 The interior of the earth is made up of several concentric layers of

which the crust, the mantle, the outer core and the inner core are

significant because of their unique physical and chemical properties.
 The crust is a silicate solid, the mantle is a viscous molten rock,
the outer core is a viscous liquid, and the inner core is a dense solid.

Watch video for better and quick understanding

 Mechanically, the earth’s layers can be divided

into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle (part of the
Earth’s mantle below the lithosphere and the asthenosphere), outer
core, and inner core.
 Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower
mantle, outer core, and inner core.

The Crust

 The crust is the outermost layer of the earth making up 0.5-1.0 per
cent of the earth’s volume and less than 1 per cent of Earth’s mass.
 Density increases with depth, and the average density is about 2.7
g/cm3 (average density of the earth is 5.51 g/cm³).
  The thickness of the crust varies in the range of range of 5-30 km in
case of the oceanic crust and as 50-70 km in case of the continental
crust.
 The continental crust can be thicker than 70 km in the areas of major
mountain systems. It is as much as 70-100 km thick in the Himalayan
region.
 The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values
typically in the range from about 200 °C to 400 °C at the boundary with
the underlying mantle.
 The temperature increases by as much as 30 °C for every kilometre in
the upper part of the crust.
 The outer covering of the crust is of sedimentary material and below
that lie crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks which are acidic in
nature.
 The lower layer of the crust consists of basaltic and ultra-basic rocks.
 The continents are composed of lighter silicates — silica +
aluminium (also called sial) while the oceans have the heavier silicates
— silica + magnesium (also called sima) [Suess,1831–1914 ― this
classification is now obsolete (out of date)].
 The continental crust is composed of lighter (felsic) sodium
potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite.
 The oceanic crust, on the other hand, is composed of dense
(mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like basalt.

In  geology,  felsic  refers to  igneous rocks  that are relatively rich in elements that
form  feldspar  and  quartz.

It is contrasted with  mafic  rocks, which are relatively richer

in  magnesium  and  iron.

Felsic refers to rocks  which are enriched in the lighter elements such
as  silicon,  oxygen,  aluminium,  sodium, and  potassium.

Most Abundant Elements of the Earth’s Crust

  Element Approximate % by weig

1 Oxygen (O) 46.6

2 Silicon (Si) 27.7

3 Aluminium (Al) 8.1

4 Iron (Fe) 5.0

5 Calcium (Ca) 3.6

6 Sodium (Na) 2.8

7 Potassium (K) 2.6
8 Magnesium (Mg) 1.5

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Most Abundant Elements of the Earth

Most Abundant Elements of the Earth’s Crust ==>  OS CIA

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The Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity

 Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity forms the boundary between

the crust and the asthenosphere (upper reaches of the mantle) where
there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity.
 It occurs at an average depth of about 8 kilometres beneath the ocean
basins and 30 kilometres beneath continental surfaces.
 The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition
from rocks containing feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no
feldspars (below).
Lithosphere

 The lithosphere is the rigid outer part of the earth with thickness
varying between 10-200 km.
 It is includes the crust and the upper part of the mantle.
 The lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates (lithospheric
plates), and the movement of these tectonic plates cause large-scale
changes in the earth’s geological structure (folding, faulting).
 The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is the primordial
heat left over from the planet’s formation as well as the radioactive
decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and
mantle.

The Mantle

 It forms about 83 per cent of the earth’s volume and holds 67% of
the earth’s mass.
 It extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
 The density of the upper mantle varies between 2.9 g/cm3 and 3.3
g/cm3.
 The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in a solid
state.
 The density ranges from 3.3 g/cm3 to 5.7 g/cm3 in the lower mantle.
 The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and
magnesium relative to the overlying crust.
 Regarding its constituent elements, the mantle is made up
of 45% oxygen, 21% silicon, and 23% magnesium (OSM).
 In the mantle, temperatures range from approximately 200 °C at the
upper boundary with the crust to approximately 4,000 °C at the core-
mantle boundary.
 Because of the temperature difference, there is a convective material
circulation in the mantle (although solid, the high temperatures within
the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile).
 Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the
motions of tectonic plates.
  High-pressure conditions ought to inhibit seismicity in the mantle.
However, in subduction zones, earthquakes are observed down to 670
km (420 mi).

Asthenosphere

 The upper portion of the mantle is called as asthenosphere (astheno

means weak).
 It lies just below the lithosphere extending up to 80-200 km.
 It is highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile and its density is
higher than that of the crust.
 These properties of the asthenosphere aid in plate tectonic
movement and isostatic adjustments (the elevated part at one part
of the crust area is counterbalanced by a depressed part at another).
 It is the main source of magma that finds its way to the surface during
volcanic eruptions.

The Outer Core

 The outer core, surrounding the inner core, lies between 2900 km and
5100 km below the earth’s surface.
 The outer core is composed of iron mixed with nickel (nife) and trace
amounts of lighter elements.
 The outer core is not under enough pressure to be solid, so it is
liquid even though it has a composition similar to the inner core.
 The density of the outer core ranges from 9.9 g/cm3 to 12.2 g/cm3.
 The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 °C in the outer
regions to 6000 °C near the inner core.
 Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core,
combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth’s magnetic
field.

The Inner Core

  The inner core extends from the centre of the earth to 5100 km below
the earth’s surface.
 The inner core is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron
(80%) and some nickel (nife).
 Since this layer can transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it
is solid. (When P-waves strike the outer core – inner core boundary,
they give rise to S-waves)
 Earth’s inner core rotates slightly faster relative to the rotation of the
surface.
 The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field.
 The density of the inner core ranges from 12.6 g/cm3 to 13 g/cm3.
 The core (inner core and the outer core) accounts for just about 16 per
cent of the earth’s volume but 33% of earth’s mass.
 Scientists have determined the temperature near the Earth’s centre to
be 6000֯ C, 1000֯ C hotter than previously thought.
 At 6000°C, this iron core is as hot as the Sun’s surface, but
the crushing pressure caused by gravity prevents it from becoming
liquid.

Remember: when ambient pressure increases the melting point of solid increases,
and vice versa. One exception is Ice. In the case of ice increase in ambient pressure
will lower its melting point.

Seismic Discontinuities

 Seismic discontinuities are the regions in the earth where seismic

waves behave a lot different compared to the surrounding regions due
to a marked change in physical or chemical properties.
 Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho): separates the crust from the
mantle.
 Asthenosphere: highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile part
of mantle.
 Gutenberg Discontinuity: lies between the mantle and the outer
core.
Atmosphere—the thin layer of air that surrounds the Earth.

Hydrosphere—the part of Earth's surface that consists of water.

Biosphere—the part of the Earth that supports life. The biosphere includes all the areas where life is
found.

Lithosphere—the solid part of the Earth. The lithosphere consists of mountains, valleys, continents and
all of the land beneath the oceans. Only one-fourth of Earth's surface is land, but solid rock makes up
more than 99% of Earth's total mass.

The Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho) was named in his honor.

Oceanic vs Continental Crust

The outermost layer of the Earth, the crust, covers the planet. The crust floats upon the molten mantle.
Its constitution is not the same throughout. Accordingly, the crust is divided into two types; the
continental crust and the oceanic crust.

Oceanic Crust

The oceanic crust is that part of the Earth’s crust that covers the ocean basins. It consists of dark-colored
rocks made up of basalt. This rock is made up of silicon, oxygen, and magnesium.

The density of the oceanic crust is about 3.0 g/cm3. The continental crust has a lower density. This
difference in the average densities allows many natural phenomenon to occur on and below the surface
of the Earth. The oceanic crust scarcely floats on the mantle.

The oceanic crust undergoes a peculiar phenomenon. With age, the oceanic crust gathers a layer of
cooled mantle on the underside. This causes the two-layered structure to sink into the hot, molten
mantle. Once in the mantle, the oceanic crust melts and is thus recycled. Due to this process there is an
absence of aged oceanic crust. This phenomenon is absent or rare in the continental crust.

The thickness of both the crusts also varies. For the oceanic crust, the thickness is around 3 to 6 miles
which is about 5 to 10 kilometers. The oceanic crust is thinner than the continental crust.

Continental Crust
The continental crust accounts for 40% of the surface of the Earth. It is made up of granite rock which is
light in color. This rock is rich in constituents like silicon, aluminum, and oxygen.

The density of the continental crust is much less as compared to the oceanic crust. It has an approximate
value of 2.6 g/cm3. Due to this difference in densities in magma between the oceanic crust and the
continental crust, the continents stay in their places, and both crusts are able to float on the magma.
The continental crust floats much more freely on the magma.

The continental crust is much thicker when compared to the oceanic crust. It has a thickness ranging
from 20 mi., which is about 35 km., on the plains, to as much as 40 mi., which is about 70 km., on the
highest mountains.

Summary:

1.The oceanic crust is made up of basalt while the continental crust is made up of granite.

2.The oceanic crust is thinner while the continental crust is much thicker.

3.The oceanic crust is denser than the continental crust.

4.The continental crust has greater buoyancy than the oceanic crust.

5.Recycling is present in the oceanic crust while this procedure is absent in the continental crust.

6.The oceanic crust is much younger geologically than the continental crust.

Read more: Difference Between Oceanic and Continental Crust | Difference Between
http://www.differencebetween.net/science/nature/difference-between-oceanic-and-continental-
crust/#ixzz6lgg99o9d

Crust

 It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40 kms
thick.
 It is brittle in nature.
 Nearly 1% of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of earth’s mass are
made of the crust.
  The thickness of the crust under the oceanic and continental areas
are different. Oceanic crust is thinner (about 5kms) as compared to
the continental crust (about 30kms).
 Major constituent elements of crust are Silica (Si) and Aluminium
(Al) and thus, it is often termed as SIAL (Sometimes SIAL is used
to refer Lithosphere, which is the region comprising the crust and
uppermost solid mantle, also).
 The mean density of the materials in the crust is 3g/cm3.
 The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crust is termed
as the Conrad Discontinuity.

Mantle

 The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle.
 The discontinuity between the crust and mantle is called as
the Mohorovich Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
 The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness.
 Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s mass is
occupied by the mantle.
 The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and
Magnesium and hence it is also termed as SIMA.
 The density of the layer is higher than the crust and varies from 3.3
– 5.4g/cm3.
 The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust
constitute the Lithosphere.
  The asthenosphere (in between 80-200km) is a highly viscous,
mechanically weak and ductile,  deforming region of the upper
mantle which lies just below the lithosphere.
 The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the layer
over which the lithospheric plates/ continental plates move (plate
tectonics).

 The discontinuity between the upper mantle and the lower

mantle is known as Repetti Discontinuity.
 The portion of the mantle which is just below the lithosphere and
asthenosphere, but above the core is called as Mesosphere.

Core

 It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre.

 The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s
Discontinuity.
 It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is
also called as NIFE.
 The core constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volume and 32.5% of
earth’s mass.
  The core is the densest layer of the earth with its density ranges
between 9.5-14.5g/cm3.
 The Core consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer
core.
 The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the liquid
state (or semi-liquid).
 The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is
called as Lehmann Discontinuity.
 Barysphere is sometimes used to refer the core of the earth or
sometimes the whole interior.

Temperature, Pressure and Density of the Earth’s

Interior

Temperature

 A rise in temperature with increase in depth is observed in mines

and deep wells.
 These evidence along with molten lava erupted from the earth’s
interior supports that the temperature increases towards the centre
of the earth.
 The different observations show that the rate of increase of
temperature is not uniform from the surface towards the earth’s
centre. It is faster at some places and slower at other places.
 In the beginning, this rate of increase of temperature is at an
average rate of 10C for every 32m increase in depth.
 While in the upper 100kms, the increase in temperature is at the
rate of 120C per km and in the next 300kms, it is 200C per km. But
going further deep, this rate reduces to mere 100C per km.
 Thus, it is assumed that the rate of increase of temperature
beneath the surface is decreasing towards the centre (do not
confuse rate of increase of temperature with increase of
temperature. Temperature is always increasing from the
earth’s surface towards the centre).
 The temperature at the centre is estimated to lie somewhere
between 30000C and 50000C, may be that much higher due to the
chemical reactions under high-pressure conditions.
  Even in such a high temperature also, the materials at the centre of
the earth are in solid state because of the heavy pressure of the
overlying materials.

Pressure

 Just like the temperature, the pressure is also increasing from

the surface towards the centre of the earth.
 It is due to the huge weight of the overlying materials like rocks.
 It is estimated that in the deeper portions, the pressure is
tremendously high which will be nearly 3 to 4 million times more
than the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level.
 At high temperature, the materials beneath will melt towards the
centre part of the earth but due to heavy pressure, these molten
materials acquire the properties of a solid and are probably in a
plastic state.

Density

 Due to increase in pressure and presence of heavier materials like

Nickel and Iron towards the centre, the density of earth’s layers
also gets on increasing towards the centre.
 The average density of the layers gets on increasing from crust to
core and it is nearly 14.5g/cm3 at the very centre.

geologist is a person who is skilled at geology while geoscientist is a scholar or researcher in geoscience,
an inclusive term for the earth science

Geoscientist studies the composition, structure, and processes related to the Earth in order to learn
about the past, present, and future. They may collect samples out in the field and take these back to the
laboratory to study them in detail.

23May
THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Introduction

Geology is the study of the earth, its origin, structure, composition, and history. There are many forms of
geology, including economic geology, planetary geology, and engineering geology. Engineering geology
is a very important topic for structural engineers to understand as it helps them properly plan a project
when considering the design, location, and other important geological factors.

Importance of Engineering Geology

Engineering geology helps ensure a safe and cost-effective design for construction projects. Gathering
geological information for a project site is important in the planning, design, and construction phase of
an engineering project. Conducting a detailed geological survey of an area before commencing a project
will reduce the overall cost of the project. Common foundational problems in dams, bridges, and other
buildings are typically directly related to the geology of the area where they were constructed. Our SE
exam review course provides adequate geological information for engineers preparing for the SE exam.

Geology is the study of the earth, its origin, structure, composition, and history. There are many forms of
geology, including economic geology, planetary geology, and engineering geology. Engineering geology
is a very important topic for structural engineers to understand as it helps them properly plan a project
when considering the design, location, and other important geological factors.

• For quality control of construction materials, such as sand, gravel, or crushed rocks

• The knowledge of the nature of the rocks in a specific area is necessary for tunneling and
determining the stability of cuts and slopes.

• Geological maps also help in planning projects.

• If geological features, such as faults, joints, beds, folds, or channels are encountered, suitable
remedies should be incorporated.

• Geological maps provide information regarding the structural disposition of rock types in a
proposed area.

• Topographical maps are essential for understanding the advantages and disadvantages of all
possible sites.

• Hydrological maps provide information regarding the distribution of surface water channels and
the occurrence and depth contour of ground water.

• Knowledge of ground water is necessary for excavation works.

• Understanding soil erosion transportation and deposition by surface water helps in soil
conservation, river control, and coastal works. In geologically-sensitive areas, such as coastal
belts and seismic zones, knowledge of the geological history of the area is very important.

They are effectively a bridge between geology, engineering and public health. The

geology training helps engineers understand environmental threats. The
engineering element helps geologists understand the unique challenges of civic
works and private development. Finally, both are encouraged to understand the
need to consider public health and safety during civic works.

Engineering Geologists will look at safety issues such as rock stability for a site and
ask such questions as: can the underlying bedrock support heavy structures? Is the
bedrock stable enough to support mass development such as transit systems and
tall buildings? Is the rock radioactive? Is the radiation level considered safe for
people to live and work here? What are the geological risks of building here? They
will also look at human developments that might affect the stability of the ground
- mine shafts, waste disposal sites (gas leaks as well as ground stability).

They do not just look at the ground rock, but also water sources, soil stability and
other natural processes that could impact a new development. This way, they are
more like environmental engineers when they study such issues as flood risk. They
will assess commercial and industrial development, public works, assessment of
military activity (such as ground assessments in areas that have been bombed -
many work in Iraq, ensuring that a site is safe before redevelopment).