Professional Documents
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Ding 2015
Ding 2015
Ding 2015
DOI 10.1007/s00170-015-7077-3
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Powder bed fusion Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) [9] Metal powder
Electron beam melting (EBM) [10]
Selective laser sintering (SLS) [11]
Selective laser melting (SLM) [12]
Directed energy deposition Electron beam freeform fabrication (EBF3) [13] Metal powder,
Laser engineered net shaping (LENS) [14] metal wire
Laser consolidation (LC) [15]
Directed light fabrication (DLF) [16]
Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) [17]
Binder jetting Powder bed and inkjet 3D printing (3DP) [18] Metal powder
Sheet lamination Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) [19] Metal laminate,
Ultrasonic consolidation (UC) [20] metal foil
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Additive materials Process Layer thickness (μm) Deposition rate (g/min) Dimensional accuracy (mm) Surface roughness (μm) Ref.
of the fabricated parts decreased [16, 22, 26, 27, 30]. Addi- with some porosity found in the powder-fed deposited parts.
tionally, metal wires are lower in cost and more readily Other literatures have investigated the combination of both
available than metal powders having suitable properties for wire-feed and powder-fed deposition strategy [32, 33]. In
AM, making wire-feed technology more cost-competitive. [32], it reveals that the deposition efficiency can be increased
The material properties of parts deposited using either met- if these two feeding technologies are combined and the level
al wire or metal powder as the additive materials has been of porosity was approximately 20–30 % lower than for sam-
investigated [31]. The comparison indicated that the micro- ples made with powder feeding only. In [33], a combination of
structure of samples from both methods is similar, however Ti-6Al-4V wire feeding and TiC powder feeding was
Fig. 2 Comparison of surface finish and deposition rate between surface roughness 1–2 μm [22]. d A large samples fabricated by
powder-feed/-bed and wire-feed technologies. a Titanium 3D-micro- WAAM from Cranfield University [26]. e 2219 Al airfoil produced by
framework-structure based on a diamond lattice fabricated using wire-feed EFB3 [27]. f As-deposited sample made by wire-feed LAM
powder bed electron beam melting [30]. b A powder-feed-directed light (AeroMet) with “stair stepping” surface, and g shows the sample after
fabrication of 316 stainless steel hemispherical shapes [16]. c Three as- surface machining
consolidated powder-feed laser consolidation IN-625 samples with
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
investigated. It was found that a uniform distribution of the 2 Classification of wire-feed AM processes
TiC particles in the new Ti-6Al-4V/TiC composites could be
achieved as long as the rates of TiC reach to a certain value. Depending on the energy source used for metal deposition,
wire-feed AM can be classified into three groups, namely:
1.2 Wire-feed AM technology laser based, arc welding-based and electron beam-based. La-
ser has been the most popular due to its “precision”. However,
Wire-feed AM is a promising technology for producing larger it has very poor energy efficiency (2–5 %) [40]. Electron beam
components with moderate complexity, such as flanges or has a slightly higher energy efficiency (15–20 %), but it re-
stiffened panel. However, there are a few challenges when quires a high vacuum working environment making it suitable
using wire as the additive material, including residual stress for aerospace works [41]. Compared with the poor energy
and distortion from excessive heat input, relatively poor part efficiency of laser and electron beam, the energy efficiency
accuracy caused by the “stair stepping” effect and poor surface of arc welding processes such as gas metal arc welding
finish of the produced parts. (GMAW) or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) processes
While depositing complex and large 2.5 D layers, the can be as high as 90 % in some circumstances [42, 43]. Ad-
geometry-related process parameters (such as deposition ditionally, the cost of the traditional arc welding equipment is
width, layer thickness, wire diameter, wire feed rate and relatively low when compared to the laser or electron beam
welding speed) must be carefully controlled to achieve re- equipment. More details of WLAM, EBF3 and WAAM tech-
quired part dimension and surface finish. In addition, the nologies are given below.
residual stresses-induced deformations are a major cause of
loss in tolerances in wire-feed AM of large components. The 2.1 Wire and laser additive manufacturing
thermal history of the part during the deposition process is
related to the process parameters (wire feed rate, welding Wire and laser additive manufacturing (WLAM) is an AM
speed and wire diameter) and the process planning (deposi- process to produce metal components with full density using
tion pattern and sequences). In this respect, significant em- metal wires as the additive material and laser as the energy
phasis should be paid on both part quality (residual stresses source. The WLAM system normally consists of a laser, an
and mechanical properties) and part accuracy (surface finish automatic wire-feed system, a computer numerically con-
and geometrical accuracy). trolled worktable or a robot system and some accessorial
Therefore, a review on the wire-feed AM technologies to mechanisms (e.g. shielding gas, preheating or cooling sys-
summarise the state-of-the-art research outcomes and point tem). As schematically shown in Fig. 3, the laser generates a
out the challenges and future research interests is important melt pool on the substrate material, into which the metal wire
for researchers in this area. A few existent literature reviews is fed and melted, forming a metallurgical bound with the
on AM from various aspects could be found [7, 21, 34–39]. substrate [44]. By moving the laser processing head and wire
With particular emphasis on process control, residual stress feeder or moving the substrate, a bead is formed during solid-
and accuracy, this article reviews the current status of research ification. The relative motion of the welding tool and the sub-
and development in wire-feed AM of metal components, in- strate could be performed by using a robot arm or a computer
cluding wire and laser additive manufacturing (WLAM), elec- numerically controlled worktable.
tron beam freeform fabrication (EBF3) and wire and arc addi- WLAM is a versatile process that is able to fabricate a wide
tive manufacturing (WAAM). range of metals and alloys. The performance in terms of sur-
After this introduction session, the rest of the paper is face finish, geometry and quality of the deposit, including the
organised as follows. The classification of currently prevailing dimension (geometry of the cross-section), the microstructural
wire-feed AM processes for metal components are given in features (grain size, texture, etc.) and resultant mechanical
Section 2. The current research and challenges of wire-feed properties (strength, hardness, residual stress, etc.) are the
AM technology are introduced in Section 3. In this section, an main concerns of WLAM. These issues are strongly
in depth review of various process aspects of wire-feed AM, material- and process-dependent and governed by both wire
including quality and accuracy of wire-feed AM-processed characteristics (e.g. chemical constituents and wire diameter)
components are presented. Section 4 provides a summary and processing parameters (e.g. wire feeding direction and
and point out the future research interests for wire-feed AM angle, wire feed rate, laser power and welding speed).
technology. The main issues for wire-feed AM of complex
metal components are discussed, including residual stress 2.1.1 Materials
and distortions, accuracy and surface finish. This review,
therefore, seeks to identify the main challenges for wire-feed A variety of metal alloys, including Fe-based [45], Ti-
AM of complex-shaped metal components to achieve good based [46, 47] and Al-based [48] materials, have been
quality and accuracy. investigated for the WLAM process, among which Ti-
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
based material (Ti-6Al-4V) gets most wide attention due [50] revealed that positioning the wire at the leading edge of
to its popularity in the aerospace industry. The diameter of the melt pool in front feeding gave the best results in terms of
the wire for the AM process normally ranges from 0.2 to surface finish. Mok et al. [51] also found that the front feeding
1.2 mm. and side feeding provided smoother surface compared with
the back feeding. During the back feeding, a wavy surface
2.1.2 Wire feed orientation with bulbs on the side of the deposit was formed in specimens,
this is concordant to the results showed in [50] for deposition
During the deposition process, wire feed orientation influ- with stainless steel wire. However, Xiao et al. [48] measured
ences drop transfer and the quality of the deposit. Back feed- the influence of direction of the wire addition in CO2 laser
ing, side feeding and front feeding, as shown in Fig. 4, have all welding of aluminium and suggested that welding with back
been reported in the literatures. In order to keep the liquid feeding filler wire is more efficient and stable. Therefore, the
melted at the end of the wire flow smoothly and continuously optimum wire feed orientation for producing deposits with
onto the workpiece, Kim et al. [49] revealed that for Ti- and good shape is material dependent, and good quality could be
Ni-based materials the feed rate is limited for both back feed- achieved by adopting appropriate wire feeding direction and
ing and side feeding compared with front feeding. Syed et al. position.
Fig. 5 Cross-section of the single deposit with different set of laser power, wire feed rate, and welding speed [51]
reported deposition rate of WLAM varies from 1.5 to 48.0 g/ deposition heights increase and the deposition widths de-
min. Welding speed normally ranges from 0.05 to 2.4 m/min. crease; with increasing the ratio λ, both the deposition area
The dimension of the deposit is mainly correlated to the and heights increase, but the deposition widths are not sig-
laser power, wire feed rate and the welding speed [51]. As nificantly influenced.
shown in Fig. 5, deposits of the WLAM process were gen-
erally free of cracks and porosity, and fully melted to the
2.1.4 Mechanical properties
base plates. The deposition width and height varies with the
process parameters. It is revealed that the deposition width is
The hardness and the tensile properties of the fabricated Ti-
mainly determined by the laser power, while the height is
6Al-4V wall structures from the WLAM processes have been
influenced more by welding speed. The influence of process
investigated [46]. Figure 6 shows the deposition direction and
parameters on dimensions of single beads were measured, as
build direction of a wall structure, and the cross-section of the
summarised in Table 3 [52]. The deposition area is only
deposited single bead wall. With the same laser power, the
determined by the wire feed rate, e.g. the ratio of the wire
built samples with higher welding speed possess similar or
feed rate to the welding speed. With increasing laser beam
slightly higher hardness than the samples built with lower
power, the deposition heights decrease and the deposition
widths increase; with increasing the welding speed, the
P↑ 0 ↓ ↑
Vw ↑ 0 ↑ ↓
λ↑ ↑ ↑ 0
P laser power, Vw welding speed, λ the ratio of the wire feed rate to the
welding speed, ↑: significant increase, ↓: significant decrease, 0: no sig- Fig. 6 Schematic of the building direction and deposition direction of the
nificant influence wall structure, and the cross-section [46]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
be deposited [68]. Arc energy in plasma welding can interface (1) is used to programme the experimental process-
reach three times that of GTAW welding causing less es and collect the experimental results. The robot controller
weld distortion and smaller welds with higher welding (2) is used to coordinate both the robot motions and welding
speeds [80]. An AM system based on micro-PAW was processes. A programmable GMAW power source (3) is
introduced and the effects of process parameters on the used to control the welding process. A large industrial robot
mechanical properties of the additive manufactured parts (4) implements the movement of the welding torch (5) for
have been investigated [68]. metal deposition, and subsequently a laser profiler (6) to
A typical diagram of the robotic WAAM system measure the bead profile. An example of weld bead deposits
(GMAW-based) is shown in Fig. 10 [73]. A computer on a work piece is shown (7).
Fig. 9 Comparison between plasma arc and GTAW [80]. Above diagram
3.1 Residual stresses and distortions
shows a plasma arc on the left and a GTAW arc on the right. Below
diagram shows the schematic difference between the plasma arc on the The control of residual stresses and distortions especially for
left and the GTAW arc on the right. Note the cylindrical shape of the the large-scale WAAM process is one of the major concern, as
plasma arc when compared to the conical shape of the GTAW arc
it not only has an effect on the part tolerances but it also cause
premature failure. In welding, thermally induced stresses are
3 Current research and challenges the result of thermally induced strains during the non-uniform
expansion and contraction of the material. The induced strain
While wire-feed AM is a promising technology for produc- causes a material or structure to respond by distorting. If it is
ing larger aerospace components with moderate complexity, unable to cause a structure to respond by distorting macro-
such as flanges or stiffened panel, there are a few technical scopically, it will either causes it to deform microscopically
(e.g. yield or crack) or resulting in stress that are “lock in” also Mughal et al. [85, 86] developed a thermo-mechanical
called residual stresses. When the fabricated component is model to predict the residual stress-induced deformations. It
unclamped, residual stresses will release resulting in distortion has been found that continuous deposition without interpass
of the component. Although the residual stresses could be cooling results in less deformation as it equivalently provides
minimised by post-processing technologies, residual a preheating for the substrate. Chin [87] also reported that
stresses-induced distortions are a major cause of loss in toler- uniform substrate preheating reduces residual stresses and de-
ances. Therefore, the best way to limit distortions is to control formation. However, continuous deposition may cause exces-
the build-up of residual stresses during the deposition. sive heat input in a local area, resulting in high temperature
A lot of research strategies have been investigated on ther- gradients and large remelting of the substrate, which causes
mal stresses analysis of material deposition of multi-pass sin- poor dimensional tolerances and surface finish [56]. Conse-
gle-layer structure by altering deposition patterns, deposition quently, a compromise needs to be made between employing
sequences and preheating or interpass cooling. The selective interpass cooling to avoid excessive heating and maintaining
deposition approach, which deposits a series of small patches enough preheating to reduce deformation.
(“towers”) first and joins them joined together later to form a The effects of deposition sequences on residual stresses
large patch, has been used to minimise the deformation due to have also been investigated [85]. It was found that residual
thermal stresses for shape deposition manufacturing [81]. As stresses are dependent on deposition sequences in continu-
shown in Fig. 11, these “towers” are only constrained at the ous deposition. While the maximum stress value does not
bottom and their large surface area to volume ratio allows vary, the highest stresses are always found at the last depo-
them to relax significantly as they cool down. Selective de- sition rows, since latter deposition is a reheating process
position can reduce deformation of the final part by allowing which relaxes the stresses in the former deposits. However,
much of the deformation produced during cooling to occur with enough interpass cooling, the residual stress distribution
before the deposit is fully constrained. The influence of de- becomes independent to the deposition sequence as each
position patterns, such as long raster and spiral, on the deflec- deposition sequence does not provide any preheating effects
tion of the metal part was been studied by Nickel et al. [82, to the next sequence.
83] using a combination of finite element analysis and exper- Thermo-mechanical analysis of material deposition on a
iments as shown in Fig. 12. It was found that the short raster single-pass multi-layer wall structure (see Fig. 13) has also
pattern produced the lower deflection for a beam substrate, been widely investigated [79]. The study from [86] shows that
but for a plate substrate a spiral pattern scanned from the the process using monotonic deposition direction compared
outside to the inside produces lower and more symmetric with alternative deposition directions provides better heat dif-
deflections. The same result was also obtained in the laser fusion condition and the temperature gradient trend. Recently,
powder deposition process as reported by Foroozmehr [84]. research works on wall structures [4] showed that the heat
This indicates that the deposition pattern significantly affects from the welding process causes a tensile residual stress along
the temperature history of the process, and consequently, the the weld bead due to material contraction during solidifica-
stress distribution. tion, which causes a balancing compressive residual stress in
the base plate. A significant distortion of the component and strategy [62, 63, 88], the layer thickness can be adjusted au-
relaxation of the stresses was observed after the clamping was tomatically within a certain range to fit the shape of the model,
removed. It was also found that the stresses across the depos- as shown in Fig. 14c.
ited wall are uniform with very little influence from the pre- The “stair stepping” effect comes from the approximate
ceding layers. Rolling can reduce residual stresses and distor- construction of surfaces using deposition layers with a certain
tions on WAAM parts, particularly in the areas adjacent to the layer thickness. It exhibits dimensional errors normal to the
baseplate [72]. In addition, rolling also induced grain refine- build (deposition) direction as shown in Fig. 15. For a given
ment when the rolled material was reheated during the subse- part surface, the thicker the layer thickness, the larger the error
quent deposition pass [72]. of the produced part would be [89]. Therefore, the accuracy of
Reported experimental research of the effects of deposition the part manufactured by wire-feed AM technology is typical-
pattern, deposition sequences and preheating on the residual ly 10 times lower than that made by powder bead/feed tech-
stress mainly involves 2D layers or thin wall structures. For nology, due to the thicker layer thickness of the wire-feed AM
real engineering applications, finite element models are com- technology (about 1.5 mm), as summarised in Table 2. With
monly used to predict residual stresses and distortions [87]. high deposition rate, the WAAM process is effective for sim-
Currently, the optimum deposition strategy for reducing the pler geometries. However, when high-accuracy parts are de-
residual stresses induced by AM of any given 3D components sired, a milling process is necessary to be integrated in the
remains unavailable. WAAM process.
Fig. 15 Approximate surface—“stair stepping” effect [89] Fig. 16 Sketch of the traditional flat-top overlapping model (FOM) [66]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 17 Patterns of different centre distance d. a d more than w. b d less than w, overlapping area less than area of valley. c d less than w, overlapping area
equal to area of valley. d d less than w, overlapping area more than area of valley [66]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
4.2 Applications
Fig. 20 Various metal components produced by AM using GMAW from Cranfield University [71]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 21 Intersecting stiffened panels produced by WAAM. a and b carbon steel. c and d aluminium. e titanium-stiffened panel. f Ti thick wall crossover.
g Ti residual stress balanced cruciform. h Ti intersections including machining. All test pieces are collected by [26]
residual stresses and distortions is the main concern especially Path planning for wire-feed AM technology is more
for a large-scale WAAM process. To identify the optimum complicated since special concerns should be paid on
strategy for residual stresses and distortions, both experiments the residual stress evolution and the dimensional rela-
and simulations are required. Significant investigations should tionship between the weld bead and the part geometry.
be spent on the effects of process parameters (e.g. energy The investigation of the evolution of residual stresses
power, wire-feed rate, welding speed, wire diameter, etc.), could guide the path planning in terms of patterns and
deposition patterns and sequences, cooling or preheating on sequences. For components with complex geometry,
the stress evolution. Only when the residual stresses and dis- dimension-related issue is another obstacle for automatic
tortions are eliminated or reduced, the components with good path planning.
quality and accuracy could be achieved.
As shown in Figs. 20, 21 and 22, wire-feed AM are still only The capability to achieve predictable and repeatable opera-
applied on simple structures. Real engineering components tions is important for wire-feed AM. Since the deposition
are more complex. A multi-direction deposition system which process has shown to be extremely sensitive to the process
enhances the capability of the AM is required. However, the variations, a system for on-line monitoring and control of
majority of the existing 3D slicing strategies apply only to a the deposition process is necessary. Although some prelimi-
subset of possible part geometries. More emphasis should be nary studies have been reported on the control of the deposi-
paid in multi-direction AM to develop robust algorithms ca- tion process [44, 67, 92], more emphasis is required on this
pable of automatically slicing any 3D model which satisfy research area to increases the stability of the deposition
support-less and collision-free layered deposition. process.
Fig. 22 a As deposited sample made by wire-feed LAM (AeroMet), b thick wall structure produced by hybrid layer manufacturing (HLM), c near-net
shape of the die pair and d finished die pair produced by HLM [29]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
4.3.4 From near to net shape 14. Atwood C, et al (1998) Laser engineered net shaping (LENS™): A
tool for direct fabrication of metal parts. 17th International
Congress on Applications of Lasers and Elector-Optics, Orlando,
Due to the poor accuracy, “stair stepping” effect and poor FL; 16–19
surface finish, an integrated 3D milling system is necessary 15. Furumoto T et al (2009) Study on laser consolidation of metal
for wire-feed AM when high-accuracy components are de- powder with Yb:fiber laser—evaluation of line consolidation struc-
ture. J Mater Process Technol 2009:5973–5980
sired. For some complex components, 3D milling after the
16. Milewski JO et al (1998) Directed light fabrication of a solid metal
deposition of the whole component would be impossible due hemisphere using 5-axis powder deposition. J Mater Process
to the occurrence of collision. Periodic milling after each layer Technol 75:165–172
deposition is possible to produce high-accuracy components; 17. Wang F et al (2013) Microstructure and mechanical properties of
however, it is time-consuming and a wastage of materials. The wire and arc additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4V. Metall Mater Trans
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Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Defence Materials 19. Mueller B, Kochan D (1999) Laminated object manufacturing for
Technology Centre (DMTC), which was established and is supported by rapid tooling and patternmaking in foundry industry. Comput Ind
the Australian Government’s Defence Future Capability Technology 39:47–53
Centre (DFCTC) initiative. The authors would like to thank Professor J. 20. Kong CY, Soar RC (2005) Fabrication of metal-matrix composites
Norrish for his expertise in the welding field. N. Larkin is especially and adaptive composites using ultrasonic consolidation process.
thanked for his assistance with the experiments. This work is supported Mater Sci Eng A 412:12–18
in part by the State Scholarship Fund of the China Scholarship Council 21. Gu D et al (2012) Laser additive manufacturing of metallic compo-
(No. 2011684067). nents: materials, processes, and mechanisms. Int Mater Rev 57:
133–164
22. Xue L, et al (2006) Laser consolidation-a novel one-step
manufacturing process for making net-shape functional compo-
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