*nsalry r*i,# 2,^

T"
ffi/
**rE@ ,j4lfl' * fud*'* 'i- ilfo'Xry ,l ' c1e 4 ryy@^l VJp^"",{
#li unitorrnitarinnism The belief lhar evolu- lyallabe, Alfred Russell (r8l3-19fi)
simul-
f) ?b-' )
tionary'change is gradual and thal nlosr raneously with Darwin, atlvanced a rheory
Csarrgn 10
ffi *ffi:tri,.'dHJ,,ffifi'ff1:"'*" :l""jffl',:;;:J;:'::ui'Jonu*'""ffi
WILT{ELM WIINDT
ffiir t"^"\j AND TI{E F'ORMAL FOUNDING

g \:-'
\ ll- OF'PSYCFIOLOGY

I houe Tiroceeded on the conviction that law and

order aun
' if they $re rtot fandamentally souttd are better thnn
ffi contradiclions and law lesshess.
ir . -Hermano von Hclmholtz (1g96)
;i

n
As we have seen in the previous chaplers,
many, ilnportanr intiilectual forces con-
tributed io a climate friendly to the birth and
ffi nourishmeni of the discipline of psychologl:
j
'Ihe most direct influences, however,
came
ffi l: from dwilopmenrs in physiotogr, poinring to
ffi Lhe possibitiiy that mental pro""sses could be
measureil. This chapter examines selected scl-
entific projects in physiblogr thnt led Blmost
'. . il ; .:,
inexorably to the founding of the new disci-
rS "l
ffi pline of psycholo'gr. The chapter then,exam-
ines the formal founding of psycholosr and
the firsr sysrematic approach to ttie Oisciptine,
...r
..4
ffi i8
.:{
l PSYCEOPIruSICS
- With proper equipment, a grecled siries can be
The torrn psyctrophysies refers to rhe stutly
the rolationihips betvrcen the propqrties of
stimuli as measured by a phpical scaie and the
psychological or subjectivc impressionr of
those stirnuli. Tho lnformal beg*nnings of
pry_
cliophpics are encountqred in spmufarion a,aO
wonder abour the nature of.tht relationship
oblgcts in rhe v,rorld and our p"I.
l:*""1
tions of thobe objects. In Chapter 2,'we "p
rL-
viewed various theoretical positions regarding
what rve can claim ro tnoii' aUout obj?as ii
'the world- One extreme
posltion is enioun_
tered in rhe solipsistic claim that we are iso_
lated in pgr subjective wortds. According to
this po'sition, we can know only our own pri_
vate efpericnce. Another extreme position,
naive realisnr, contends that we see-external
rhings as they ara In a timited and modest
way, early studies. in psychophpics challenged
both extreme positions.
'
As nored, pEyo.hophysics involves the study
of the properties bf srimuli as measured by a
physical scale and psyclrological impressions
of those stimull For oeample, a series o[ tones
can be measuied in terms of vibrations or fre-
quencies. Thc term hhm (I{z) is used as rhe in-
ternational unit equal to ope sycle per second-
of presented with known physical chapcteristic. .
One of thc most obvious discoverjes about any
graded series is thrt there are values on thc
lower and uppor extrerncs thst do not register
in erperience. For tones, thc avcrage young
perron hears values ftom approximately Z0 IIz
to 2Q000 FIz. [n otherlr,ords, there are loner
'
and upper thresholds. The nreasuremeat of
lhresholds provides a small quanritative open_
ing into the rrorld of privare expdrience. part
of the earll, r'rorlc in psychophysics was cli_
 .?10 CIIAITER IO
,\
IVILIIEL},, \IIJI,IDTAND
TI.IB I;Oru,,{ALFOU}lDrNcoFpsyCHOLOGy
a-scientinc rranrre ror
me',ar processes. Aeci- :tl.,"
fii!:iil:Tl?:?H3'ff:H1iifl
sensorvrnodali,i*. *',"i1;
s'Ji,r,.*ffi;#r:1o.j,i] of tle nind was suodeniy
r";";i,;;";; I'{ii?i;,lJ':l,11.?;',ff'ffi{,?liil,X,'1ff or rhe rerarionsrrip
,enc+ berrveen
:llr';ri'*;;;'"'q,t.il1[,.
'maximal (for upper iluesholds)
ffi"T!:
,ri-ulur'ii_ ruy,,::m*i:llJ.nJ:ll*ll#
1871,. jusr a veanuero.e w'ner,ir
fi,il; l,,ll.-:"o1o,,,,ons
i{#Ji["]'F-jl1,rT,:l.r:"rr,,yx,H:'.,rxT
tensity rhat is derected So.percent
time.
experience also challeneed
fiffi:n,T j;:ffi* ia psv.troros'. weuei *iigr,o or,n,irG;;il.#;iled
Anorher lype of rhresftbrrr
of the ui"*. su"nlJ.ffiI'ffirtTr.T;ilfi:# Assume that a:measurable
wirh read.

ga]eg was ca'ed rhe d,lfo:*:

rr,rr *r* Jnud- periences il;';;r"J level Jrur"fr-
,,r.*l;;;*;; , [".*, prysic"r worrd in
orrouch iil,X,m';U'"*
orrouch "'h;;;ffi;
ll"."igtring so er. *:i::lt
nffi#ilfi-
*"y* .nj;l;;L*o,uriro* weberrs lvork on rhe sense
mrnrmal sdmulus.difference terween irF
ilrat is o"t".t.Ul- OiuiAu.rc are meardnpfrrl.
. i,,rJri:i
50 percenr of tre dme.
1".:
perimenrer mav srimurare
;;p;;,;;;: ", wbber (r$a/rez8) emproyed rhe
threshold technique ro map
rwo_pornr
-il;;; ilil;dl[,il:_;i#:
rhe suriace bi;; 1t" .r"*,i"ilT,t#[*r,,c
psvchophpics ,;;';d;;;
beginnings of :1:_t"{.l.liH?;i
sysremafica'y rtre suuiect-
," f,"*.igh, , I
"rll"t dre work or rhe curaneous sensiriviry of. r-br J,"rr"r"n.. berrveen rhe
.I"" irurnan uoof.ar
,#d Li"Ll'f:'Jill J :l* ;l;Xli:,i ::l' r il*'"',*i u"in ri"rr weu"i nored earrier' sensiriviry v.arie's c,';'*E
wioery Je- partson);igtii
Sriqioul uno rhe new (com_
rhe subject, i,"o*.".i,i"
*,;;:
f:l;.li:li)r}tf_tiri l^f::XTf{t:T
condid.ons, tr," ,Erurr"st detecmbrL dit-
i,l";l,"",l;nl'fi,'i""ii'Ji"J:+:- ie*"*'ul*l"" *iJ"."0,,0 and the com- c[
d;-,,:l;",,:1il'y, :r:i#t*ffi::"T u," i ;?*,# # rib * *iu.* idlli
ber observerl'ui.i*- .r" is called the E

fl{,ffmake
clearly contact widr the .I-tre
ons u ri
mo points of tie comoass
rou ,.,iririu"lr tr,* 3:;T"
n..r;.; i^lr-
ittst noticeabte W;:;:

the experimenter is to
sldn. tast oi I nre
conducting
u,L'*-"-p"1,",i ERNsrrr'lNRrcrrwEsEn
"rr"ri- two
.,)
',ai'i'iry''1J"il;l:ffT:'ir"it#t,i:;i; --f':: many experiments rvith g
many stimulus vatues- weLer
rlueshord (rhat crisrancewrrere
p";; ; rirrre.is
theyari Iuio rianiuen"iy or in a crosswise iur"*"i'r i.."] E
di- like. reJarionship belween,r,;";;;;;;".fi:
,""ioo ro ;" ;;';, ;; unrb. He nored,rhar
experienced as rwo noinrs
insreair ;f ;; Heinricn rcnown abour ihe earry life
*lo.,, orii,.ir"*o*n r-barofhqErnsr
poinr). I'ras rreen'rorinrr
rhar rrreie a;; #: io* rrn":ro,:ii*,i,i,_,i,,,,r0 or 13 crrirdrer was
our.sensitivity i. g.*,owhen the,*";";;
tivety insensirive areas (e.g,
thigh) where rhe rwo_noinr
rtre rr.t r,i qo. **"r; ;
;;#r#of rheotory at rtre
of lhe compass come in.contacr-wirh
*r,io* ffit!:i;::Tgffiil:::::;:::n#
rro;;;ffi,ffsrimutariou.
or.,rr" H
welI over 40 mnr (ovtr.r.5.inches). n,rfrr" uyvgrsirr
rr*es.hotd
;.'"'.1"'1il1fr.;,1i1,,11","#ll1fr#lrJ}
Thus, a ri{

orher exreme, rhe try6_66lin1.rrrresloio ai',iJ

,r'orr*o "r;r;r,:;;;;:l**gJl6, Ernst en_ a dirrerence be.
il1,^"Jl;il;.*u,",;:,".r
*rT" "i;*'u;i;;o,it,
i*r, ,oor[.rr;;;,ilt":"ersity witrenberg bur .r'"i"'"':i*" :Ff i:fi.1Ti,i11;i+n"' so e* 'nJ o ffi
as sma'as 1 mm in
a serrsirive u,", p.[,,r,J
tipoftherongueorrherinsorrhenng!r$. *1.1" r," ;;;Ha , ffi, on u," atrarony
of l-eipzig, ;H5lil';f;;'ff,:*-"j
i.r,**;,*;;*Hti,1!,f,l:*,*l;: tr
o,,ru"
"y*puil",i. n"*o. webe.was.so
or: frf,r,o- i,er,ry *ri.^i.J;;;;,;:n"r
rivelv insenslrive areas. B.v
contrasr, s;j;;;
ff1ffi1,"{'jilffil+1:'#'ffif
r.r"*,r," rrup#;rril::*,srenrry
,,,,,il fl,HiTJ,rilltriuurion

#i3i
riences rt+,:
i##ftTd*;tr""fiI
F:--r^ o*",.rioil
wir'hin singre
nencec wirhin d
a
*ri;#f
;s:*"*:;r"ru ru'n:"
aer
,r!qI nis tife.
rhe udversiry

; may experience a converqrng

when they are moved ovir
areas: The experience
two poinrs when thev are
pJinrs Jiff"r"n."?
of ure .wo
ie_lath,ety,"riririu" ieigr,
divergen;;;;; il:l ,,
of the
*."rr.il
moved .i,.r
lh'e areas and rhe convergence
iwo
of rhe
,r,"
il:1":-*1; "r"""""i
** i"
d;;;Jn
oT?U,,n*
firsr
"'p"r,,ll"
rlerccr-a
.,ar woutc have
aoouiib;;5;il,
me jnd is a tunc_
ffi
tr
stimutarion. EF
ro wrire rhe
ffi
ro

i;iJJ"',x"J$HJTiTl
:.'.'-"-,:r:i?ilx',l,"tn;m1,ffi ';:#l'1.{"":i,!ulxff
rornrura rhat arrcmprlo
roiriog" rrre
resen red
alism because
a n in reres
ir
ri's .riuir*g" I;;il ;5-
*:i
LXTJIiI *:{,ff:.tT,T,::,?;;;;;"
weber il;;"",rii'J11'lili.*i,, I
;,- ". physicar E
dffi;,ili"$ff.: lhe ro,n,u,u.is os
sriruuhsvatues rhar were
de;onstrat"o r"o'u'unL Tjlr::jlli'Jiil"f#tH:r:.,
discovererr rhe irillibirio;;f
trTn . is ress ",':,":, ,, ffi
r,"ro" oi-ruourl"# l.owing stmutafidhTFTel
hearr acrron for- wben tbe two poinrs of rlre
compas;;;;;: 4{*
Sffiiix?t.i;ffi,Hf i"*"*o*i,, ii," il,:,,*,
rhere are arso discov.ry, 1erve,
roura ii;6#H1'.:lt,f :::,:1
r*rrl"neousry and grearer
are presented successively
*r,"" ii.y " .R

stirnuius ot*.*r*'ri;*"r'rt rog"rr,". *tri-i-uur.qu"nr lone .iusr pr"..Jii,g

otl":)- Similarly, perceived aitftr"r,r"e.ii where/? - rhe arnounr of exisrinp
enced by,,u un"ij"j- s-lnsclljl
reseriirr, *:
ute u'etgltfs o{obJects stimutation ffi
are geat6r when such
l.j:!lH: ",",muoequate
:JT:'#:i1"#ffiT#11-t:::ti'i"e'viil" lio.,.ou ;l*H,#itj,trTtrLx[+ y-"jqhf are pre$eirred srccessivell'. TIre snme
holds for perceivetl temperature
.a,/? - thc amount of srimulation
thar
&
barnnce-berwees exijrarisn
un.iu","; ;;;";;ff,':X,fiilT3,Y::,T and inrribttio'n;#,#ilreror ryLusl rs WOflf On I
rlifferences. must be add
"Lo i., nqrrnnr
stimurus dimereuces aciJ:gl"r
scale and experierrcetl
difrererr.ce.s-
.]; ilffi
sr.[ rr,urui ;i:.':}fi
iio,,.*,
f
;i?i,T ifi''ffif:f;
idiit1;T:ntt';;im**f *:,yr,-;*#ff, l,: fl
relati,rrslrips ol,enecr
u,. po.rir,liif;;ffiil lil" rn,poi,rr,;i;;;;
ing *orr, i" ii,i, ,*^'resurretj,in,;6.ire
of spond
to rr,"
or rhe ,l,ir.T:ll
r#
prrvsicai Jraracrerisrics
,,, Lo"r,*."rd1,,psy. sh'ruli presenred b1'; thg r^p.rin,.noi.
i, nrrl t r.rion l,
,.l'u""JJ,t
,n"ri-iijo
i?lJil,ru:{rt F
r.or-1. o,rr, ior a 30()gm ts

CLIATTER 1O
-,{d{
ffi stanrlird weighr, the mmparison should be
about306gm-
Weber had forged an opening into a hith-
erto inaccessible world. We cannqt directly
W measure a.psychological event, but we can
measure perceived di{ferences in relhtion to
$caled phJcical stim ulus. values. psychological
W evenls, orjnds, can thus:be sludied in conjunc_
tion with nieasurable physical stimulus values.
There was now justifiable optirnism thar psy_
chological proces$es muld be quaritifiid-
ffi somethirg that lnrmanuel Kant lrad declared
to be an impossibility.
Weber's work was the inspiratipn for hun-
dreds of Garly ls5srrrh projects invdstigating
ffi Jncls in each of the sensory nlodalities. His
'work also served as an inspiratiqir'ftJr th6 de-
velopment of new and more rigoioirs inethod-
ologles for the stutiy of threshoitts: The indi-
m vidual wlro wae nost inspired by WoQer,s worh
was Gustsv Theodor Fechner. We will now
turn to a consideiation of FeclureCs contiibu-
tions to psychophysics. . .
W ;
GUSTAVTIIEoDOR FEcIiNEn
ffi Few human beings have been so captivaigo
. .
by the relationship of mind and bodf as Gris-
tav Theodor Fechner (1801-IB7S), The nro
W realms, mind and body, suggest a fundamental
duality in nature, o-ut Fechner, as noted by
Ward (1876), was ..i thoroughgoing. monisi,
regarding body and soul as but a double man_
ffi ifestation of one and lhe same real thing" (p.
452). Fechner devored much of his scientifrc
career to the stxdy ol the relationships
tween the mental and the physical realms. His
ffi' systematic research program in psyc6eply5io
represenB a vital building block for the new
discipline of experimental psychology.
ffii Fechner's fadrer was Samuel Fechner, a
Luth.eran pastor, and his mother rvas Johaua
Dorothea Fischer Fechner. After completing
his srudies. in the gymnasium, Fechnlr enl
ffi' rolled at lhe Univenity of trilizig. FIe com_
pleted an I\4-D. rlegree in lgli, but his earlj,
i"_ scientilic interests were in physiu. Indeed, by
ffii
ffii
1831 he had established hisn reputation in
. otr problems in psychoplysics and experi-
physia and in 1834 lre was apirointed profes_
sor ofphysics ar Leipzig. r
The year,1839 was an unfortunate trlrning
point in Fichner's life. It marlced the begin:
ning o[.a severe emotional disturtrance rhat
forced Fechner to resign his university posl='.
tion.,His emotional maladies may have 6een,
initiated by a repporary parrial blindness.
caused by his study of afterimages. He.gazed at
the EUB through inadequarely shielded lenids,
resulting in debiliuting visual problems. His
visual problerns were aggravated by loss of ap_
petitq severe anxiety, and lraljucinations_ lie
was convinced that he would never have nor_
mal vision again, but by 18a.3 he was regaining
his sight and his emorional healrh.
Fechner resumed his work at flre Univer_
sity of leipzig in 1848, but as professor of
be_ philo;ophy. His new position afforded unique.
opporruniiles [o pufsue borh philosophical
and scientific interesrs. On the ptiitOSopniAt
siile, Fechner called attention to rwo deeply
opposed ways of viewing the univerb-e. The
basic stuff of the universe, inctudingtmqirtal
phenomena, was viewed ty fecnner=di: inen
matter. He referred lo sucll nn exferue.iniite_
beCs
rialistic position as [he niglrt nien,. By co4$.4gt;
research' (p. 47).
Fechner noled thar one might,tort *iLi1.At,e
assumprion rhat all things have a psruhie i,!1m:
spade*'ork f:or Fechner to develop a more am-
ponenl Fechner argued Lhar plants ira.Vd.',li
bitious fornrula for the measurement of sensa-
VJII,LIELfr,I IVI.INDTA}..D IIE FOR},4.qI- FOUFIDII.IG OF
psycliic life and thar any organic S[glo-has
psychic qualides. He referied rci his panpsy-
clrism as lhe d.ay uiep. Fechner lroped to ac-
cumulate eviderce for the day view in his ex-
perimental work in psychophpics.
In 1860, Fechuer published hisElenrcnts of
Pq,chophyics, a book dhtined to bemme one
of the greatesr classics,in psycholory. In 1876,
he published Vonchule der Aeshetig a classic
in the experinredtal approach to aesthetic
judgments. These worlcs represent lasting con-
tributlons to the science of psychologr. Fech-
ner is remembered for his substandvi mntri-
butions and for the developmetrt of melhods
that,were to become fundamental in the new
psychologr. He continued to work rliligeptly
mental aesthetics until his death in November
of 1887. Angell (1913) called anention ro
Wundt's memoratrle words in his funeral dra-
tion for Fechner: "We shall not look upbn his
lilre again"-(p.49).
Fechuer marlced' October 21 1850, as rhe
date-whetr it.obcurred to him that there must
be a discernibleiquantitative relationship be-
tureen sqnsations and stimull Witbout know-
ing aboqt Webefs work, it rvas clear to Fech-
ner illat there was hot a one-to-Sp, relatlon-
ship beri?een perceived increases iit stirnulus
intensity- and increases in stimulus v'alues.4s
measured on aplrysical scale. Inde8d, Fechqer
came to the conclusion that perceiveO'l.n-
creases on the mental slde were in all.proti.a-
biliLy relatGd to the amount of existing sliinx-
lation on lhe physicut side. Ths conctusion is
corisistent with what Weber had already dis-
covered- : :i
Following tbis insight, Fechner discovered
'WebeCs
work and launched a vigorous ex-
perimental program. Fechner, as quoted by'
Angell (L913), reported rhat "for several years
I considered it a dally task ro experimenr
about. an hour for the purpose of testing We-
law
and for elaborating new merhods of
-F.qbep formula providerl the iiltellectual
l-
PSYCI ft]LOOY ?I1
tion. By integratin! \Veber's formula, Fecliner
gene,rated the new formula
.9=klogB
where ,l is the metrtal sensation aurl ,It is the
Reiz.,or stimiilus magnitude. The formula
specified that the strengrh of a menral sensa-
tion is a cDnstant logaritlmic function of the
stimulus. It ftrrther specified.that as a mental
series increases arithntetically, the stimulus se_
' ries must increase geometrically. Fechner's
.formula also correctly predicted tlte observa-
Iion that is well L.nown to anyone who has ad-
vanced a three-way liglrt through a series from
l(h to 300 watrs. .Equal incremenrs in a phpi-
cal scale are experienced ln terms of a dimin-
ishing series called response compression.
Thus, lhe:difference between 100 and Zffi
.
watls Epp&t$ much greater than the differ-
ence benvtien 200 antl 300 warts. Fechner, rle-
.
ferring tb Webefs pioneering worlc, called his
formula'Weher,s Law. Today, we thinlc of it as
Fechner's Larv and the earlier simpler formula
tlrat inspireid lt asWeber's Law-
The:te51ixg of the Weber and Fechner
[.aw! occupierl a prominent if not centrat
place,in early psycholory laboratories, One
. bbnefit was that research work.on these laws
contributed td the construcfion of sensory
scalei, sucfi aS the decibel scale for rlealing
'with the intensity of auditory srimuli. Another
beneEt was s greater understanding of the ca-
pacities of thb sensory sJ6tems. Research on
the Weber and Fechner I:q6 demonstrated
that their predictions were accurare prinrarily
for the middle ranges of sensory information.
Predictions ard generally nol as aceurate for
the lorver and upper exrremes of physical in-
tensitj'.
Fechnefs Melhorls
Fechner's substanlive contributions rvere com-
plimented by important methodological con-
tribuiions that ire developed in the course of
his iirvestigarion of thresholds. The methods
developed by Fechner became ar integral parr.
of Lhe methodotogy of experimental pslrchot-
 214 CHAPTER IO

og,:. t" irnportance of fte psychophpical

attd nrong caser_ In Uris method,
IVTLHELM WUNDTAIID TrJE FOR^{AL
FOLINDtFroroF pSyCrJoLOOy
partty from rt,"ir rpplioiiiirv comoarison
T:jP_q:,.*"t problems. sfinruli are co_upled wirh tle stand.;;-;il;;; patterns. Fechner,s dream of solving the minrt-
llre.rhint reason for l.orze,s prom_
ll_1*r.,rry.of Irt us brielty exam- m a random fashion, anrl the suUject's brain may have beeu overly ainbi- :]d_:rl
ue t''echnei,s mence was his influence orl others.. He was
tious, -problem
meft orls. task is
to report whether ttre comparisoi but he did provide tlre fouudations for
,ti*ufu, il enthusiastic about the new discipline
::.1 ,:, grearer.rhatr, or weaker &an rhe
of nsv_
1l_,"4p".q"otal at]proach m
Th+ Method of Limitr. Fechner
referred ro rhis psychotogical
melhod as lhe nutltod of jwt_noticeante_iiger_ standard, or alternativelS detected
;;
processes. In the history of scierrce, therJare 1:t9ey anrt regutarly raugt r ;g'rs;-* iil, ffi
encer.He called attention n rhe fact that lected. For absolute t}resholds, ".
;: maly instances in wlriclr the major goal of a
uotttngen. He also had a strong
influence on H
EiEi
it singte stimu_ such later luminaries as Franz
fr;lrtrrq C;;
ljd h-* emptoyett earlier by O"i"r"*"'i, lus values above and below threshol; research effort is unrealized, Uui in its ptace
Stumpf, and Georg Elias Miiljer.
tess of tonal htervals an<l by Weter sented nindornly. The subject simptv "r";;;_ other fortuoate beneflts accrue liy accitleui fne Luer
iu re_ repirt two toolc their degrees undcr l,otzo.
search on weights, touch, ancl vision whetber $e sdmulus is deiecred.
Fechner, 1g66lIS60, p- 62). The
(see
of consraflr stimuli avoids certaiu
t't" *ifr"i -
lorze accepted ilre KAntian notlon that
the F
-"tfroA Jn- eiroiJ uii NUNOT,NEEERMANNI,OTZE discern spariat retafiou, fn ,n a jii_
sists of presenting a standard stimulus a.re.mmrnonly associated with : T],"S_ T."
alons the method of ofl laslllon. At the same time, he argued thaf
rvithvariable or comparison stimuli of gr."re? for example, errors of habiruation fi.e_. Weber arid Fechner had a direct and profound
and lesser value than the standhrd.
f{U.
ta[tng itrto the habit of saying ttat influence on Rudolph Elermrnn :h:.ryr^,Tltil of spattat relations c."u"rop, ,u
Thi com_ on" siim- fnrzi,, rr,".i_ a tunction of experienca SpeciflcaUy, a
parison. s timuli are presen ted i n ulus is of greater or lesser va.lue thor of the ftqt book that attempted'to non_ M
nscending an d than the be a spatial sdrnulus such as'a parri"ufaiiigt
clescending series. Fcir, example, physiological psychologr. mue was r io-
a stan'rlard Qlher) are easily established in a graAeO series. Uofi, in tensity may create a ,,Iocal iign,, or
weight of, say, 100 gm mny U" pr"s"ntrd . $uctt emors are eliruinated when comparison
-Bautzen, Germany, on May 21, 1g12. srir;ulaA F::
RI
ulonz After point Jn :rhc eye. An externai object
with a coruparisor weigbr of tb5 gm. yalues are randomized. completing his school years in Zittar, may cor_ ll.r
The difl 6rze sist of -several colors, contourr, ,urfr."r, ti!
lerence wi-U easily be detected. enrolled at; tlre University *A
In a descendiap ' -of Lripzis. He
studied anarbmy anaphysiol& und;;ffelr;;
prcijections, each res ul t ing in a'correspondin
g
series, subsequenr conparison
weigtra oir-o{ The ll,Iethod oJ Average Error. Sometimes biightness inrensiry or local sign oo tL"
10J,.102: and l0I
gm rnuy t" pr"sJnr"O rtruri caUed Ure nrcthod of adjusnnenl and physics under Fechner. After-lbmplering rurl ffi
Urir:r;-Ur"n' face of ,thq retina. The retatioristrips
nately wirh the srandard weiglir-
i[en an as_ permtts_ the subject ro manipulate
acdvely a
ft.f. yc M.D. tregrees, t u utt"*pi",r I ri# brigbnress intensiry poiuts from the
behveen ES

practice Wirhin onject and

series may inctude'cbmp".fb",
if comparison stirrulus until it appears Idi.at a year he rvas o-ack at -
:::dilg.
100, 101, 102, 103, 104 gm ,ndso a standard. Following rhe
to ,ui"L *T1.t r]"at" he accepted a fqputry posirioir.
corresponding points on the two-diminsional
fp;il; h, adjustmenr, fte.dii_ . surface of the retina do riot in
themselves pro_
each series, the experimenler re-rence.between tlr6 standard Lolze's faculry tenure at Lcinzie was fromr-,, ffi
can assess the and Lhe. com_ vide unamblguous cues to depth p".""pton
pont at which a difference is no pdrison srimuli ian be measureo. 1839 to During rhis periorl ri" l".rr".ri F
longer de_ f"i'*"_"la _1844.
of fietds, including psyphotory. Ih '
since sligbt movemeflts of the eye or
heaO re_
ll rtre The
llil"lnoticed- p_oinr ar wtrich the difterlnce
is :_:l1yird might qonsisl of a ligtrt ; t;;; ::.i "r-"oy sult in.a whgle new distribution of points
lrst
lY:. h" accepted a facut"ty ,poritioi' ,ai
on
average for severai'ascend_ Dngnmess. The comparison could be "r a lipht the relina. Bu-t,in time, relafional r.liscrimina_
rng and descend-ing series detines source activated by a variable Liorrrngen and. held rhar position
thejnd. switct rtraf p"ei. until lBBl. tions are esublished such rhat rhe local
tnrs melhod is also applicable toabsolute mils thesubject ro a jusr brighrness. l: t99t he accepred the cliair ofphifosoprry.i sign in ff
_,
Inrestrolds.
ffr"iui- the'University of Berlin but died -f"* the rednh f6r a givbn poirr on ilr; ;;J;?;
l;
In tlis
casg single stimulus values .;ect could tlten adjusr the brightness of rhe within', discerned from the tocal sign for a diiferent
are presented in ascending conparison stirnulus until it appe4n weeks after his nove to Berlin- ; ,
and descending se_ ,o o,.,rt poini ou the object- Relational discrimina_ R
n€s._tbr e*ample, rones of lj,
IB, lg, ZO,"ana tie-brighrness of the standarg. ^M;r[y,;;;: Though Lotze's interests in psychologr
tions based on local sigls become cues Fi
21 Hz may be presented. in eral ascending and descending were broad, he set.forth no sysrimatic for the
an ascending series. series;;;;_ ,[_ percepdotr of deprh.
and a subject's rask is to ,.port ployed pnu a m€an is oererminlj. proach ro the fielil An examination
,t,"n tfr" io,ie
is first detectecl. In a descanOing series, the conrparison starts
*;r;;;; of his
Outh:er-of Psycholog,, nrst publisbed
Lotze alsq emphasized the role of rhe mus_
sqries, stait_ a$ a higher or in l8g1, cle sense in depft perceprion. Local signs ffi
brighter value and-is adjusteC reveals interesB in such topiaa ,s for
:9.1b_:.",.rlrreshotd(e..g.,U,Z4,Zi:Ufr;;; Oownwa'rC anO *urory, un_.. an outstretched irrm are distinc( from lhose F
rhe subjectr ta{k ts to specify n-a subsequenl series the comparisoir conscious . processes, psychoparholo
::j:lii?,
Irequency at which tle
rlie
a lowcF Ur dimrner value $nd
starts at and
and sensory procesies. His*rheory i
W . for an une-xtended arm. Lorze (lgg5/1973)
ione is rio tonger is ua.;*rJ lt":jT_:o,, noted that those who are born blind consrruct B
heard^ ward. ",p_ orspaca perccptiofl was ro have a direct H
influ_ t$i8ir image dspace bg means of touch,
Fechner believed lhat Ure methorl etrce on his successors. bur he u
. nf lirnirs T:rlyf devetoperr by Fecbiieq ha{ doubted "whether the concgpt ofspace which
is the-methocl of choice for pretimitary
stuOies
-.,JY_
wrde applicability and became a stan(a.r{ p4rr
E. G Boring (1950) identified lhree rea_ the sense of rouch affords a person torn
but thar rhe other merhoos .r;,"il;;; o{ the rrainiug fo: blind,
m_ore rigorous srurlies (See
f; . Fro8rams ro,
chologku- Variatlons of Fechner,s "rp"ri
n"irieifiij; ::n: ry,*t prominenr place
of psyeliolosr.
trr rho hisrory is at ail similar to that of one who sees,, (I.
ne"fuier, tsiii As noted earlier, he wrote the
1860, p.63). are emp_loyed widely today
r"if,'[is 50). The assumprion of such radical disconi_
by pryl,ofosi;b.'il: Hl_oook.ttgqing ro be a physiotogicat nuity befween informa{ion ftom nvo sensory
his l,Iediziniscne 'rjdrctJgie iir
psy_
The Mbthod
vestrgatutg problenrs as tljvergent lloloey,
of Cuntant Srinuili, Fechner as ibioe"", P;\t:vtol3tts rler Seele, firsr
realms wqs challenged later by orhers
re_ ljttu of air rluatirlr 16 rlre capac'lty published in lB5Z. 1e.g., see
fened to this methocl as the ,;a}iiill,' summary in Viney, l99l).
nreilroJ "f sii,4,iffi1
rar species to discrinrinate atnong {4e second reason was Lotze's theory of
space
"1,rgi, perception (a rheory we
shall pr.rrnrly ioo,
. Goteslry (1967) poirired our rlat ,.Lorze,s
infiuence in Gernrany, France and EnglanJ
riir'.