CHEMISTRY 161 – ONLINE VERSION

MODEL CONSTRUCTION

Online Supplemental

1. If you have a model kit at home, go to the next page.

2. If you do not have a model kit, use the following 3D online model builder for:

https://www.indigoinstruments.com/3d-molecular-model-builder.php

You will see the following screen.

a) Search each structure by typing the full name of molecule or ion in the “Enter Compound(s)” box. The name of
each molecule or ion is directly below the formula on the lab write-up. Then click, “Build & Show Purchase
Options.” (You do not need to purchase anything. We are just using this website because it has a free 3D
model viewer.) Under the molecule, you will see “Purchase Option #1.” This will list each atom and the color
that it shows up in the model so that you can easily identify the atoms.
b) To rotate your model, click on it and move your cursor around.
c) You can change the “Style,” from the dropdown. Open Sphere or Orbit (basic) are both good styles, but feel
free to play around with the styles.

c) Change style using dropdown

a) Type name of molecule/ion here

 CHEMISTRY 161

MODEL CONSTRUCTION

SAFETY: No safety protection needed.

INTRODUCTION: The atoms in polyatomic ions and molecules are bound together by covalent
bonds and are locked into a relatively fixed spatial arrangement with respect to one another. This is
called its geometry, which is often a three-dimensional shape. We also find molecules and ions that
have planar or linear shapes, which lack any three-dimensional attributes. Since many of the
chemical and biological properties of these substances depend upon their specific geometry, it is
important that you can visualize their one-, two-, or three-dimensional shape when given only their
molecular or structural formulas. In this lab you will build models for a number of small molecules
and polyatomic ions using model kits. In the process you will gain insight into the different types of
one-, two- and three-dimensional shapes for molecules and polyatomic ions (there are only 3 main
ones) and how the bond angles are related to a specific shape.

The overall shape of a molecule or polyatomic ion depends upon the aggregate of the geometries at
each of the individual central atoms. Central atoms have 2 or more covalent bonds each of which
can be single, double or triple, limited in number only by the octet rule. Atoms with just one bond
(again it can be single, double or triple) are called peripheral atoms and do not contribute to the
overall geometry. For example, carbon dioxide, O=C=O has just one central atom, the “C”. It is a
central atom since it has 2 bonds both of which are double. Both “O” atoms are peripheral atoms
since each one has just 1 bond, a double bond. Only the central “C” atom determines the shape of
carbon dioxide. The two “O” atoms are necessary and contribute to the overall shape, but they do
not define the geometry.

The number of valence electrons in the 1st column and the Lewis structures in the 2nd
column in the report sheet need to be completed prior to lab. The remaining columns are
done in lab while looking at models of the compounds and ions. When a molecule or polyatomic ion
has more than one central atom, the geometry needed is for the underlined atom in each case.

1. Geometry At the Underlined, Central Atom: The VSEPR or absolute geometry about a central
atom arises from the total count of the bonds plus the unshared electron pairs attached to the atom.
It is better to count domains where one domain is any bond, single, double, or triple plus any
unshared electron pair. This avoids confusion when they are double or triple bonds – a double or
triple bond is just 1 domain. The geometry at the central atom is tetrahedral for 4 domains,
trigonal planar for 3 domains and linear for 2 domains.

Table 1. Summary of the Geometry at Central Atoms having 2, 3 and 4 Domains

VSEPR
NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF GEOMETRY MOLECULAR
BONDS* LONE PAIRS DOMAINS BOND ANGLES GEOMETRY** EXAMPLE
2 0 Linear Linear O=C=O
2
1 1 ~180o NA*** :N!N:
3 0 Trigonal Planar Trigonal Planar H2C=O
3
2 1 ~120o Bent O=S:=O

4 0 Tetrahedral CH4
Tetrahedral
3 1 4 Pyramidal :NH3
~109.5o
2 2 Bent H-:O:-H
*A bond can be single, double or triple. **See the discussion below for molecular geometry.
*** This is NA, not applicable since there is just 1 bond (do not count the lone pair). There is no
molecular geometry for a species with just one bond although a VSEPR geometry can be defined
owing to the lone pair.
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 CHEMISTRY 161

By contrast, molecular or relative geometry excludes the unshared (lone) electron pairs when
describing geometry. For example, the geometry of :NH3 (ammonia) is said to have tetrahedral
VSEPR geometry and pyramidal molecular geometry. The types of geometry you will encounter in
this exercise include linear, bent, tetrahedral, pyramidal, trigonal planar and a special case of NA
where an atom has just one bond. See Table 1 for options.

2. Polarity of a Molecule or Ion: A molecule or ion is said to be polar if one side is partially
positive or negative (with respect to the distribution of charge) compared to the opposite side. You
must know both the molecular geometry (shape) of the molecule as well as the presence and
distribution of any polar covalent bonds in order to decide whether the molecule is polar or not.

Judging the polarity of a bond:

If the difference between the electronegativities of the 2 atoms in a bond is less than 0.5, the bond
is considered to be nonpolar. H-C, C-C and N!N bonds are common examples. If the difference is
greater than or equal to 0.5 and less than 2.0, it is considered polar. H-N, H-O, C-N and C-O bonds
are all polar. If the difference is equal to or greater than 2.0, it is considered ionic. If a species has
one or more charges associated with it, it is an ion and its polarity should be listed as ionic.

Polarity of molecules containing more than two atoms:

It is somewhat more challenging to determine the polarity of a molecule (as opposed to a single
bond). Polar molecules are "dipoles" ("two-poles"), with one end having a slight negative charge
and the other end having a slight positive charge. The electric dipole moment is a numeric value
that measures the extent of polarity in a molecule. If the electric dipole moment of a molecule is
0.0, then the molecule is overall nonpolar (even if the bonds themselves are polar). Polar molecules
have non-zero electric dipole moments (see Table 2).

A molecule with only nonpolar bonds is nonpolar independent of its geometry. Examples from the
table include CH4, CH3CH3, C2H2, N2, and CH2CH2. A molecule with 2 or more polar bonds that are
distributed symmetrically within tetrahedral, trigonal planar or linear geometries is also nonpolar
since every slight negative and positive charge is distributed symmetrically. Thus, different ends of
the molecule have identical small charges. CO2 is an example. You first need to determine its
geometry, O=C=O, which is linear. Thus, the 2 polar C=O bonds are distributed symmetrically.

When the polar bonds are unsymmetrical for a specific geometry, the molecule is polar. If there are
less than 4 identical polar covalent bonds for a tetrahedral geometry, it is unsymmetrical. :NH3 is an
example. The “N” has tetrahedral geometry (4 domains, 3 for the 3 N-H bonds and 1 for the
unshared electron pair) but there are 3, not 4 identical polar bonds. It’s important to know the
geometry with all the unshared electron pairs prior to labeling a molecule as polar or nonpolar.
Similarly, CH3N:H2 is polar since the tetrahedral “N” atom (or the “C” atom) doesn’t have 4 identical
polar covalent bonds. HCN is also polar. The central “C” atom for H-C!N has a linear geometry (2
domains, 1 for the H-C bond and 1 for the C!N bond) but the bonds to “C” aren’t identical.

Table 2. Electric Dipole Moments of Selected Molecules

Molecule dipole moment, (Debye) Molecule dipole moment, (Debye)
CH4 0.0 C2H2 0.0
CH3CH3 0.0 N2 0.0
CH3F 1.9 HCN 3.0
NH3 1.3 CO2 0.0
CH3NH2 1.3 CH2CH2 0.0
H2O 1.9 CH2CF2 1.4
CH3OH 1.7

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 CHEMISTRY 161

Note: The models used in this exercise do not accurately depict the true differences in the lengths
for different chemical bonds. In reality a H-C bond is much shorter than a C-C bond (bonds to “H”
atoms are generally shorter) but the models will show them as being equal in length. This
approximation is not important since this exercise will focus on the bond angles around the central
atoms, which determine the geometries.

3. Determining Lewis Structure and Shape. Steps in the process: Use pages 5-7 to study
specific examples for each step in the process.

1. Count the number of valence electrons for each atom. This number equals the periodic table
group number for the representative elements, H = 1, N = 5, O = 6, Cl = 7, etc. Add “1” for each (-)
charge and subtract “1” for each (+) charge.

2. Use a single line (bond) to connect the central atoms together in the same order given by the
formula and then connect each peripheral atom to each central atom with a single line (bond) as
the formula indicates. Note that some formulas will lack this information. For example C2H2 does
not correctly show that each “C” has 1 “H” atom, H-C!C-H. However, CH3OH, correctly shows that 3
of the 4 “H’s” are attached to “C” while 1 is on “O”. By convention, in Lewis structures the atoms
are arranged at 90 and 180 degree from one another. However, this is usually not correct in terms
of the actual geometry.

Count each line (bond) as 2 electrons and subtract this number from the total count in step 1.

3. Add lone electron pairs to each peripheral atom (except for “H”) so that each one has an octet.

Count each lone pair as 2 electrons and subtract this number from the step 2 electron count.

4. Put all the remaining electrons (from step 3) as lone pairs on central atom(s) that do not
yet have an octet. If there are more central atoms than remaining lone pairs, you can choose the
placement of the lone pairs randomly.

5. If any central atom still does not have an octet, move a lone electron pair from an
adjacent atom to make a multiple bond to it. This can be done once to make a double bond or twice
to make two double bonds or a triple bond. Check you final structure: is the total count of
electrons equal to the value from step 1; do all atoms have an octet?

6. Assign any formal charges to atoms. Do this by counting the number of lines (bonds) to the “O”,
“N”, and “S” atoms. If the number is different from normal (normal is 2 for “O” and “S”, 3 for “N”),
then the atom has a formal charge. For 1 bond to “O”, the formal charge is (1-), O1-. For 4 bonds
to “N”, the formal charge is (1+), N1+. For 3 bonds to “S”, the formal charge is (1+), S1+.

7. Determine the geometry around each of the underlined atoms using Table 1. First determine
the number of domains and thereby the VSEPR geometry. Stay in the same sets of rows
defined by the linear, trigonal planar or tetrahedral VSEPR geometries and select the correct
molecular geometry based upon the number of bonds to the central atom. The number of lone
pairs is not counted for the molecular geometry.

Rewrite the structures with the correct geometries and bond angles.

8. If the VSEPR geometry at the central atom is linear or trigonal planar, use only solid
lines (—) to draw the bonds. The molecules can be placed completely within a 1 or 2
dimensional frame. HNO 3, on the right, has a trigonal planar “N” central atom. All the
bonds to it are usually written as solid lines. The bond angles around a trigonal
planar atom are 120 degrees with the bonds placed within different thirds of a
circle. The bonds at the “O” atom of the “OH” are at 109.5 degrees since it has
tetrahedral geometry. This “H” can be angled up (as drawn above) or angled down but should have
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 CHEMISTRY 161

a bond angle of 109.5 degrees, a bit larger than a right angle. We usually do not use 3-dimensional
tools to show the geometry of the lone pairs of electrons when they occur as sets of 2 as on the “O”
atom. The bottom “O” atom has just one bond and thus has a (1-) formal charge. Since “N” has 4
bonds, it has a (1+) formal charge. Note that these charges are written as “-” and “+”.

Bonds to atoms with a linear geometry are written with 180-degree bonds angles.

9. If the VSEPR geometry at the underlined central atom is tetrahedral, use 2 solid lines
(—) at each of the central atoms, the one underlined plus any others. The 3rd line (bond)
from each central atom should be hashed, located behind the plane, and the 4th line
(bond) should be wedged, located in front of the plane. The 2 solid lines and the
midpoint of the wedge and the hash (which are written close to one another) are
positioned 1/3 of a circle from one another. The bond angles are 109.5 degrees, but when
“projected” onto a plane, they transcribe thirds of a circle. The locations of the solid lines and
the wedge/hash combination can be changed to any positions within an imaginary circle as long as
they are 1/3 of a circle apart.

Occasionally, 2 wedged lines are used together with 2 hashed lines. This is correct but is
used less often and should not be used in this lab.

This structure contains 2 different central atoms. Both have 2 solid lines, plus a hash
and a wedge. The solid lines and the midpoint of the wedge and hash are 1/3 of a
circle apart. A single lone pair on a tetrahedral peripheral atom is often drawn with a
“:” at the end of solid line, a hash or a wedge. The latter is used in this case.

A structure can contain one or more central atoms that are tetrahedral and others
that are trigonal planar or linear. The above rules are followed individually for each
type of central atom. There are 2 solid lines, 1 dash and 1 wedge at the tetrahedral
“C” atom on the left and all solid lines at the “C” central atom on the right. Bond
angles at the left “C” are 109.5o and 120o at the right “C” atom.

10. Ascertain whether the substance is polar, nonpolar or ionic. Follow the above guidelines.

Note: When you build your models, use the following table to correlate the element with its color.
Use green straws to build single bonds between atoms and the white flex straws to properly
construct double and triple bonds. This document also contains colored pictures showing you how to
put together some of the models.

Table 3. Atomic Centers for Model Building Exercise.

Element Geometry Color
Carbon Tetrahedral Black
Hydrogen Univalent White
Nitrogen Tetrahedral Blue
Oxygen Tetrahedral Red

Use the following examples as guides of how to construct, draw and analyze the substances for
their geometries and polarities. Study these examples very carefully. They will guide you in doing
the same analyses with other substances later. The numbers are historical. They were left as is in
order to correlate with questions found on Blackboard.

It is best to print the 3 following pages in color.

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 CHEMISTRY 161

# and Construction – parts to use and/or electron count & VSEPR geom. molecular polar, nonpolar, 3D Lewis structure
formula the final result Lewis structure geom. or NA ionic

3 4 e's for “C” and 1 Tetrahedral The same - Polar The H

CH3F each for the 3 “H's” since there are tetrahedral molecule contains
plus 7 for the “F” = 4 domains since none of at least 1 polar C
14 electrons total. around the “C” the domains covalent bond H F
H
H atom. are unshared (C-F) and since
H C F electron pairs. the domains
around the “C” 1/3 of
H atom are not all
X a circle
Note the unshared identical.
electron pairs on “F”. wedge and hash are close to
Bonds are written up,
one another and centered at
down and across for
“convenience”.
1/3 of a circle from both of
the solid bonds
Make certain that you use a black “C” with 4 attachments. “H” atoms are white and have just one point of attachment. The “F” also could be placed
Halogens (F, Cl, etc. are either light or dark green and have just one point of attachment. Green tubes are used to depict on the other solid line, or on
single, covalent bonds and unshared electron pairs on central atoms but not electron pairs on non-central atoms. the wedge or the hash.

5 4 e's for “C” and 1 Tetrahedral Pyramidal Polar since the

CH3-NH2 each for the 5 “H's” since there are since one of molecule contains H
plus 5 e's for the “N” 4 domains the domains is at least one polar N
= 14 electrons total. around the “N” an unshared covalent bond – H
H C
H atom. These are electron pair. there is 1 (C-N)
H
H C N H the 2 bonds and 2 (N-H's) - H
from “N” to the and because the
H H “H” atoms, the 4 domains around
The “H's” on the “N” 1 bond to the “N” are not all Place 3 bonds involving the
could be written one central atoms in one plane
“C” atom and identical.
pointing up and one the 1 unshared using solid lines. These are
down or one up and those found inside the oval.
electron pair on
one to the right “N”. You could swap the position of
equally well. The “:” the “:” to a solid bond or to a
would occupy the hash with one of the “H's”
remaining “slot” being moved to its position.
The unshared electron pair on the blue “N” atom (4 points of attachment) is depicted by a green tube. These singly attached tubes are used for showing an
unshared electron pair that is located at a central atom. Note: you need a “:” at the end of a bond to correctly depict the spatial attributes of the
 CHEMISTRY 161

# and Construction – parts to use and/or electron count & VSEPR molecular polar, 3D Lewis structure
formula the final result Lewis structure geom. geom. or NA nonpolar, ionic

12 6 e's for each of the 3 Tetrahedral Pyramidal Ionic. The net You could
SO32- “O's”, 6 e's for the 1 since there since one of charge on the swap the O
“S”, plus 2 e's for the are 4 domains the domains ion is 2-. “:” to one
S
net (2-) charge = 26 around the is an Charged of the solid O
unshared species are bonds or O
electrons total. “S” atom.
These are the electron pair. denoted as to the
OO 3 bonds to ionic. The other hash with the “O -” being
S O the “O” atoms labels do not moved to the now vacant
and the 1 apply for species “slot”.
unshared with a net, (-) or You could also draw this as
Note: “O's” with 1
electron pair (+) charge. shown
covalent bond bear a O
on “S”. below.
charge of 1-; a “S”
with 3 covalent bonds S
bears a charge of 1+. O O
Three “O” atoms (colored red with 4 points of attachment) are attached to the yellow “S” atom (also with 4 points of attachment). The single attached green
tube depicts the unshared electron pair that is located at the central “S” atom. Although each “O” atom has 3 unshared electron pairs, we do not use green
tubes to indicate their presence in the model. They are written in the Lewis structures though. Note the “:” at the end of the wedge!
16 5 e's for each of the 2 Linear since NA since Nonpolar.
N N
N2 “N's” = 10 electrons there are 2 removing 1 Bonds between
total. domains domain, the identical atoms The 2 “N's” and the 2 “:'s”
around the unshared are nonpolar. A are aligned in a straight
N N “N” atom. electron pair, molecule needs line; in other words, they
These are the from the “N” to have at least are linear. We do not need
1 triple bond atom leaves 1 polar bond to nor do we want to use
to the other just 1 be polar (and a wedges or hashes since
“N” atom and domain. You geometry where there is no need to draw
the 1 need at least the “electron the structure in 3
unshared 2 domains in pulls” of the dimensions.
electron pair order to polar covalent
on the “N”. define a bonds do not
geometry. perfectly cancel
one another.)
Three of the white, flexible bonds are used to make the triple bond between the two, blue colored “N” atoms. The singly connected green tubes indicate the
presence of the unshared electrons pairs on the “N” atoms. Note the “:”'s at the end of the bond lines are strictly not needed!

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 CHEMISTRY 161

# and Construction – parts to use and/or the electron count & VSEPR geom. molecular polar, 3D Lewis structure
formula final result Lewis structure geom. or NA nonpolar,
ionic

21 4 e's for each of the 2 Trigonal The same – Polar since the Only solid lines are used
CH2 CF2 “C's”, 1 e for each of planar since trigonal molecule since all
the 2 “H's”, plus 7 e's there are 3 planar since contains at the H F
for each of the 2 “F's” = domains none of the least one polar atoms lie C C
24 electrons total. around the “C” domains covalent bond in one F
H
atom. These around “C” is – there are two plane.
H F
are the 2 an unshared (C-F's) - and
C C bonds to the electron pair. because the 3 If one of the “H's were a
H F “F” atoms, and domains “CH3”, we would use
the double around “C” are wedges and hashes for that
bond to the not all portion.
Note: the 120o bond H F
other “C” identical.
angles are correctly
atom. C CC
depicted. Do not write H
the bonds to the “H's” F
and “F's” straight up,
H H
straight down or
straight across!

Two of the white, flexible bonds are used to make the double bond between the two, black colored “C” atoms. Either light green The
(pictured here) or dark green atoms are used to depict the “F's” or other halogen atoms. positions F H
of the C C
“H's” and F H
the “F's”
can be swapped, right to
left.

Remember, the number of valence electrons in the 1st column and the Lewis structures in the 2nd column in the report form need to be
completed prior to lab. Count the number of valence electrons present and draw the Lewis structures.

In the lab, use the plastic models to build the structures for the compounds and ions on the report sheet that are numbered 2 (CH3-CH3), 4 (NH3),
8 (CH3-OH), 15 (CHCH), 17 (CN1-), 19 (CO 2), 20 (CH2 CH2), 23 (NO 31-) and 24 (CH3-C(O)-O1-). Draw the geometric structure for each substance,
determine the geometry around each of the underlined atoms, and ascertain whether the substance is polar, nonpolar or ionic.

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Last Name Instructor
First Name Date
Lab Partners
TA Check

MODEL CONSTRUCTION / REPORT FORM

Entering data on the report sheets.

1. Add the total count of electrons for each species in the 1st column. Use the 2nd column to draw
the Lewis structures of the compounds and ions that are numbered 2 (CH3-CH3), 4 (NH3),
8 (CH3-OH), 15 (CHCH), 17 (CN1-), 19 (CO 2), 20 (CH2CH2), 23 (NO31-) and 24 (CH3-C(O)-O 1-)
which can also be written as CH3-CO21-. You may want to use pencil to make any editing easier. The
structures need to have all of the unshared electron pairs, those on both the central and the non-
central atoms. For #17, #23, and #24, place the (-) charges on specific atoms. “O” atoms with
just one covalent bond have a (1-) charge, for example.

Placing the (-) charge on the correct atom of #17 is straightforward if you recall that a “C” with no
charge has 4 covalent bonds and a “N” atom with no charge has 3 covalent bonds. Thus, the charge
is on the atom with a number of covalent bonds that does not match one of these numbers.

Hint: the structure for #23 has 1 (+) charge and 2 (-) charges for a net charge on the ion of (1-).
Recall that “O” atoms with just 1 covalent bond have a (1-) charge. You need to place the (+)
charge on one specific atom and 2 separate (-) charges on two different atoms.

Hint: The 2 “O” atoms in #24 are connected to the underlined “C” atom independently. This is
indicated by the parentheses around the first “O” atom to indicate that it branches out from the “C”
atom in a different direction from the second one.

2. Draw the geometric structures for the species on the report sheet. The structures need to have
all of the unshared electron pairs and the charges, if any, written on specific atoms. Be
certain that you can explain why a substance is polar, non-polar or ionic.

#, Lewis Structure Geometric structure with lone pairs, B. VSEPR Geometry

Formula, Use solid lines, at 90 & solid lines & correct bond angles for C. Molecular
[Name], 180 degrees. Include all linear & trigonal planar / add hashes & Geometry
A. # lone pairs wedges for tetrahedral geometries D. Polar, Nonpolar,
valence e’s unless a central atom has 2 lone pairs or Ionic?

2. CH3-CH3
B.
[ethane]
C.
A.
D.

4. NH3
B.
[ammonia]
C.
A.
D.

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 CHEMISTRY 161

#, Lewis Structure Geometric structure with lone pairs, B. VSEPR Geometry

Formula, Use solid lines, at 90 & solid lines & correct bond angles for C. Molecular
[Name], 180 degrees. Include all linear & trigonal planar / add hashes & Geometry
A. # lone pairs wedges for tetrahedral geometries D. Polar, Nonpolar,
valence e’s unless a central atom has 2 lone pairs or Ionic?

8. CH3OH
B.
[methanol]
C.
A.
D.

15. C2 H2
B.
[acetylene]
C.
A.
D.

17. CN-
B.
[cyanide
ion] C.

A. D.

19. CO 2
B.
[carbon
dioxide] C.

A. D.

20. CH2 CH2

B.
[ethene]
C.
A.
D.

23. NO3 -
B.
[nitrate ion]
C.
A.
D.

24.
CH3 C(O)O- B.

[acetate C.
ion]
D.
A.