equation (10) = ƍ" dA=βV $ ƍA

Compiled by: Yesuf Esleman Addis Ababa Science & Technology University