1

L
ANDF
ORMSANDL
ANDS
CAPE
SPROCE
SSE
S
ROCKSANDWE
ATHE
RING.
Def
ini
ti
onofk
eyt
erms
.

Rock-Thetermrefer
stoacoll
ecti
onora ggr
egati
onofminer
alsf
orexamplegr
ani
tei
sarockt
hati
smade
upofmi neral
ssuchasquar
tz,f
eldsparandmica.
Mineral-I
tref
erstothenat
ural
lyoc c
urr
ingsubst
ancesmadeupofe l
ementseac
hofwhic
hiscompos
ed
ofatoms .
Rockjointi
ng-
Itre
ferst
othecracksoropening
sthataref
oundintheroc
ks.

Typesofr ock s
-Therea r
et hr eema i
nt y pesofr oc ksdependi ngonhowt heywe ref or med.
-Thet hreema int ype sofr ocksar eigneous ,sedi me nt arya ndmet amor phic .
A. I
GNE OUSROCKS .
-Thewor di gne ouswa sder i
vedf romt hewor d‘ ignis ’whi chme ansf i
r e.
-Ther oc ksa res oc al
ledbe causet heya r
ef ormedf rommol tenr oc kst hatmov esfromdee ptheeart
h’s
crust,cool sands ol i
difi
e swi thint hec rustoront heea rth’ss urface .
-Whe nt hemol tenr oc kc oolsa nds ol i
dif
iesint hec rustt her ocksa rer eferre dtoa si ntrus
ive.
-Whe nt hemol tenr oc kc oolsa nds ol i
dif
iesont hee arth’ss urfacet her ock sa r
er efer r
edtoa sext
rus
ive.
-Theig neousr oc ksc anbef urtherdi videdintot hreeg roupsdependi ngont hel evel atwhichthemolte
n
rockc oolsa nds olidif
ies .
1.Plutoni c.–T he sea ref or me ddee pinsidetheea rth.
-Ther oc k
sc ool s l
owl yt huspr oduc ingac oa rs
et e xturewi thl a
rg ecr ystals
.
-Exampl esofpl ut onicr oc ksa r
eg ra nit
ea ndg a bbr o.
-Ther oc k
sg e ne rall
yc ov e rlargea reasa ndma ybee xpos edt ot hes ur facebye rosion.
2.Hy pa byssal-T hes ea rei ntermedi ateroc k
sf oundbe twee nthepl ut onica ndv olc
a nic.
-Theyc ool mor equi ckl
yt hant hepl utonicbutmor eslowl yt hant hev olcanic.
-Theser oc ksus ua ll
yf ormdy kesa nds ill
s.
-Anex a mpl eofs uc har oc kinZ i
mba bwei sdol erite.
3.Volc anic-The sea rether ock sforme dwhe nmol tenma gmac ool sa nds olidif
iesont heea rt
h’ss
urf
ace.
-Thema gmac oolsr apidl ypr oduc i
ngr oc kswithv eryf i
nea ndg lossyi na ppea ranc e.
-Thee xa mpl eofav olca nicroc kisba sa l
tandr hy olite.

Char
act
eri
st
icsofigneousroc
ks.
1.
Theyar
ecr y
sta
ll
ine-Thi
sme anstha
ttherock
saremadeofshi
nyorgl
it
teri
ngcr
yst
als
2.
Theyar
eg eometri
c-Thi
sme anstha
ttherock
shaveadef
ini
tereg
ula
rshape.
3.
Theyar
ea l
soheav yascompa r
edtootherr
ocks
.

B.SEDI
ME NTARYROCKS.
-T
hewor dsedi
me nt
arycomesf
romtheLati
nwor d‘sedeo’whi
chmeanst
os i
torset
tl
edown.
-S
edimentaryr
ocksaret
heref
oref
ormedfroms edimentsofer
odedmater
ial
stha
tha v
ebee nc
arr
iedby
water,
windoriceandla
iddownatdi
ff
erentloc
a t
ions.
-T
hepa rt
ic
lesar
elai
ddownoneupona notherandt her
ockbecomeshar
dwhenac eme nt
ings
ubst
ance
i
spresent.
 2

Na
tur
eofs
edi
ment
aryr
ocks
truc
tur
e

For ma tionofs edime nta ryr oc ks.

Sedi ment a r
yr oc ksa ref or me di nt hr eedi f
ferentwa y swhi c hg iv
et hethr e
edi f
fer enttypes.
1. Mec ha nic allyf orme d.
-Ther oc ksa ref or me dwhenr ema i
nsofol derr oc ksa rel aiddownbywi nd,wa terori c
ea ndt hen
cement edbys ma l
lerpa rtic l
esorot herma terials.
-Exa mpl esofme cha nica l
lyf or me dr oc ksares a ndstone, sha l
e, cl
ay ,c
ong l
omer ate, sil
ts
toneandbr anded
i
r ons t
one .
2. Or g
a nica l
lyf or me d
-Thes ea ref ormedf romt her ema insofpl antsa nda nima lswhi c
hl i
vedmi ll
ionsofy earsago.
-Thes er ema i
nsha v ebe ent rans por t eda ndde pos i
tedi nl aye r
s .
-Exa mpl esofor ga nic all
yf or meds edi me nta ryroc ksa rec oa l
, chalk,peatandc ora l.
-Coa lisf orme dwhe nv e ge tationde cayingi nt hea bs enc eofox y
g enins wa mpsi sc ompactedby
sedi me nts.
-Cha lka ndc or ala ref or medf romt her ema insofa nima ls.
3. Chemi cal
lyf orme d.
-Thes ea ref ormedwhenc he mi c als edime ntsa repr ec i
pi tatedf roms oluti
ons,us uallyoceans.
-Anex ampl ei sl ime stonewhi chi sf ormedbyt hepr ec i
pi tati
ona ndde posit
ionofc al
ci
um carbonatein
wa ter.
-Ot herr ockst ha ta rec he mi ca l
lyf or me da rer oc ksalta ndg ypsum.
Cha racte ri
sticsofs edi me nt aryr oc ks .
-Theyc ont ai
nl ay ersors tratawhi cha reofdi fferenta mount sofs edime nt
s.
-Theya res epa rate dbybe ddi ngpl anes .
-Theya res econda ryr ock swhi chf r omot herr oc ks.
-Theyof tenc ont a i
nf oss i
l fue l
s .
-Theya renon- crys talli
ne .
C. Met a mor phicRoc k s.
-Thes ea ret ertiaryort hirds t
a ger oc kswhi chwer ee itheri gne ousors ediment ary.
-Thet er mme tamor phi cmea nst o‘ cha ngef orm’ .
-Thet erm me tamor phis mr ef erst ot hepr oc essofc ha ngingt hephy si
cala ndc hemicalma ke-
upof
ex i
stingr ock stopr oduc ea ne ntirelydi ffer
entr ock.
-Thes er oc k
sa rec ha ng edi na ppea ra ncea ndc harac t
e rbec auseofi ntensehea ta ndpr essur
ea swe l
las
chemi calrea cti
ons .
-Met amor phi croc k sa reof tenc oa rse randde ns ertha nt heor iginalrocks.
Commonmet amor phi cc ha ng es.
Gr anite ( i
g neous ) Gnei ss
Qua r tz ( i
gne ous ) Schist
Clay (se dime nta ry ) Slate
Sha l
e (
s edime nt ar y) Schist
Lime s tone (se dime nt ary) Ma r
ble
 3

Coall (s
edi
mentar
y) Gra
phite
Sands
tone (
sedi
mentar
y) Quart
zi
te
WE
ATHE
RING
-Thet erm we a t
her ingr ef er st ot hephy sicaldi sint eg rat
ionorbr ea ki
ngdownofr ock sins i
tuort he
bre ak i
ngdownofr oc ksi ns itu.
-Thet erm‘ ins it
u’me a nst hebr okenf ra gme nt ss e ttleonora roundt her oc kwi thoutbe i
ngmov edto
othera rea s.
-Thepr oc es soc curswhe nr oc ksa reex pos edt owe a therorc li
ma tee le me ntss uc hast empe ratur eand
rainfa l
l.
-Thewe athe redma te r
ia l
st ha ta ccumul at esa ttheba s eoft her oc ki srefer r
e dt oa sscree.
Ma sswa sting -I
tre ferst ot hepr oce ssbywhi chwea the redma te ri
a lmov esdowns l
opeduet ot hef orce
ofg ra vi
ty.
Eros ion-Iti st hepr oc essorr emov a lofwe ather edma terialf rom onepl acet oa notherbya gentsof
eros ions uc ha swa te r,wi nda ndi ce.
-I
ti sa ls
or e ferredt oa st hea ctivewe ari
nga wa yoft heea rth’ss urfac e.
Depos iti
on- Itr ef
e rst ola y i
ngdownofwea there dma te ri
al whichwoul dha vebee nt ra
ns portedf romone
plac et oa not he r
.
-De pos i
tionma yr esul tint hef orma tionofnewl andf or ms.
Fa ctorsa ffec ti
ngwe ather ing .
-Ther atea twhi chwea ther ingt akespl acei sa ffecte dbyanumberoff a ctorss uc ha scli
ma te,ve ge t
ati
on
cov er, r
oc kj ointi
ng , roc kha rdne ssa ndr elief.
1. Cl ima te
-Thet woma jora spec t
sofc lima t
e, rainfalla ndt emper aturea f
fe ctwea the r
ingonag l
oba ls
ca l
e.
-Phy sicalwe athe ri
ngi sc ommoni na r
idr eg i
onss uc ha sthede se rtswhe ret empe raturesa r
ehi ghr a i
nfal
l
l
ow.
-Thepr oce ssi salsoc ommoni nc oldr e gi
onswhe r et emper ature sfluctua tebe low00C.
-On t he ot he rha nd,c hemi calwea t
her i
ngi sc ommon i n humi dr e gi
onswhe ret herea re hi g
h
temper atur e sandhi g hr ainf a l
l.
-Thehi ght e mper a t
ur e sa ndhi ghr ainfallfa ci
li
tatec he mi cal reactions .
2. Roc kJoi nting .
-Thec racksa ndot he rl i
nesofwea kne ss
e st hata ref oundi nar oc kf acil
itatet hepr ocessofwea the ri
ng.
-Thisi ssobe causet hes ej oint sa l
lowwa te rtoent ert he ma nda lsoa ll
owt reer oot stog etintother ock.
-Ther ootsa nda va i
la bil
ityofwa t
e rne cess i
ta t
et hewi de ninga nddee pe ningofr ockc r
a cks.
-Event ua l
lyduet odee pe ninga ndwi deni ngofc ra ck st her oc kma ys pli
t.
3. Veg etationc over .
-I
nde nselyv egetateda r ea s, wa t
eri nfil
tratesi ntot hes oil
, thusa l
lowingf orc hemi calwe a t
he r
ingt ot ak
e
plac e.
-Somepl ant sma ya lsof a cilitatewe a t
he ringwhent her oot spenet ratel i
nesofwea knessesc ausingr ocks
tos plit.
-Onba rea re ashowe v er ,t he rei ss oilc ompa ctiona ndhi ghs urfacer unof fwhi chpr omot ephy si
cal
wea thering .
4. Slope s.
-Phy sicalwe atheringi sc ommonons t
e eps lopeswhi chpr omot es urfacer unof fa ttheex pe nseof
i
nf il
tra t
ion.
-Gent l
es lope sont heot herha nda ll
owf ormor ewa tert ope ne tratede eper ,thuspr omot ingc hemi cal
we a thering .
-Ther eforeunde rg e ntles lopest herea r
ef ines oilst ha nons teeps l
opes .
 4

5. T
ime
-Therocksthathavebee nexposedmoret oa ge ntsofwe ather
inga r
emor eweat
heredthanthoset
hat
havebe enexposedforalimit
edtime.
-Newlyforme droc
ksha v
eat hinl
ayerofsoi
l thanol derrocks.
6.Huma na ct
ivi
ti
es
-Huma na c
tiv
iti
esmaye i
therpromot
eorr etardt hepr oc
e s
sofwea theri
ng.
-Act
ivi
tiesli
keda mc ons
truct
ionandirri
gationa l
l
owwa t
ertos i
nkdee pint
othesoil
,thuspromot
ing
chemicalwe at
heri
ng.
-Act
ivi
tiessuchasquarry
ingandroadconstruc t
ione xposerockstoagentsofwea
ther
ing.
T
YPE
SOFWE
ATHE
RING.
-Ther ea rethr eet ypesofwe ather i
ng ,t
ha tis,phy sica l
,chemi cala ndbiological
.
A. Phy sicalwe ather i
ng.
-I
tr efe rstot hebr eakingdownofr ockswi t
houta nyc hang ei nt hec hemi c
alormi neralc omposit
ionof
ther oc k.
-Ba s
ic all
yt her ea ref ourt ype sofphy si
c alwe at he ri
ng ,whi c
ha ref rostacti
on,e xfol
iation,pressure
releas ea nds a ltcrystalli
zati
on.
1.F ros tacti
on.
-Thepr ocessi sa lsoref erredtoa sfreez e-thaw.
-I
ti sc ommoni na reaswhi chex perienc ea lt
ernatef reez i
nga ndt hawi ng,eit
herfroms umme rt
owi nter
orbet we enda yandni g httempe ratures .
-Whe ni trains ,wa terc oll
e c
tsinlinesofwea kness ess uc ha scr acksanda l
soinpores pacesofr ock
s.
0
-Whe nt emper at
ur esdr opt obelow0C, wa te
rf r
e ez esa ndi tsvol umei ncreaseby10%.
-Thec hang eofwa tertoas oli
ds tatee xertspr essur eupont her ockfor ci
ngthec r
ackt oex pand.
-Whe nt hewa terme l
ts, i
tpenet rat
e sde epe r.
-Ther epeate dpr ocessoff r
eezinga ndt ha wingwi de nsa ndde epenst hel i
nesofwe aknesse s.
-Event ua l
lyt her oc ksl
a bsbr eaka par t
,ors mall
erone sma yf a
lla ttheba seoftheroc k.
-Whe nt hepr oc essocc ursa l
ongj oi
nt sitisr ef
erredt oa sicewe dg ingwhi l
ewhe nitoc cursinporespa ces
i
tisk nowna sc rystalgrowt h.
Adi ag rami ll
us tr
a t
ingt hepr ocessoff reez e-t
ha w.

BE
FORE AF
TER
 5

2. S altc r
ystal
l
izati
on.
-
Thepr oces sisals
ore f
erredtointerpor ecr
yst
a l
g r
owt h.
-
Itoccurswhe nwa t
erwhi chha sal otofdiss
olvedmi neral
saccumulat
esint hepor espac
e sassal
i
ne
water
.
-
Whe nt hewa terevaporates
,themi neralsa
ccumulatea ndaggr
egateascry
s t
alsintheporespac
e s
.
-
Eventua l
lyt hecryst
alsbecomes obigt hatt
heye xertpre s
sureontheli
nesofwe a k
nessandtherock.
-
Thiseve ntua l
lyl
eadsinthebr eaki
ngdownoft heroc k
.
-
Thepr oces siscommoni na ri
dregionswher esolut
ionsa r
ebroughttot
hes urf
a c
ebyc api
ll
aryact
ion.

3. Pr essur erel
ea s
e .
-I
tisa l
soknowna sdil
ationanda ppl
iestorocksthatareformedde epunderground.
-Theintrusi
v eigneousr ocksthatarefor
medde epunde rg
rounda r
ei nastat
eofc ompress
ionduetothe
pressureofov erburdenupont hem.
-Asthepr oc essofer osi
ont akesplacetheover l
yi
ngma t
eria
lisremov edandt hi
sreli
evespr
essur
eon
therocka l
lowi ngittoex pandoutwa r
ds.
-Asther ocke xpandsout wards,curvi
l
inearandv er
ti
c a
ljoi
ntsareformed.
-Withtimet her ockisex posedevenmor etothea gentsofwea t
heringi
tdis
integrat
es.
-Theproc e
s sisdomi nantinsemi -
ari
dlandsoflimit
e dvegetat
ionandwhe rethereisver
yacti
veeros
ion.

BE
FORE AF
TER

4. T her ma l fr
ac turi
ng .
-Thepr oce s
si sc ommoni na rea ssucha sthea r
ida nds emi-aridreg i
onswheretherei salar
gediur
nal
tempe raturer ang e.
-Thepr oc e s
sisa lsok nowna se xfoli
ation.
-Duringt heda yt heout e rlayersofther ockareheatedbyi nsol
a ti
ona ndtheyexpand.
-Atnig htt heseout e rlayer scool asthe yloseheatandt hisma k
e sthemt ocont
ract
.
-Alt
e rna t
ee xpans i
onoft heout erlayer softheroc klea dstot hef ormati
onofs heerjoi
ntswhi
c hare
parallel t
ot her oc ks urfacewhi lethec ontrac
tionleadstot hef orma t
ionofvert
ica
l j
ointsal
mostatri
ght
anglest ot her ocks ur fa
c e.
-Ther epea t
edpr oces sesofex pans i
ona ndcontrac
tionlea dstoout erlayer
sfal
li
ngoffa ssc
ree.
-Theout erlaye rsarepe eledof fmuc hl ikeonionla
yer shenc ethena meoni onpeel
ing.
-Thepr oc e s
sus ua l
lypr oduc ess moot ha ndroundede xf
oliati
ondomes .
 6

B.
CHE
MICALWE
ATHE
RING.
-I
ti stheg radualdecompos i
ti
onordec a y
ingofr ockswhi chinvolvesc hemicalreactionsr e
sul
tingin
changesi nt
hemi neralc
ompos it
ionoft herock .
-Thepr oces
sofc hemicalweatheri
ngi sfaci
li
tatedbyt hemi neralcompos i
t i
onofther ock,thepresence
ofwa terandwa rmt ohottemper a
tureswhi chfaci
lit
atechemi ca
l r
eac t
ions.
-Theproc es
sesofche mi
c al
we at
he ri
nga recarbonati
on,oxidati
on, hydroly
s i
sandsolution.
1.Ca r
bona t
ion.
-Thepr ocessiscommoni nli
me stoner egi
onorr ockswhos ec hemica lcomposit
ioni sma inl
yca l
ci
um
carbona t
e.
-Whe nt herainfal
lsthroughthea tmos phere,itdiss
olvesc ar
bondi oxidea ndmix eswi t
hi ttoforma
we aksoluti
onc a
lle
dc ar
bonicacid.

CO2+H2O H2CO3
Ca rbon+wa ter ca r
boni cacid.
-I
ti sthec arboni ca c i
dt ha tr ea ct
swi tht hec alci
um c arbona t
ef oundi nt herockr esul
tingint he
for mationofc alc
iumc ar
bona te.
H2CO3 + Ca CO3 Ca( HCO3)2
-Ca l
c i
umbi ca rbona tequi cklydi ssolvesandi scarri
eda wa yins oluti
onf orm.
-TheChi nhoy iCav esa rear es ultsofc arbona ti
on.
-T hepr oc e s
si sals ocommoni nr ockss ucha schalka nddol omi t
e .
2. Ox i
da tion.
-Thepr oc essoc c
ur sint her oc kst ha tcontainironwhi c hrea ctswithox ygenf oundinwa t
ert oproduce
i
r onox ide .
-Thef orma tionofi ronox i
dewa k enst heroc ksandma kesitt obewa sheda way .
-Theox i
da t
ionpr oces scausest heout erpartsofther ockt ot akear eddi
shc olourlik
er us
t.
-Thepr oc e ssoc cur sinthef ollowi ngc onditions:
 t hepr esenc eofi r
oni nt her ock.
 t hepr esenc eofox y ge na ndwa ter
.
 hi ght e mpe r a
turest ha ts peedupt hec hemica l
re acti
ons .
3. Hy droly s
is.
-Thepr oc e ssma i
nl ya f
fectsr oc kssuc hg r
anite,basa l
t.Ga bbroa ndg neis
swhi chc ontai
nsfeldspar
.
-Feldspa rt hati sfoundi nther ockr ea ct
swi thwa t
e rtofor mc lay.
-Theot he rmi ne r
a l(qua rt
za ndmi ca)lackcohe si
ona ndma yf allof
ff r
omt hemot herrock.
-Thepr oc e ssma yoc c
urdee punder g roundt hroughde epwe a t
he r
ingwhi c
hr esultsi
nf i
nere g
olit
h.
4. Solution.
 7

-
Theproces
sofwe at
heri
ngoccurswhensol
ubl
eminer
alsdi
ssolv
einwa t
er.
-
Rai
nwa t
erma ycont
ainweakacids
,whichi
ncont
acti
nwa t
er,di
ssol
vesthemi
ner
als
.
-
Thes
ea r
ee as
ilywas
heda wayinsol
uti
on.

C.BIOLOGICALWEATHERI
NG.
-I
tr ef
erstothebreak
ingdownofrocksduetotheact
ionoflea
vingorg
anis
mssuchaspl
ant
sand
animals
.
-Thethreety
pesofbi
ol
ogic
alwe
athe
ringar
eroota
cti
on,
animala
cti
ona nda
cidwea
ther
ing
.

1.Roota cti
on.
-Pl
a ntrootsmaygrowinl
inesofweakne
ssessuc
ha sc
rack
sandjoint
s.
-Ast herootsg
etbigg
er,t
heyforc
ethecrack
stowidenanddeepen.
-Eventuall
ytheroc
kisfor
cedtobrea
kupa ndtheproc
essisk
nowna srootwe
dgi
ng.

2.Animalacti
on.
-Burrowi
nganima lssuchasr
abbit
s,molesandwormsa l
soass
isti
nweatheri
ng.
-Theymixupt hes oi
landphysi
cal
l
ypris
er ockpi
ecesapar
t.
-Thi
sa l
soenableswa tert
opercol
atet
ode eperl
evelst
opromotedeepwea t
her
ing
.
3.Acidweathering.
-Animalexc
retions,humicaci
dsfr
ompl antsandanimal
smayreactwit
hs omeroc
kmi
ner
alswhi
chma
y
l
e adtochemical r
ockde c
ay.

DI
FFE
RENCE
SBE
TWE
ENPHY
SICALANDCHE
MICALWE
ATHE
RING.

Phy s
icalWea t
hering Chemi calWea thering
-ma i
nlyrequir
esforce/press
ureorheat. -ma i
nlyrequireswa t
er,he atandaci
ds.
-operatesonrocks -operatedee pwi thinther ock.
-producesshall
owr egoli
th -producesde epr egoli
th
-produceslargeorcoa r
seendproduct
s -producesfinepr oductss uchascl
ay.
-producesa ng
ularproducts -producesrounde dproduc ts.
-commoni nari
da reasaswella
scoldreg
ions
. -commoni nhumi dregionss ucha
stherai
nforest
s.
-theendpr oductsarechemical
lys
imil
artopar
ent
. -theendpr oduc tisdif
fe r
sc hemic
alfr
ompa rentroc
k.

Landformsduet owe athering .

1.Bat
holiths
-Thesea r
el arg
ema ss
e sofmor e1ook m2ofg ra
nitet hatha v
ebe enexposedaft
ert heremov
aloft
he
overl
yings tr
ata.
2.Dwa la
-Adwa laisadomes hapedl a ndformwhi c
hissma ll
erthanaba t
holi
th.
-I
tisalsore f
err
edt oa sawha l
ebackbecausetheya r
es hape dl
ikethebackofawhale.
-Thesearear esultofpr essur eleasesandexfol
iat
iona ndt heyareovalorci
rcul
ara
tt hetop.
3.Castl
ek opjes.
-Thesearepi l
esofr ockst ha tareformedf or
mwel ljoi
nt e
dr ocks.
-Theyaref ormedbys electivewea t
heri
ngofwe ll
joint
edg r ani
terocks
.
-Theydisplayaba la
nc ingr oc ksceneryorpil
esofrocks.
-Thecastl
ek opjesma yr estonama s
siv
eg ra
niterocks.
 8

4.Tors.
-Thesea r
er ockboul
de r
st hatli
eont heg r
ound.
-Thei
rf orma ti
onissimilart otha
tofc as
tlekopjesbutthe ya rema deofsma l
lpi
lesofroc
k sorr
ock
rubble.
-Atti
mest heyareoccupiedbyv eget
a ti
ona l
ongthev er
ti
caljoints.
-Examplesofc ast
lekopjesa ndtor
sa refoundinMa topo.
5.Tafoni.
-I
tisares ultofdi
ff
erentialweatheri
ngwhi chresult
sinst
rang ec a
vernousst
ruc
tures
.
-Theyformont hefaceofs omeg r
anulargranit
er ock
.
-Theyva r
yi nshapeandf orm, r
angi
ngf roms i
ngl
edepr es
sionst ocomplexhoney
combs t
ruc
tures.

LANDFORMSI NLIMES TONEREGION

-Li
mestoneisawe l
lj
ointedrocka ndhasac omplexsys
temofbe
ddi
ngplanesus
ual
lyhori
zonta
lli
nked
byvert
icalj
oints.
-Car
bonati
oni sthec hiefweather
ingprocessoperat
inginl
i
mest
onereg
ionwhichhasresul
tedinthe
for
ma t
ionofk ars
tfeatures
.
-Li
mestonefeaturescouldbesurfa
c eorunderg
round.
A.
Sur
fac
efea
tur
es.
1.Grike sa ndCl i
nt s.
-Thesea ret her idg esa ndt hef urrowsf or me da sar esultofcarbona t
ionalongjoints.
-Theper mea bili
tyoft hes urfacea llowsr ainwa tertos oakint oiteasil
y,r
e sult
inginj ointswide ni
nga nd
deepeni ng .
-Thi
sr esult sint hes ur facebei ngbec omec riss
-crossedbye l
ongatedg ul
liesorf ur r
owsc all
edg ri
k es
whicha res epa r
a tedbyr idgesbyr idgesc al
ledc li
nts.
2.Swa llowhol es
-Thesea redepr es sionorhol esbywhi chs ur f
ac estreamsdi sappeartog i
veriset ounder groundr iv
ers.
-Theya r
ea lsok nowna ss inkhol es.
-Thes wa llowhol e sma yj oi ntof orml argedepr essi
onsc all
eddol i
nes
-Thedol ine sma ya lsojoi nt ofor ml argerde pre ss
ionsc all
eduv alas.
3.Dryv all
ey
-I
tist hes urfaces trea mt ha tisnol ong eroc cupiedbywa tera f
terdisa
ppe a
ringt hrought hes wa l
low
holes.
4.Re surg ents t r
e ams .
-I
tisf orme dwhe nunder g r
ounds treamsr e-emer geont hes urf
acewhe rel i
mes toneg ivewa yt oothe r
rocks.
5.Gor g es.
-Theser e pr esentc ollaps edunde rgroundc ave sandf ormerunder gr
ounds tr
e amc hanne ls
.
B.Under gr oundf ea ture s.
-Thepr oc essofc a rbona t i
onope nsuphol l
ow pa ss
ag estha tresul
tint hef orma ti
onofunder ground
caves.
-Dif
fere ntf eat uresa ref orme dint hec ave .
Stal
ag mi tes ,stalac ti
tesa ndpi lla
r s
.
-Wa terc ont ainingc a l
ciumhy drogenc arbona tecons tantl
ydripsfromt heroofoft hec av e
.
-Asthewa tere va por ate s,itle a
v esc al
c i
umc a r
bona tewhi cha sitconti
nuest oa ccumul ate,formsnee d
shapedf ea tureswhi chha ngf romt heroof .
-Thef eatur eisr ef erredt oa st hes tala
ct i
tes.
-Someoft hewa terma yf alltothef l
ooroft hec a
v eandr esultintheforma t
ionofs i
milarfeatures.
 9

-Thef eaturestha tde vel

opf romt hef l
oora reknowna sstalag
mites.
-Thes tal
a g
mi tesa ndt hes talac t
itesma yjoint oformpill
arsorcol
umns .
Be nefit
sofl i
me stone
-L
imes tonef eat uresa r
et our i
s tattract
ions.
-L
imes tonec av esa reha bitatforba tsandr esearchcanbedonei nthes
ec a
ves.
-L
imes toner oc kisus edf orbui ldingpur poses.
-L
imes toner oc kca nbeus eda sar awma teri
a l
inma ki
ngc ement.
Problemsofl i
mes tone
-Surfaceisstonya ndbr ok en, diff
iculttoc a
rrya ct
ivi
ti
essuc hasf
armingandbui
ldi
ng.
-Thes oi
l aresha ll
owa nds uppor tlimit
edf arminga c
ti
v i
ti
es.
-L
a ckofg razi
ngduet olimi t
e dv eg etat
ion.
-I
na dequa t
ewa te
rduet ol ackofs urfa
cewa ter.
-Wa terissaltyinl i
me s
toner eg i
on.

T
hebene fit
sofwe at
heringt oma n.
-
Itl
ea dstot hef orma t
ionofs oi
lwhi cha r
eus edf orv ariouspurposes
.
-
Landf ormsf orme dbywea theringc ouldbet our i
sta t
tra c
ti
ons.
-
Itproduc ess t
one swhi cha reusedf orbuildingpur pos es.
-
Thepr oces
sma yhe lptoe xpos emi neral
st hereforepr omot i
ngmi ni
ng.
T
hepr oblemsofwe at
her i
ngt oma n.
-
Thepr oces
spr oduc espoora ndt hinsoil
slesss uit
a bl
ef orfarming.
-
Thel andformst akeupl andt hatc oul
dbeus edf ors et
t l
ementa ndfarmi
ng.
-
Thel andformsc ouldbeha bita
tf ordangerousa ni
ma l
s.
-
Thel andformspr omot erunof fthusc ausi
ngs oilerosiondowns l
ope.
T
heInt er
nal Str
uc tur
eoft heE ar
th.
-
Thei nternal s
tructureoft heea rthisma deupoft hreel aye
rs,thecr
ust,
thema
ntl
eandt
hec
ore.

1.TheCr ust.
-I
tistheout er
mos tlayerwhichi
sdivi
de dintotwo; theoceani
ccrusta
ndthec
ont
inent
alc
rus
t.
-hec
T ontinentalcr
us ti
sma deupoflighterrocksmos tl
yofgrani
teori
gi
n.
-I
tisma deupofs il
icaa ndal
uminium,he nceitisknowna sthesi
al.
-I
tsthic
kne ssvari
esfrom40k minv al
l
eya nd7ok mi nmount ai
nousreg
ions
.
-heoc
T ea ni
ccrustisma deheavierr
ocksmos t
lyofba s
altor
igi
n.
-I
tisma deofs i
l
icaa ndma g
nes i
um,henc eitisknowna sthesima.
-I
tsthic
kne ssavera
g es5km.
2.TheMa ntl
e
 10

-I
tisthes econdlayerwhichisabout2900kmthicka ndismadeupofirona ndma gnesi
um.
-I
tissepa r
ate dfr
omt hec r
ustbyalayerofdi
scontinui
tyknowna st
heMohor ovi
cor‘M’ l
ayer
.
3.TheCor e.
-I
tistheinner mostlayerwhichismai
nlycompose dofironandnick
elhenceitisrefe
rredtoas‘NIFE
’.
-I
tisma deupoft heinnerandtheoutercore
.
-Theout erc oreli
esbenea t
ht hema ntl
e,i
tisa bout2000kma ndha sveryhight emperat
uresofover
0
2000C.
Theinne rcor ei
sthec ent
eroft heea
rth,i
s1400k ma ndhassli
ghtl
yhighertemperaturest
hant heout
er
core.