energies

Article
Power-to-Steel: Reducing CO2 through the
Integration of Renewable Energy and Hydrogen into
the German Steel Industry
Alexander Otto 1,2 , Martin Robinius 1,2, *, Thomas Grube 1,2 , Sebastian Schiebahn 1,2 ,
Aaron Praktiknjo 3,4 and Detlef Stolten 1,2,5
1 JARA-ENERGY, 52425 Jülich, Germany; a.otto@fz-juelich.de (A.O.); th.grube@fz-juelich.de (T.G.);
s.schiebahn@posteo.de (S.S.); d.stolten@fz-juelich.de (D.S.)
2 Institute of Energy and Climate Research: Electrochemical Process Engineering IEK-3,
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
3 JARA-ENERGY, 52074 Aachen, Germany; apraktiknjo@eonerc.rwth-aachen.de
4 Institute for Future Energy Consumer Needs and Behavior (FCN), RWTH Aachen University,
Mathieustr. 10, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
5 Chair of Fuel Cells, RWTH Aachen University, c/o Institute of Electrochemical Process Engineering (IEK-3),
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Wilhelm-Johnen-Str., D-52428 Jülich, Germany
* Correspondence: m.robinius@fz-juelich.de; Tel.: +49-2461-61-3077

Academic Editor: Bin Chen

Received: 13 February 2017; Accepted: 17 March 2017; Published: 1 April 2017

Abstract: This paper analyses some possible means by which renewable power could be integrated
into the steel manufacturing process, with techniques such as blast furnace gas recirculation (BF-GR),
furnaces that utilize carbon capture, a higher share of electrical arc furnaces (EAFs) and the use of
direct reduced iron with hydrogen as reduction agent (H-DR). It is demonstrated that these processes
could lead to less dependence on—and ultimately complete independence from—coal. This opens
the possibility of providing the steel industry with power and heat by coupling to renewable power
generation (sector coupling). In this context, it is shown using the example of Germany that with
these technologies, reductions of 47–95% of CO2 emissions against 1990 levels and 27–95% of primary
energy demand against 2008 can be achieved through the integration of 12–274 TWh of renewable
electrical power into the steel industry. Thereby, a substantial contribution to reducing CO2 emissions
and fuel demand could be made (although it would fall short of realizing the German government’s
target of a 50% reduction in power consumption by 2050).

Keywords: power-to-steel; CO2 reduction in steel industry; sector coupling; renewable energy for
steelmaking; alternative steelmaking processes

1. Introduction
The growth of the global economy and population is strongly associated with a continuous
increase in primary energy demand. In 2012, 81% of energy was generated by fossil fuels, which
emitted around 30.2 billion tons of CO2 [1]. In its World Energy Outlook 2012 [1], the International
Energy Agency (IEA) outlines in the “450 Scenario” that the average increase of global temperature
could be limited to 2 ◦ C if CO2 emissions could be reduced to 22 billion tons a year by 2035. This would
mean that annual global CO2 emissions must be reduced by approximately 30% from the year 2012
until 2035. As a worldwide leader in climate protection-focused policy, the targets of the German
government are more ambitious. In its energy concept 2010/2011, it set out the goal of reducing
greenhouse gas emissions in Germany by 80–95% by 2050 against 1990 levels, with a simultaneous
reduction of electrical power demand by 25% and primary energy demand by 50% by 2050 against

Energies 2017, 10, 451; doi:10.3390/en10040451 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 451 2 of 21

2008 Energies
levels.2017,
The10,primary
451 means foreseen for achieving this is the expansion of renewable2 energies, of 21
which are intended to provide 60% of final energy consumption and 80% of power production by
2050 2008 levels. The the
[2]. Therefore, primary
German means foreseen for
landscape hasachieving this is the expansion
seen a continuous expansionofofrenewable energies,
wind turbines during
which are intended to provide 60% of final energy consumption and 80% of power production by
2003 to 2015 from 14 to 45 GW and photovoltaic installations in the same time from 0.5 to 39 GW for
2050 [2]. Therefore, the German landscape has seen a continuous expansion of wind turbines during
power production [3].
2003 to 2015 from 14 to 45 GW and photovoltaic installations in the same time from 0.5 to 39 GW for
However, both technologies are characterized by fluctuating electrical power provision due to the
power production [3].
volatile nature of wind
However, both and solar radiation,
technologies so that there
are characterized are timeselectrical
by fluctuating when supply
power of electricity
provision due istoscare
and times when nature
the volatile it is abundant.
of wind and To integrate a highsoproportion
solar radiation, of wind
that there are times and
whensolar power
supply into the energy
of electricity is
system, a large-scale
scare and times when storage solution isTorequired
it is abundant. integrateto compensate
a high proportion forofthe temporal
wind and solarimbalances
power intobetween
the
energy system,
production a large-scale
and demand. storage
For this solution
task, is required
power-to-gas to compensate
technologies forconvert
that the temporal imbalances
surplus power into
between production and demand. For this task, power-to-gas technologies
other forms of final energy such as thermal or chemical energy (e.g., hydrogen or synthetic methane) that convert surplus
power into
are suitable, other
even forms of
though final energy
electrical powersuchhasas thermal or chemical
the highest degreeenergy (e.g., hydrogen
in energy [4–6]. Theorproduction
synthetic of
methane) are suitable, even though electrical power has the highest degree in energy [4–6]. The
gases using excess electrical power at times when more electricity than needed is produced offers
production of gases using excess electrical power at times when more electricity than needed is
different opportunities. On the one hand, the gas can be reconverted into electrical power with gas
produced offers different opportunities. On the one hand, the gas can be reconverted into electrical
turbines or fuel cells during periods when demand for electrical power is higher than production.
power with gas turbines or fuel cells during periods when demand for electrical power is higher than
On the other hand,
production. On conventional
the other hand, gasconventional
power plants gascan be used
power plantsfor backup
can be usedpower to compensate
for backup power to gaps
in electricity
compensate production, with the
gaps in electricity gases produced
production, with the being used in other
gases produced being applications, such as fuel for
used in other applications,
transportation
such as fuelorfor fortransportation
heating in several sectorsin[5,7,8].
or for heating severalThe direct
sectors or indirect
[5,7,8]. The direct use
or of electrical
indirect use ofpower
from electrical
renewable power from renewable
energies to provideenergies
heat, coldto provide heat, coldpower
and operating and operating
across allpower across
sectors all sectors
is also known as
sectoriscoupling
also known [9],aswhich
sectoriscoupling
shown in [9],simplified
which is shown
form in in Figure
simplified form in Figuresynthetic
1. Furthermore, 1. Furthermore,
methane or
synthetic
hydrogen can methane or hydrogen
be used directly as a can be usedindirectly
feedstock as a feedstock
the chemical industry in the
[10].chemical industry [10].
The integration The
of renewable
integration of renewable energies into different shapes, applications and sectors can lead to a
energies into different shapes, applications and sectors can lead to a reduction in CO2 emissions beyond
reduction in CO2 emissions beyond the power sector [6,11,12]. Although the step of converting
the power sector [6,11,12]. Although the step of converting hydrogen to methane incurs additional
hydrogen to methane incurs additional energy (η = 80%) [4,5], an advantage of synthetic methane is
energy (η = 80%) [4,5], an advantage of synthetic methane is that it can be fed directly into the natural
that it can be fed directly into the natural gas grid so that existing infrastructure and technologies for
gas grid
heatso that existing
generation can be infrastructure
used. and technologies for heat generation can be used.

Figure 1. Principle of sector coupling, description from [9].

Figure 1. Principle of sector coupling, description from [9].
However, renewable power is not always directly convertible, especially in certain industrial
However, renewable
processes. This powerbyisthe
is exemplified notsteel
always directly
industry, whichconvertible, especially
is mainly dependent on in certain
coal industrial
or coke, not
only asThis
processes. an energy source but
is exemplified byalso
the for necessary
steel industry,process
whichengineering [13]. In a conventional
is mainly dependent on coal or blast
coke, not
only furnace, coal or source
as an energy coke serves
but as a reducing
also agent, heat
for necessary provider
process and ensures
engineering theIn
[13]. mechanical stability blast
a conventional
of the different layers of coke and iron ore inside the furnace (see also Section 4.1). For the need to
furnace, coal or coke serves as a reducing agent, heat provider and ensures the mechanical stability of
reduce CO2 emissions is particularly acute in steelmaking, as it constitutes one of the most energy-
the different layers of coke and iron ore inside the furnace (see also Section 4.1). For the need to reduce
and carbon dioxide-intensive industrial processes worldwide; Germany, serving as a case study in
CO2 emissions is particularly acute in steelmaking, as it constitutes one of the most energy- and carbon
dioxide-intensive industrial processes worldwide; Germany, serving as a case study in this paper, is no
Energies 2017, 10, 451 3 of 21

exception (see Section 3) [14]. The literature contains many studies that deal with the overall potential of
CO2 reduction in the steel industry in terms of increasing efficiency [15–18]. Fujii and Managi (2015) [19]
for example proposed and measured optimal production resource reallocation using data envelopment
analysis. Their research clarifies the effect of optimal production resource reallocation on CO2 emissions
reduction, focusing on regional and industrial characteristics [19]. Nevertheless, studies that specifically
pertain to alternative processes and the potential to integrate renewable power are lacking.
In a bid to contribute to filling this gap, this study evaluates blast furnace gas recirculation
(BF-GR) [20,21], blast furnace carbon capture (BF-CC) [20,21], the possibility of a higher share of
steelmaking being conducted with electrical arc furnaces (EAFs) [22] and the direct reduction of iron
ore with renewable hydrogen (H-DR) [23] technologies and methods that not only have the potential
to reduce sector CO2 emissions, but also to shift the steel industry’s energy demand away from coal
to other energy carriers that can be provided by renewable energies. Therefore, the objective of the
present study is to determine whether it is possible to integrate renewably-generated power into the
conventional coal-based steel industry via alternative manufacturing technologies or measures and to
analyze the effect on CO2 emissions.
Additionally, the above-mentioned aims of the German Government regarding the simultaneous
reduction of CO2 emissions, as well as electrical power and primary energy demand are also taken
into account and analyzed. As the German Government did not publish particular objectives of CO2
and energy reduction for special sectors or processes, it is assumed at this point that the steel industry
should achieve an 80–95% CO2 reduction on 1990 levels by 2050 and simultaneously a reduction in
electrical power demand by 25% and primary energy demand by 50% against 2008 by 2050. While this
analysis is conducted within the context of Germany, the methodology and data on the technologies
could be applied to similar analyses focused elsewhere, as the steel industry is similarly constructed
around the world (see Section 3).

2. Method and Procedure

To achieve the objectives of the present study, the state-of-the-art conventional method of
steelmaking is first described and its energy demand determined using data from the literature.
On the basis of this data and the specific emission factors of fuels, feedstocks and electrical power,
energy-related emissions are calculated. Emissions arising from plant construction, fuel procurement
and maintenance are not considered. For the calculation of the energy as well as process-related
emissions, only CO2 was included because the greenhouse gas emissions of the relevant energy
carriers consist of 98.8% CO2 and the process emissions of steel manufacturing of CO2 only [24,25].
Secondly, selected measures and alternative processes that have the potential to reduce CO2 emissions
and incorporate renewable energy into the integrated steelworks are considered. These potential
CO2 -reduction technologies were analyzed in the same manner as conventional processes to determine
energy demand and CO2 emissions.
Finally, a comparison of the energy demand and CO2 emissions between the conventional
processes and alternative processes should indicate if it is possible to achieve the emission and energy
consumption reduction aims of the German government, first without (Sections 6.1–6.3) and then with
(Section 6.4) the integration of renewable energies into the steelmaking process. For this comparison,
not only were blast furnaces investigated in isolation, but also connected processes, like coking
plants, sinter production and blast furnace gas utilization processes were analyzed for their energy
demand and CO2 emissions. A detailed outline of the analytical framework can be found in Section 6.
The method used in this study is based on common CO2 and energy balance calculations derived from
data in the literature.
Table 1 shows the CO2 emission factors of the most important energy carriers and gases that are
used for steelmaking. For the analyses of CO2 emissions in Sections 4.1, 4.2, 5.1–5.4 and 6.1–6.3, the
electricity use assumed is based on the German electricity mix from 2012, which had a CO2 emission
factor of 160 kgCO2 /GJ.
Energies 2017, 10, 451 4 of 21

Table 1. CO2 emission factors of fuels, electrical power and feedstocks [4,24,26–28].

Energy Carrier/Gases Description/Assumptions CO2 Emission Factor

Natural gas (NG)
Blast furnace gas (BF gas)
Coke
Hard coal
Coke oven gas (COG)
Basic oxygen furnace gas (BOF gas)
German electricity mix 2012
Energy demand of O2 provision
Oxygen
Energy demand of N2 provided by
Nitrogen
Hydrogen produced through the
η = 84% [29] =>1.190 GJNG /GJH2
steam reforming of natural gas (NG)
Hydrogen produced through water
electrolysis powered by the German
electricity mix 2012
Renewable electrical power
Hydrogen produced by water
electrolysis powered by renewable
electrical power
Synthetic methane produced via
power-to-gas with hydrogen from
water electrolysis powered by
renewable electrical power
- 56 kgCO2 /GJ
- 257.8 kgCO2 /GJ
- 105.0 kgCO2 /GJ
- 94.2 kgCO2 /GJ
- 40.0 kgCO2 /GJ
- 257.8 kgCO2 /GJ
- 160 kgCO2 /GJ
119.2 kgCO2 /tH2
by cryogenic air separation: (powered by the German
0.745 MJel /kgO2 [27] electricity mix 2012)
92.18 kgCO2 /tH2
cryogenic air separation: (powered by the German
0.576 MJel /kgO2 [28] electricity mix 2012)
66.64 kg/GJ
(8000 kgCO2 /tH2 )
119 kg/GJ
η = 70% [4] =>1.428 GJel /GJH2
(27,418 kgCO2 /tH2 )
Used in Section 6.4 only
Only energy-related CO2
0.0 kgCO2 /GJ
emissions are considered
0.0 kg/GJ
η = 70% [4] =>1.428 GJel /GJH2
(0.0 kgCO2 /tH2 )
Electrolyzer: η = 70% [4]
Methanation: η = 80% [4]
=>1.785 MJel /MJCH4
0.0 kg/GJ
Energy demand and CO2
emissions of CO2 provision are
not considered

Two different cases based on the use of hydrogen are also considered. In the first of these,
hydrogen was produced by steam reforming [29], with an energy demand of 1.190 MJNG /MJH2 and
related CO2 emissions of 66.64 kgCO2 /GJH2 , while in the other case it was sourced by water electrolysis
powered by the electricity mix [4] In Section 6.4, which deals with the integration of renewable energies,
it is assumed that electrical power is exclusively provided by renewable sources such as solar cells or
wind turbines. Hence, zero CO2 emissions are assumed because only the energy-related CO2 emissions
are considered in this study. In this case, the CO2 emissions arising from hydrogen provided via
water electrolysis are zero as well. Furthermore, natural gas is substituted by synthetic natural gas,
which is produced by a methanation process that entails the hydrogenation of CO2 , in which the
necessary hydrogen is provided by water electrolysis powered by renewable electricity, as shown in
Figure 1. Since the provision of CO2 is not considered at this point, it is assumed that the CO2 emission
factor of the synthetic methane is also zero. Synthetic methane is considered for heat provision in this
study because it can directly substitute natural gas without a change in the combustion technologies.
At this point, a detailed description of the different technologies is omitted, because this would be
beyond the scope of the present study. More information about the technologies can be found in
Schiebahn et al. [4,5] and Agostinha et al. [29].

3. Global and German Steel Industry

In 2012, the global production of crude steel exceeded 1560 million tons [30], produced mainly in
oxygen blast furnaces (BF-BOF) (70.49%) by iron ore and in EAFs with iron metal scrap (28.62%) [31].
Other crude steel production routes, such as open hearth furnaces (OHF), smelting reduction (SR) or
Energies 2017, 10, 451 5 of 21

directEnergies
reduction (DR)
2017, 10, 451 contributed only a minor portion to this, with a share of less than 1% of the
5 of 21 total
amount produced [31].
direct
In 2012, reduction (DR)manufacturing
crude steel contributed onlyconstituted
a minor portion
5.5%toofthis,
globalwithprimary
a share energy
of less than
demand1% ofandthe was
total amount produced [31].
the source of 8.0% of total global CO2 emissions (data based on Table 2). The largest manufacturer of
In 2012, crude steel manufacturing constituted 5.5% of global primary energy demand and was
crude steel is China, whose share amounts to approximately 47% followed by Japan, the USA, India
the source of 8.0% of total global CO2 emissions (data based on Table 2). The largest manufacturer of
and Russia (see isFigure
crude steel China,2).
whose share amounts to approximately 47% followed by Japan, the USA, India
Although
and Russia (seeproduction
its Figure 2). quantity is relatively low compared to China, Germany is the eighth
largest producer
Althoughinitsthe world (see
production Figure
quantity 2). In 2012,
is relatively lowitcompared
produced to 42.7 million
China, Germany tonsis of
thecrude
eighthsteel,
similar to theproducer
largest global average of 67.67%
in the world produced
(see Figure 2). Inthrough
2012, it the BF-BOF
produced method
42.7 millionand
tons32.32%
of crudeviasteel,
the EAF
route,similar
with atoprimary
the global average
energy of 67.67%
demand of produced
762.76 PJthrough
and COthe 2 BF-BOF
emissions method
of and
57.84 32.32%
million via
tons, the
which
EAF route, with a primary energy demand of 762.76 PJ and CO 2 emissions of 57.84 million tons, which
corresponds to 5.67% of primary overall German energy consumption and 7.01% of German CO2
corresponds
emissions (see Table to 5.67%
2). Theof steel
primary overall German
industry’s energy consumption
manufacturing processes areandthe7.01% of German
most energy- and CO 2
carbon
emissions (see Table 2). The steel industry’s manufacturing processes are the most energy- and carbon
dioxide-intensive in Germany, accounting for approximately 24% of thermal energy demand and 28%
dioxide-intensive in Germany, accounting for approximately 24% of thermal energy demand and
of CO2 emissions in German industry, although this is only “one” product of “millions” [32].
28% of CO2 emissions in German industry, although this is only “one” product of “millions” [32].


China
Japan
 USA
 India
  Russia
 South Korea
 Germany
Brazil
 Ukranine
Italy
 Other



Figure 2. Share of countries in total steel production in 2012 [31]. The ten largest steel manufacturers
Figure 2. Share of countries in total steel production in 2012 [31]. The ten largest steel manufacturers in
in the world (2012). Total global production: 1560 million tons of crude steel.
the world (2012). Total global production: 1560 million tons of crude steel.
Table 2. Data from the year 2012 used for calculation to classify the steel industry.
Table 2. Data from the year 2012 used for calculation to classify the steel industry.
Steel Industry Global Ref. Germany Ref.
Primary energy demand (EJ/a) 559.82 [33] 13.45 [25]
Steel Industry Global Reference Germany Reference
Net power consumption (TWH/a) 22,668 [33] 540 [25]
Primary energy demand (EJ/a)
CO2 emissions (million t/a) 559.82 35,083 [33]
[34] 13.45
818 [35] [25]
Net power consumption (TWH/a) 22,668 [33] 540 [25]
Manufacturing Process Crude Steel
CO2 emissions (million t/a) 35,083 [34] 818 [35]
Output (million t/a) 1560 [30] 42.7 [30]
Manufacturing Process Crude Steel
Average primary energy demand (GJth/tCrude steel) 20.0 [30] 17.88 [36]
Output
Average(million t/a)
CO2 emissions (tCO2/tCrude steel) 1560 1.8 [30][30] 42.7
1.356 [37] [30]
Average primary energy demand (GJth /tCrude steel ) 20.0 [30] 17.88 [36]
Average CO2 emissions (tCO2 /tCrude steel ) 1.8 [30] 1.356 [37]
The above-mentioned CO2 emissions already include process-related emissions. The reduction
of iron ore (Fe2O3) to pig iron, directly with coke (Equation (1)) or indirectly with carbon monoxide
The above-mentioned
(Equation (2)), which is CO 2 emissions
formed already
in situ with include
oxygen insideprocess-related
of oxygen blast emissions. The reduction
furnace (simplified in
Equation (1)), produces reaction-related CO emissions. The specific process-related
of iron ore (Fe2 O3 ) to pig iron, directly with coke (Equation (1)) or indirectly with carbon monoxide
2 emissions are
typically
(Equation 0.588
(2)), tCO2/tis
which iron [35]. in situ with oxygen inside of oxygen blast furnace (simplified in
pig formed

Equation (1)), produces reaction-related

Fe OCO emissions.
+21.5C The specific process-related emissions
→ 2Fe + 1.5CO (1) are
typically 0.588 tCO2 /tpig iron [35].
Fe O + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO (2)

Fe2 O3 + 1.5C → 2Fe + 1.5CO2 (1)

4. Conventional Steelmaking Processes
Fe2 O3 +is3CO
In this section, the steel/iron industry → 2Fe
analyzed, + 3CO2 with a description of conventional (2)
beginning
steelmaking processes using blast furnaces, which is the most energy-intensive part of the
4. Conventional Steelmaking
steelmaking process, Processes
followed by steel production in an electric arc furnace. The SR and DR are not
considered here because these methods
In this section, the steel/iron industry make up only a beginning
is analyzed, negligible proportion of the global
with a description total and
of conventional
steelmaking processes using blast furnaces, which is the most energy-intensive part of the steelmaking
Energies 2017, 10, 451 6 of 21

process, followed by steel production in an electric arc furnace. The SR and DR are not considered here
because these methods make up only a negligible proportion of the global total and are not practiced
in the German steel industry (see Section 3). The second part of this presents an analysis of measures
and alternative processes
Energies 2017, 10, 451 that have the potential to reduce CO2 emissions and integrate a higher
6 of 21share
of renewable energy into steelmaking.
are not practiced in the German steel industry (see Section 3). The second part of this presents an
analysis of measures
4.1. Conventional and alternative
Blast Furnace Route processes that have the potential to reduce CO2 emissions and
integrate a higher share of renewable energy into steelmaking.
Figure 3 schematically displays a typical blast furnace for steelmaking. Before the feedstock iron
ore is4.1.
fedConventional
into the top Blastof Furnace
the blast furnace, it is pretreated in a sinter or pellet plant and mixed with
Route
additives such as limestone (CaCO3 ) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3 )2 ). This mixture of sinter, pellets and
Figure 3 schematically displays a typical blast furnace for steelmaking. Before the feedstock iron
additives
ore is is referred
fed into theto topasofthetheburden. In theitblast
blast furnace, furnace,inthe
is pretreated iron of
a sinter or the
pelletburden,
plant and which
mixed comprises
with a
mixture of hematite
additives such as(Fe 2 O3 ) and
limestone magnetite
(CaCO (Fe3 O4 ),(CaMg(CO
3) and dolomite is reduced and
3)2). Thisthe resulting
mixture iron melted.
of sinter, pellets and For the
separation
additives of is oxygen
referred and
to asiron
the in conventional
burden. In the blast blast furnaces,
furnace, the ironcoke and
of the coal dust
burden, whicharecomprises
typicallya used
as reduction
mixture of agents.
hematite The (Feburden
2O3) andand coke are
magnetite (Fe3fed
O4), into the top
is reduced and ofthetheresulting
furnaceiron in alternating
melted. For thebatches,
separation of oxygen and iron in conventional blast furnaces, coke
while at the same time coal dust and hot air, enriched with oxygen, are injected into the lower part of and coal dust are typically used
as reduction
the furnace agents. 3).
(see Figure TheThe burden
blastand coke are
furnace is afed into the top of
continuously the furnace
operated shaft infurnace
alternatingthatbatches,
works on a
while at the same time coal dust and hot air, enriched with
countercurrent principle. The reducing agents coke and coal react with/burn the oxygen to oxygen, are injected into the lower part
mainly
of the furnace (see Figure 3). The blast furnace is a continuously operated shaft furnace that works
produce carbon monoxide (CO) and heat. The CO reduces the iron ore to metal iron, producing CO2
on a countercurrent principle. The reducing agents coke and coal react with/burn the oxygen to
(Equation (1)). The blast furnace gas leaves the furnace at the top, while the molten metal and slug are
mainly produce carbon monoxide (CO) and heat. The CO reduces the iron ore to metal iron,
collected in the CO
producing hearth at the bottom, where both are discharged at regular intervals. The BF gas, which
2 (Equation (1)). The blast furnace gas leaves the furnace at the top, while the molten
is under pressure (1.25–3.5
metal and slug are collected bar) and
in the still has aatheat
hearth the value,
bottom,iswhere
first expanded over a turbine
both are discharged to recover
at regular
electrical power (18 kWh/t
intervals. The BF gas, which ) and then a portion of it (1.536
pig ironis under pressure (1.25–3.5 bar) and still GJ/t has a heat value, is up
pig iron ) is used to heat the air,
first
which is then led
expanded over to athe furnace.
turbine The main
to recover part ofpower
electrical the BF(18 gaskWh/t
is thereafter
pig iron) andexported
then a to other processes
portion of it
of the(1.536 GJ/tpig ironsteelworks
integrated ) is used to heat up the
[38,39]. The air, which demand
energy is then ledoftoan theaverage
furnace. blast
The main part (see
furnace of theFigure
BF 3)
gas is thereafter exported to other processes of the integrated steelworks
is 15.95 GJ/tpig iron . Considering the export of blast furnace gas (4.719 GJ/tpig iron ), the net energy [38,39]. The energy demand
of an average
requirement is 11.4 blast
GJ/t furnace (see Figure 3) is 15.95 GJ/tpig iron. Considering the export of blast furnace
pig iron . These values include the power demand for the O2 and N2 provision
gas (4.719 GJ/tpig iron), the net energy requirement is 11.4 GJ/tpig iron. These values include the power
via cryogenic air separation, but not the energy demand for coke and burden production, which are
demand for the O2 and N2 provision via cryogenic air separation, but not the energy demand for coke
additional processes and considered in Section 6. For the calculations of the CO2 emissions—through
and burden production, which are additional processes and considered in Section 6. For the calculations
the use of emission
of the factors from Table
CO2 emissions—through 1 and
the use the energy
of emission datafrom
factors fromTable Figure 3—only
1 and the upstream
the energy data fromchain
of N2Figure
and O3—only2 , as well as the used electrical power, are considered.
the upstream chain of N2 and O2, as well as the used electrical power, are considered.

Energy demand per ton of pig iron [39]

Coke 10.303 GJ
Coal dust 4.67 GJ
Net power demand 0.202 GJ
Power demand for N2 and O2 allocation 0.119 GJ
To hot-blast stoves
Natural Gas (NG) 0.213 GJ
Coke oven gas (COG) 0.284 GJ
Oxygen steel furnace gas (BOF gas) 0.168 GJ
Total energy demand 15.95 GJ
Export of blast furnace gas 4.719 GJ
Net energy demand (overall demand minus
11.24 GJ
export of blast furnace gas)
CO2 emissions of the blast furnace per ton of pig iron
Directly from the process 514 kgCO2

Inclusive CO2 in exported BF gas 1099 kgCO2

Data per ton pig iron
Figure 3. Simplified scheme of a blast furnace based on average data from UBA 2012 [39].
Figure 3. Simplified scheme of a blast furnace based on average data from UBA 2012 [39].
The CO2 emissions of the process are 514 kgCO2/tpig iron as a result of burning a part of the BF gas
The kg
(462 COCO2 emissions
2 /t of the process
pig iron) for preheating areand
the air 514the
kgemissions
CO2 /tpig iron as a result
generated of electrical
by the burning power
a part demand
of the BF gas
of CO2
(462 kg the /t
process
pig iron and
) forthe N2 and CO
preheating 2 provision
the air and (51.5
the kg CO2/tpig iron
emissions ). However,
generated by a
thelarge proportion
electrical powerof demand
the
CO , which is formed inside the blast furnace, exits the process in the form
of the process and the N2 and CO2 provision (51.5 kgCO2 /tpig iron ). However, a large proportion of
2 of exported BF gas. The
CO2 concentration in the gas is 21% and when this is also considered in the CO2 balance, CO2
emissions are 1099 kgCO2/tpig iron. Moreover, the process-related CO2 emissions accruing from iron ore
Energies 2017, 10, 451 7 of 21

the CO2 , which is formed inside the blast furnace, exits the process in the form of exported BF gas.
The CO2 concentration in the gas is 21% and when this is also considered in the CO2 balance, CO2
emissions are 1099 kgCO2 /tpig iron . Moreover, the process-related CO2 emissions accruing from iron ore
reduction are already a part of the BF gas. As shown in Figure 3, the largest part of the conventional
blast furnace’s energy demand is provided by coke and coal (94%), hence the integration of renewable
energies to achieve a large reduction of CO2 emissions is not possible.

4.2. Electrical Arc Furnace

In an EAF, materials that contain iron, such as scrap, are melted directly through the use of
electrical power. The resulting product from this process is liquid steel rather than pig iron, as in blast
furnaces. Initially, a natural gas burner assists with the melting process. For process engineering and
metallurgical reasons, oxygen nitrogen and coal are inserted into the liquid steel [39]. The energy
demand and resultant CO2 emissions entailed by the production of one ton of crude steel are shown
in Table 3. The specific energy demand, including the electrical power demand for the provision of
N2 and O2 , is 3.34 GJ/tLS , which is only 30% of blast furnace energy demand. The CO2 emissions are
508 kg/tLS , which also includes the emissions for electrical power (German electricity mix) and N2 ,
O2 provision and process-related CO2 emissions caused by decarburization processes and electrode
burn-off [39].

Table 3. Energy demand (average values based on UBA 2012 [39]) and calculated CO2 emissions of
an EAF.

Energy Demand per Ton of Liquid Steel

Electrical power 2.07 GJ a
Natural gas 0.78 GJ
N2 8 kg (4.6 MJel ) b
O2 50 kg (37.3 MJel ) b
Coal 0.45 GJ
Overall energy demand 3.34 GJ
CO2 Emissions per Ton of Liquid Steel
Process-related: Decarburization
83.9 kg
and electrode burn-off
Total CO2 emissions
508 kg
including N2 and O2 provision
Notes: a German electricity mix (2012); b see also Table 1.

In contrast to blast furnaces, EAFs not only have the potential to reduce CO2 emissions through
lower energy demand, but also through the use of renewable electricity and synthetic methane instead
of natural gas. Therefore, a higher share of steelmaking in EAF is discussed as an alternative means of
CO2 reduction and the integration of renewable energies in Sections 5.3 and 6.

5. Alternative Processes for Steelmaking

In this section, the following selected CO2 -reduction technologies or routes are evaluated for use in
the steel industry: (Section 5.1) Blast furnaces with gas recirculation (BF-GR) [20,21]; (Section 5.2) blast
furnaces with carbon capture capability (BF-CC) [20,21]; (Section 5.3) a higher share of steelmaking
using EAFs at constant steel production volume [22]; and (Section 5.4) the direct reduction of iron
ore using hydrogen as the reduction agent (Circored Process) [23]. These technologies were selected
by the authors because all of them have the potential to reduce a huge amount of CO2 through
the implementation of one measure or technology, and all have already attained commercialization
potential, or are on the verge thereof [20,40]. In addition, these technologies would enable greater
independence from coal, such that energy demand can be met by other, less CO2 -intensive fossil sources
Energies 2017, 10, 451 8 of 21

like natural gas or directly with emission-free renewable sources such as renewable electrical power
or renewable gases like synthetic methane or hydrogen. Furthermore, the CO2 reduction potential of
a higher share of steelmaking in EAFs at constant steel production is also considered in Section 5.3,
because this could lead to a relatively simple reduction in CO2 emissions without the implementation
of new technologies. The analysis of other technologies like the electrochemical cleavage of iron [41]
ore are not considered, because these technologies are still at the basic research stage and unlikely
to be marketable before
Energies 2017, 10, 451 2040 [20]. Furthermore, many possible efficiency measures relating 8 of 21 to the

whole integrated steelworks, which are described in Santos 2013 [21], for example, are not considered,
still at the basic research stage and unlikely to be marketable before 2040 [20]. Furthermore, many
becausepossible
one of efficiency
the targets of thisrelating
measures study isto to
theilluminate technologies
whole integrated andwhich
steelworks, measures that lead
are described in to large
reductions in CO emissions and to determinate the possibility of integrating renewable energies.
Santos 20132 [21], for example, are not considered, because one of the targets of this study is to
illuminate technologies and measures that lead to large reductions in CO2 emissions and to
5.1. Blast Furnace with
determinate Blast Furnace
the possibility Gas Recirculation
of integrating renewable energies.

Figure 4 outlines
5.1. Blast a blast
Furnace with Blastfurnace with
Furnace Gas BF-GR. Ultra-Low Carbon Dioxide Steelmaking (ULCOS),
Recirculation
a consortium of 48 European companies and organizations [41], has developed and evaluated this
Figure 4 outlines a blast furnace with BF-GR. Ultra-Low Carbon Dioxide Steelmaking (ULCOS),
technology [20,21,42,43]. BF-GR is intended as a replacement of air (hot blast) by nearly pure oxygen
a consortium of 48 European companies and organizations [41], has developed and evaluated this
and pretreated
technologyBF gas. At BF-GR
[20,21,42,43]. the pretreatment
is intended as astage, the BF
replacement gas(hot
of air is blast)
separated in pure
by nearly a CO 2 -rich and a
oxygen
CO-rich-gas by vacuum
and pretreated BF gas.pressure swing adsorption
At the pretreatment stage, the BF(VPSA). The CO-rich
gas is separated gasand
in a CO2-rich stream is fed into the
a CO-rich-gas
furnacebyandvacuum
the CO pressure
2 -rich swing
stream, adsorption (VPSA).
which still The CO-rich
contains CO andgas H2stream is fed into
(see Figure theused
5), is furnace
for and
preheating
the COstream.
the CO-rich 2-rich stream, which still contains CO and H2 (see Figure 5), is used for preheating the CO-rich
Due to the recycling of CO to the furnace, coke demand drops by 45% compared
stream. Due to the recycling of CO to the furnace, coke demand drops by 45% compared to the
to the conventional blast furnace (Figure 3).
conventional blast furnace (Figure 3).

Energy demand per ton of pig iron [20,21,42]

Coke 5.64 GJ
Coal dust 4.89 GJ
Total Power consumption inclusive
of N2 and O2 allocation and VPSA;
0.78 GJ
(assumption based on
[20,21,27,39,43])
Hot-blast stoves
Coke oven gas (COG) 0.29 GJ
Total energy demand 11.6 GJ
Export of blast furnace gas 0 GJ
Net energy demand
(overall demand minus export of 11.6 GJ
blast furnace gas)
CO2 emissions of the blast furnace per ton of
pig iron
Directly at the process
(inclusive electrical power 1065 kgCO2
demand)
Data per ton of pig iron VPSA = Vacuum pressure swing adsorption

Figure 4. Simplified scheme of a blast furnace with blast furnace gas recirculation based on average
4. Simplified
Figure data scheme of a blast furnace with blast furnace gas recirculation based on average
from Danloy 2009, Santos 2013 [20,21].
data from Danloy 2009, Santos 2013 [20,21].
The reason for the reduction in coke demand is that CO, as well as coke, can act as a fuel and
reduction agent of iron ore (see Equation (2)). With the help of data from Danloy 2009, Santos 2013
The reason for the reduction in coke demand is that CO, as well as coke, can act as a fuel and
and Danloy 2008 [20,21,42], the net energy demand of the BF-GR, inclusive of the provision of N2 and
reduction
O2, agent of iron ore
was determined to (see Equation
be 11.6 GJ/tpig iron(2)).
. TheWith
reasonthe
forhelp of data from
the reduction in cokeDanloy
demand 2009, Santos
is that CO, as2013 and
Danloywell
2008as[20,21,42], the net energy demand of the BF-GR, inclusive of the provision
coke, can act as a fuel and reduction agent of iron ore (see Equation (2)). With the help of ofdata
N2 and O2 ,
was determined
from Danloy to be 11.6
2009, GJ/t2013
Santos and
pig iron . The
Danloy reason
2008for the reduction
[20,21,42], in cokedemand
the net energy demand of is
thethat CO, as well
BF-GR,
as coke,inclusive
can act of
as the provision
a fuel of N2 andagent
and reduction O2, wasof determined
iron ore (see to Equation
be 11.6 GJ/t(2)). . Although
With
pig iron the help the of
coke
data from
Danloydemand is less than
2009, Santos 2013inandthe Danloy
conventional
2008process, net energy
[20,21,42], the netdemand
energyis demand
slightly higher,
of thebecause
BF-GR,theinclusive
conventional process exports the largest part of the BF gas, which is used in this technology.
of the provision of N2 and O2 , was determined to be 11.6 GJ/tpig iron . Although the coke demand is
Moreover, the electrical energy demand increases due to the lack of power recovery due to BF gas
less than in the conventional
expanding and the additionalprocess,
energynetdemand
energyfordemand
VPSA andis slightly higher,
the higher amount because the conventional
of necessary pure
processoxygen.
exportsThese
the largest part of the BF gas, which is used in this technology.
circumstances lead to the result that CO2 emissions (calculated with the emissionMoreover, the electrical
energy factors
demand increases
of Table 1 anddue
datatofrom
the Figure
lack of4)power
arisingrecovery dueblast
directly from to BF gas expanding
furnaces and the additional
with gas recirculation
(1065 kg/tpig iron) are higher than for the conventional process (514 kg/tpig iron). However, when the CO2
content of the exported BOF gas is also taken into account in the context of the conventional blast
Energies 2017, 10, 451 9 of 21

energy demand for VPSA and the higher amount of necessary pure oxygen. These circumstances
lead to the result that CO2 emissions (calculated with the emission factors of Table 1 and data from
Figure 4) arising directly from blast furnaces with gas recirculation (1065 kg/tpig iron ) are higher than
for the conventional process (514 kg/tpig iron ). However, when the CO2 content of the exported BOF
gas is also taken into account in the context of the conventional blast furnace, the emissions of the blast
furnace with gas recirculation is slightly less (1065 kg/tpig iron vs. 1099 kg/tpig iron ). At this
Energies 2017, 10, 451
point, it
9 of 21
should be pointed out again that the CO2 emissions are only based on the combustions of fuels, and
that CO 2 emissions
furnace, for building
the emissions the facilities
of the blast weregas
furnace with notrecirculation
considered. is The extent
slightly less to which
(1065 kg/tthe complete
pig iron vs.
CO2 1099 kg/tpig iron
reduction ). At thisas
potential, point,
wellitas
should be pointed
the potential toout again that
integrate the CO2 emissions
renewable energy, isare only
due to based on
the reduction
theand
of coke combustions
the lack of of fuels, and that
exported blastCO 2 emissions
furnace for building
gas becomes the facilities
apparent under were not considered.
consideration of the Theentire
extent to
integrated which theprocess,
steelwork completewhich
CO2 reduction potential,
is analyzed as well
in detail as the potential
in Section 6. to integrate renewable
energy, is due to the reduction of coke and the lack of exported blast furnace gas becomes apparent
underFurnace
5.2. Blast consideration of the entire
with Carbon integrated steelwork process, which is analyzed in detail in Section 6.
Capture
Figure
5.2. Blast5Furnace
showswith
a schematic of a blast furnace with BF gas recirculation and carbon capture
Carbon Capture
(BF-CC). Figure
This concept is also developed by ULCOS [21,44]. The main difference to the BF-GR is that
5 shows a schematic of a blast furnace with BF gas recirculation and carbon capture
the BF gas is separated
(BF-CC). This concept byischemical scrubbing
also developed by ULCOSin an almost puremain
[21,44]. The CO2difference
stream (>99.99%)
to the BF-GRandisathat
CO-rich
stream
theis BFled
gasback to the blast
is separated furnace.
by chemical Because
scrubbing in the CO2 -rich
an almost purestream
CO2 stream has (>99.99%)
no heat value, it cannot be
and a CO-rich
usedstream
for preheating
is led backthe CO-rich
to the stream Because
blast furnace. as in the thecase
CO2above (see Figure
-rich stream 4). Therefore,
has no heat value, it cannotnatural
be gas
used
is used forforthepreheating
preheating the ofCO-rich stream as
the stream, as well
in theas case
forabove (see Figurethermal
the additional 4). Therefore,
energy natural
demand gas isof the
used for the unit
CO2 -separation preheating of the stream,
via chemical scrubbing. as well Toas for the
avoid COadditional thermal energy demand of the
2 emissions to the air, the pure CO2 stream
CO 2-separation unit via chemical scrubbing. To avoid CO2 emissions to the air, the pure CO2 stream
must be geologically-stored or used as a feedstock for chemical products or synthetic gases [5,10].
must be geologically-stored or used as a feedstock for chemical products or synthetic gases [5,10].
According to the data on ULCOS (see Figure 5), the coke demand drops to 7.26 GJ/tpig iron , which is
According to the data on ULCOS (see Figure 5), the coke demand drops to 7.26 GJ/tpig iron, which is
30% lower than in the conventional process. The coke drop is not as high as with the BF-GR, because
30% lower than in the conventional process. The coke drop is not as high as with the BF-GR, because
part of the CO-rich stream (1.69 GJ/tpig
part of the CO-rich stream (1.69 GJ/t iron ) is exported. The net energy demand of the blast furnace
pig iron) is exported. The net energy demand of the blast furnace
with with
carboncarboncapture is higher
capture is higher than
thanfor
forboth
boththe the other casesabove
other cases above (Figures
(Figures 3 and
3 and 4) because
4) because of theoflack
the lack
of BFofgas
BFforgaspreheating
for preheatingthe air theor
airthe
or recirculated
the recirculated gas,gas,
andand the the
additional
additional thermal
thermaland electrical
and electricalenergy
demand
energy of the CO2 of
demand separation unit. However,
the CO2 separation the direct
unit. However, theCOdirect
2 emissions
CO 2 from
emissions the
from furnace
the are
furnace very
are low
very low (382 kg /t ) because of the separation of 867 kg /t .
(382 kgCO2 /tpig iron ) because of the separation of 867 kgCO2 /tpig iron . Even taking into account the CO2
CO2 pig iron CO2 pig iron Even taking into account the
COof
content 2 content of the BF
the exported exported
gas, theBFemissions
gas, the emissions
are 392 kgCO2 are /t
392 kgCO2/tpig iron and thus less than in a
pig iron and thus less than in a conventional
blastconventional
furnace andblast furnace The
the BF-GR. and entire
the BF-GR.CO2 The entire CO
reduction 2 reduction potential, due to the reduction
potential, due to the reduction of coke and the
of coke and the less exported BF gas, as well as the potential to integrate renewable energy, becomes
less exported BF gas, as well as the potential to integrate renewable energy, becomes apparent under
apparent under consideration of the entire integrated steelworks, which are analyzed in detail in
consideration of the entire integrated steelworks, which are analyzed in detail in Section 6.
Section 6.

Energy demand per ton of pig iron [21,44]

Coke 7.26 GJ
Coal dust 4.39 GJ
Total power consumption inclusive of N2
1.07 GJ
and O2 allocation and chemical scrubbing
Hot blast stoves
Natural gas (NG) 3.59 GJ
Total energy demand 16.31 GJ
Export of blast furnace gas 1.69 GJ
Net energy demand
(overall demand minus the export of 14.62 GJ
blast furnace gas)
CO2 emissions of the blast furnace per ton of pig
iron
Directly at the process
382 kgCO2
(inclusive power demand)

Data per ton of pig iron Inclusive CO2 in exported BF gas 392 kgCO2

Figure 5. Simplified scheme of a blast furnace with gas recirculation and carbon capture based on
Figure 5. Simplified scheme of a blast furnace with gas recirculation and carbon capture based on
average data from Santos 2009 and UNIDO 2010 [21,44].
average data from Santos 2009 and UNIDO 2010 [21,44].
5.3. A Higher Share of Steelmaking in EAF
As was already shown in Section 4.2, steel manufacturing in an EAF is less energy and CO2-
intensive than in a blast furnace, because iron ore reduction is not necessary due to the use of scrap
as feedstock. In additional, thermal and electrical energy demand can be easily substituted by
Energies 2017, 10, 451 10 of 21

5.3. A Higher Share of Steelmaking in EAF

As was already shown in Section 4.2, steel manufacturing in an EAF is less energy and CO2 -intensive
than in a blast furnace, because iron ore reduction is not necessary due to the use of scrap as feedstock.
In additional, thermal and electrical energy demand can be easily substituted by renewable energies
without changes in technology. Under the assumption that German steel production remains constant,
it would be possible to reduce the energy demand by 12.61 GJ/tS and the CO2 emissions by 507 kg/tS
(related Energies
to the2017,
CO10,
2 emissions
451 of the blast furnace inclusive CO2 content in the BF gas), which 10 of 21is more
produced in an EAF. However, the available quantity of scrap is limited. In the study “climate
renewable
protection scenario energies
2050”,without
which changes in technology.
was conducted Under
on behalf of the
the assumption that German
German Federal steel
Government [22],
production remains constant, it would be possible to reduce the energy demand by 12.61 GJ/tS and
the potential for additional steel production in EAF is limited to 6.1 Mt/a. Furthermore, with respect
the CO2 emissions by 507 kg/tS (related to the CO2 emissions of the blast furnace inclusive CO2 content
to the energy
in the BFand CO
gas), 2 -reduction
which potential
is more produced in mentioned above,
an EAF. However, thethere is aquantity
available broaderofreduction in both due
scrap is limited.
to the lack of coke
In the studyand sinter
“climate as feedstocks.
protection scenarioThese
2050”,effects
which are
was also analyzed
conducted in Section
on behalf of the6.German
Federal Government [22], the potential for additional steel production in EAF is limited to 6.1 Mt/a.
5.4. Direct Reductionwith
Furthermore, of Iron Ore Using
respect Hydrogen
to the energy and (Circored Process)
CO2-reduction potential mentioned above, there is a
broader reduction in both due to the lack of coke and sinter as feedstocks. These effects are also
The Circored process [23,45] produces direct reduced iron briquettes from iron ore fines and uses
analyzed in Section 6.
pure hydrogen as a reduction agent. The first commercial-scale plant has operated in Trinidad since
1999 and5.4.has a capacity
Direct Reduction of 65 t/a.
of Iron During
Ore Using the process,
Hydrogen iron ore fines are dried and heated through
(Circored Process)
the combustion of natural gas at temperatures of up to 850–900 ◦ C. Finally, it is reduced by hydrogen
The Circored process [23,45] produces direct reduced iron briquettes from iron ore fines and
produceduses via natural
pure gasasreforming.
hydrogen a reduction Using hydrogen
agent. The as a reducing
first commercial-scale agent
plant leads tointhe
has operated formation of
Trinidad
since
water (see 1999 and has
Equation (3))arather
capacity of 65CO
than t/a.2During the process,(see
as a byproduct iron ore fines are(2)).
Equation dried and heated through
the combustion of natural gas at temperatures of up to 850–900 °C. Finally, it is reduced by hydrogen
produced via natural gas reforming. Using hydrogen as a reducing agent leads to the formation of
Fe2 O3 + 3H2 → 2Fe + 3H2 O (3)
water (see Equation (3)) rather than CO2 as a byproduct (see Equation (2)).
The product of the Circored processFeis O not+pig
3H iron,
→ 2Febut+ 3H O iron sponge in the form of(3)
a solid briquettes
or fines withThea metallization
product of the Circored process is not pig iron, but a solid iron sponge in the form of EAF to
of approximately 95%, which can be added to the charge of an
producebriquettes
steel. The reason
or fines withfor the reduction
a metallization of the iron ore
of approximately 95%,fines bycan
which hydrogen
be addedistothe the products
charge of of the
Circored process contain no carbon. Therefore, an injection of coal into the iron bath of products
an EAF to produce steel. The reason for the reduction of the iron ore fines by hydrogen is the the EAF is also
of the
necessary forCircored process contain
metallurgical reasons, noparticularly
carbon. Therefore,
when anthe
injection
chargeof coal intoEAF
of the the iron
hasbath of thehigher
a share EAF than
is also necessary for metallurgical reasons, particularly when the charge of the EAF has a share higher
40% of direct reduction iron [45]. Figure 6 shows a simplified scheme of the Circored process and the
than 40% of direct reduction iron [45]. Figure 6 shows a simplified scheme of the Circored process
subsequent treatment of iron sponge in EAF. The data on the Circored process are from Elmquist 2002
and the subsequent treatment of iron sponge in EAF. The data on the Circored process are from
and Nubert 20062002
Elmquist [23,45],
and while,
Nubertfor the[23,45],
2006 EAF part, thefor
while, samethe values
EAF part,as for
thethesameconventional
values as for process
the were
used. An additionalprocess
conventional amount wereof used.
coal (0.574 GJ/tLS )amount
An additional is alsoofassumed
coal (0.574and
GJ/tisLS)needed for injection
is also assumed and isinto the
needed
iron bath for injection
to achieve into the
a carbon iron bath
content to achieve
of 2% a carbon
and 100% chargecontent of 2% and
of sponge iron100%
in charge
the EAF. of sponge
iron in the EAF.

Circored process [23,45] Electric arc furnace (EAF)

Energy demand per 1.03 ton of hot briquetted iron (HBI) Energy demand per ton of liquid steel
Electrical power 0.46 GJ Electrical power 2.07 GJ
Natural gas for heat provision 5.62 GJ Natural gas 0.78 GJ
Natural gas for H2 provision 8.31 GJ (58.17 kgH2)a N2 8 kg (4.6 MJel) a
- - O2 50 kg (37.3 MJel) a
- - Coal 1.024 GJ b
Total energy demand 14.39 GJ Total energy demand 3.91 GJ
Total energy demand of the Circored process + EAF 18.3 GJ/tLS
Total CO2 emissions of the Circored process + EAF (including N2 and
1.206 kgCO2/tLS
O2 provision inclusive of process-related emissions (83.9 kg/t))

Figure 6. Simplified scheme of the Circored process connected with an electrical arc furnace.
Simplified schemesee ofTable
the Circored process connected a For
Figure 6.
a For more information, 1. b Additional coal to achieve 2%with ancontent
carbon electrical arcand
in steel furnace.
100%
more information, see Table b
charge of sponge iron in1.the Additional
EAF. coal to achieve 2% carbon content in steel and 100% charge
of sponge iron in the EAF.
The energy demand of the Circored process, together with the following EAF process, is 18.3 GJ/tLS
and the corresponding CO2 emissions are 1.206 kg/tLS. Both the total energy demand and CO2 emissions
are higher than for pig iron manufacturing in the conventional blast furnace (15.95 GJ/tpig iron,
Energies 2017, 10, 451 11 of 21

The energy demand of the Circored process, together with the following EAF process, is
18.3 GJ/tLS and the corresponding CO2 emissions are 1.206 kg/tLS . Both the total energy demand
and CO2 emissions are higher than for pig iron manufacturing in the conventional blast furnace
(15.95 GJ/tpig iron , 1099 kgCO2 /tpig iron ) inclusive CO2 in exported BF gas, (see Figure 3). However, the
Circored process has the advantage that no energy-intensive upstream processes such as a coke oven
are necessary and no CO2 -intensive gases like BF gas are exported. The effects on energy demand and
CO2 emissions of the whole integrated steelworks with the use of fossil against renewable energies is
also discussed in Section 6.

5.4.1. Direct Reduction of Iron Ore with Hydrogen from Electrolysis

In the Circored process, the requisite hydrogen is produced from natural gas by an external steam
reformer (Section 5.4). It is also possible that the hydrogen is produced by water electrolysis. However
in the case that the electrical energy demand of 12.5 GJ/tLS (Table 4) is provided by the German
electricity mix and only the heat is provided by natural gas, the CO2 emissions total 2407 kg/tLS , which
are two-times higher than in the case with hydrogen production via the steam reforming of natural
gas. Furthermore, the energy demand is higher due to the lower efficiency of the electrolyzer (η = 70%)
compared to a steam reformer (η = 84) (Table 1).
To achieve a major reduction in CO2 emissions, it is necessary that the electrical power is fully
supplied by renewable sources. In this case, the CO2 emissions are only 409 kg/tLS and thus much
lower than for the process via hydrogen from steam reforming. A further reduction in CO2 could be
achieved with the substitution of natural gas by synthetic methane for heat supply (Section 6.4).

Table 4. Energy demand and CO2 emissions of the Circored process connected to an EAF for the
hydrogen production via water electrolysis.

Circored Process [23,45]

Energy demand per 1.03 tons of hot briquetted iron (HBI)
Electrical power for plant operation 0.46 GJ [23,45]
Electrical power for hydrogen production 9.97 GJ (58.17 kgH2 ) a
Natural gas for heat provision 5.62 GJ [23,45]
Overall energy demand 16.05 GJ
Total energy demand inclusive of further processing in EAF 19.96 GJ
CO2 emissions per ton of liquid steel (Circored process + EAF)
CO2 emissions using electrical power from the German electricity mix
2407 kg
and natural gas for the heat supply
CO2 emissions using renewable electrical power and natural gas for the
409 kg
heat supply
CO2 emissions using renewable electrical power and synthetic methane
94 kg
for the heat supply
Note: a Efficiency of the electrolyzer = 70%.

6. Evaluation of Alternative Processes under Consideration for the Integrated Steelworks

In the first part of this section, a balancing area of the most important processes in an average
conventional integrated steelworks is defined. An example of the procedure and basic conditions for
the evaluation of the alternative processes (see Section 5) is then defined in the context of the integrated
steelworks outlined. In the second part, the effects on energy demand and CO2 emissions, first by
the use of conventional fossil fuels and the German electricity mix, and then with the integration of
renewable energy sources, are investigated.
Energies 2017, 10, 451 12 of 21

6.1. Definition of the Reference Case

The reference case of the conventional integrated steelworks, which is shown in Figure 7, was
defined by the authors with the help of data from Sun 2012, UBA 2014 and Hensmann 2010 [25,35,46]
and Section 4.1. The parts considered are the coke oven, sinter plant, blast furnace, a power plant
for house requirements and export, as well as heat generation for export. The oxygen furnace is not
considered a reason for the relatively low energy demand compared to the other processes, as well as
for simplification of the balance area. Further processes in the integrated steelworks are considered with
the export of heat and electricity over the balance area beyond. In the defined integrated steelworks
(Figure 7), the incoming energy flows comprise coal and natural gas for the coke oven, sinter plant and
Energies 2017, 10, 451 12 of 21
blast furnace.
Because
with the coke demand
the export of heat and in electricity
Germanyover is not
the completely
balance area produced
beyond. In theby defined
own coking plants, coke
integrated
steelworks (Figure 7), the incoming energy flows comprise coal and
imported as an energy input is also part of the balance area. The energy flows inside the integratednatural gas for the coke oven,
sinter plant and blast furnace.
steelworks are shown in Figure 7. For example, the coke oven uses BF gas as an energy input, but
Because the coke demand in Germany is not completely produced by own coking plants, coke
exports coke ovenasgas
imported (COG)
an energy to the
input hotpart
is also stoves
of theof the blast
balance area.furnace.
The energyThe blast
flows furnace
inside and coke oven
the integrated
internallysteelworks
produceare moreshown gasinthan is 7.
Figure needed.
For example, the coke oven uses BF gas as an energy input, but
The exports
surplus coke
gasoven gas (COG)
is used to the hotpower
to generate stoves ofandthe blast
heatfurnace. The blast
for export furnace
to other and coke
parts oven
of the integrated
internally produce more gas than is needed.
steelworks, for example rolling mills, or to the public power or heating grid. As shown in Figure 7,
The surplus gas is used to generate power and heat for export to other parts of the integrated
0.5 GJ electrical
steelworks, power and 3.9rolling
for example GJ heat per
mills, or ton
to theofpublic
pig iron
powerareorexported.
heating grid. The
AsCO 2 emissions
shown in Figure considered
7,
are also shown
0.5 GJ electrical power and 3.9 GJ heat per ton of pig iron are exported. The CO2 emissions coke
in Figure 7. For example, during the production of 10 GJ coke, the oven emitted
considered
165 kgCO2are
/tpig
alsoiron . All in
shown emissions
Figure 7. Forthat are inside
example, during of the
theproduction
balance are attributed
of 10 to coke
GJ coke, the pig iron
oven production.
emitted The
165 kg CO2/tpig iron. All emissions that are inside of the balance are attributed to pig iron production.
CO2 emissions of the exported power and heat are divided into two parts. All CO2 emissions that exceed
The CO2 emissions of the exported power and heat are divided into two parts. All CO2 emissions that
the German power mix or heat provision by natural gas are included in the pig iron production, because
exceed the German power mix or heat provision by natural gas are included in the pig iron
the high CO 2 emission
production, factor
because theofhigh
the CO
BF2gas (Table
emission 1) leads
factor of theto
BFheat and power
gas (Table 1) leadswith a very
to heat high CO
and power with2 footprint.
Witha respect
very hightoCO the balance area considered, the production of one ton of pig iron has a total energy
2 footprint.

demand of 19.18 With GJ;respect to the balance

however, 4.4 GJarea
are considered,
exported in thethe
production
form ofofelectrical
one ton ofpower
pig ironandhas heat.
a total The CO2
energy demand of 19.18 GJ; however, 4.4 GJ are exported in the form of electrical power and heat.
emissions that relate to the balance area are 1732 kgCO2 /tpig iron and the remaining 299 kg CO2 /tpig iron
The CO2 emissions that relate to the balance area are 1732 kgCO2/tpig iron and the remaining 299 kg CO2/tpig iron
relates torelates
the exported energy
to the exported thatthat
energy is not attributed
is not attributed to thebalance
to the balance area.
area.

Figure 7. Defined balancing area of the integrated steelworks using data from Sun 2012, UBA 2014
Defined
Figure 7. and balancing
Hensmann area ofand
2010 [25,35,46] theSection
integrated
4.1. Allsteelworks
data relatingusing data fromofSun
to the production 2012,
a ton of pigUBA
iron. 2014 and
Hensmann 2010 [25,35,46] and Section 4.1. All data relating to the production of a ton of pig iron.
6.2. Example of the Procedure and Basic Conditions
6.2. Example of
In the
thisProcedure
section, theand Basic of
influences Conditions
the alternative processes on the integrated steelworks are shown
in Figure 8 for the case that the blast furnace is equipped with a BF-GR (Section 5.1). Through the BF gas
In this section, the
recirculation, cokeinfluences
demand drops of the alternative
by 45% comparedprocesses on the blast
to the conventional integrated
furnace.steelworks
Assuming thatare shown
in Figurethe8 for
cokethe caseisthat
import first the blast furnace
terminated (in order is
to equipped withofaown
use the capacity BF-GR (Section
plants) leads to 5.1). Through
a reduction of the BF
coke oven coke
gas recirculation, production
demand of 31%. The by
drops reduction of coke production
45% compared leads in turn to blast
to the conventional less production
furnace. of
Assuming
COG, which is used for heat and power production. Under the condition that the export of electrical
that the coke import is first terminated (in order to use the capacity of own plants) leads to a reduction
power and heat out of the balance area is constant, the lack of COG must be replaced by a substitute
of coke oven production
like natural gas. of 31%. The reduction of coke production leads in turn to less production of
COG, which is used for heat and power production. Under the condition that the export of electrical
power and heat out of the balance area is constant, the lack of COG must be replaced by a substitute
like natural gas.
Energies 2017, 10, 451 13 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 451 13 of 21

Figure 8. Considered balancing area of the integrated steelworks with a blast furnace with BF gas
Considered
Figure 8. recirculation balancing area of the integrated steelworks with a blast furnace with BF gas
using data from Sun 2012, UBA 2014 and Hensmann 2010 [25,35,46] and Section 5.1. All
recirculation using data from Sun
data relate to the production of a2012, UBA
ton pig iron. 2014 and Hensmann 2010 [25,35,46] and Section 5.1.
All data relate to the production of a ton pig iron.
Furthermore, the blast furnace with BF-GR does not have a gas export. As a result, this missing
gas has also been replaced by a substitute gas (Figure 8). The electrical power that is generated in the
Furthermore,
integrated power the blast plantfurnace
and usedwithwithinBF-GR does
the balance areanot have
is also kepta constant.
gas export. As a of
The saving result, this missing
electrical
gas has also been
power replaced
at the coke oven byisaused
substitute
to cover thegashigher
(Figure 8). The
electrical electrical
power demand power that
of the blast is generated
furnace with in the
BF gas recirculation. The part that cannot be covered by this power
integrated power plant and used within the balance area is also kept constant. The saving of electrical is provided by the German
electricity mix (0.45 GJel/tpig iron).
power at the coke oven is used to cover the higher electrical power demand of the blast furnace with BF
The changes in the energy demand of the blast furnace and coke oven, as well as the additional
gas recirculation.
energy demandpart
The that
for the cannotofbe
provision thecovered
substitutebyfuelsthis power
to assure is provided
a constant export by the German
of electrical power electricity
mix (0.45 GJ GJtelpig
(0.5el/ iron)).
/tpigiron and heat (3.9 GJth/tpig iron), yields a total energy demand of 19.01 GJ/tpig iron. This figure
is approximately
The changes in the energy as high asdemand
the energy ofdemand
the blastof the conventional
furnace and cokeintegrated
oven,steelworks,
as well as butthe
theadditional
energy input shifts from coal to natural gas and a higher share of electrical power. This opens up the
energy demand for the provision of the substitute fuels to assure a constant export of electrical
options to meeting the energy demand with either conventional energy carriers or completely by
power (0.5renewables.
GJel /tpigEven iron ) ifand heat
natural gas(3.9
andGJ /tpig iron
thethGerman ), yields
electricity mixa are
total energy
used, the COdemand
2 emissionsof of19.01
the GJ/tpig
iron. Thisbalance
figurearea is are
approximately
1336 kgCO2/tpig ironas
andhigh
henceas23%
thelower
energythan indemand of the
the reference caseconventional
of the integratedintegrated
steelworks,steelworks.
but the energy Therefore, as already
input shiftsmentioned
from coalabove, the effect
to natural gasofandthe aCO 2 reduction potential by
higher share of electrical power.
alternative technologies is only apparent by considering the integrated steelworks in its entirety,
This opensespecially
up the because optionsthetoisolated
meeting the energy demand with either conventional
analysis in Section 5 could create the impression that the energy
energy carriers
or completely by renewables. Even if natural gas and the German
demand and CO2 emissions of the blast furnace with BF gas recirculation are higher than for electricity mix are used,
the the CO2
emissions conventional
of the balance process.
area are 1336 kgCO2 /tpig iron and hence 23% lower than in the reference case
of the integrated steelworks. Therefore, as already mentioned above, the effect of the CO2 reduction
6.3. Alternative Processes with Conventional Energy Provision
potential by alternative technologies is only apparent by considering the integrated steelworks in
According to the same method as described in Section 6.2, the other alternative processes
its entirety, especially because the isolated analysis in Section 5 could create the impression that the
(Section 5) were analyzed with consideration to the integrated steelworks. Figure 9 shows on the left
energy demand
side the and
total CO 2 emissions
energy demand andofonthetheblast furnace
right side, with
the CO BF gasforrecirculation
2 emissions the productionare higher
of 27.048 t than for
the conventional
of pig ironprocess.
by means of the conventional blast furnace and alternative processes. The production
volume correlates with the amount produced in German blast furnaces in 2012 [35]. Pig iron
production
6.3. Alternative was chosen
Processes as a basis for the
with Conventional comparison
Energy because the idea of this study is to replace the
Provision
blast furnace as the most energy-intensive part of steelmaking, even if processes such as the Circored
According
process to thedirectly
or EAF same produce
method as Figure
steel. described in Section
9 also shows 6.2, thein the
energy demand otheryearalternative
2008 and CO2 processes
(Section 5) were analyzed with consideration to the integrated steelworks. Figure 9 2012
emissions from the year 1990. These values were extrapolated with the help of data from showsandon the left
the corresponding years [21,25]. Total energy demand has decreased by 8% since 2008 and CO2
side the total energy demand and on the right side, the CO2 emissions for the production of 27.048 t of
emissions by 30% since 1990. The values of 2008 and 1990 were added to address one target of the
pig iron bystudy,
means of the
namely conventional
to indicate whether blast furnace
it is possible and alternative
to achieve processes.
a reduction in The demand
electrical power production
by volume
correlates 25%
withand theprimary
amount produced
energy demand in German
by 50% againstblast
2008 furnaces
by 2050 andinsimultaneously
2012 [35]. Pig GHGiron production was
emissions
chosen as by 80–95%
a basis foragainst 1990 by 2050. because
the comparison Therefore, the
the relative
idea ofchange of fuelisdemand
this study to thethe
to replace alternative
blast furnace as
processes is also shown in Figure 9.
the most energy-intensive part of steelmaking, even if processes such as the Circored process or EAF
directly produce steel. Figure 9 also shows energy demand in the year 2008 and CO2 emissions from
the year 1990. These values were extrapolated with the help of data from 2012 and the corresponding
years [21,25]. Total energy demand has decreased by 8% since 2008 and CO2 emissions by 30% since
1990. The values of 2008 and 1990 were added to address one target of the study, namely to indicate
whether it is possible to achieve a reduction in electrical power demand by 25% and primary energy
demand by 50% against 2008 by 2050 and simultaneously GHG emissions by 80–95% against 1990
by 2050. Therefore, the relative change of fuel demand to the alternative processes is also shown in
Figure 9.
Energies 2017, 10, 451 14 of 21

Energies 2017, 10, 451 14 of 21

In Figure 9, the bars of the energy demand of the alternative processes are divided into three
In Figure
different kinds 9, the bars
of energy of the
input. energy
Firstly, demand of the
conventional alternative
fuels that areprocesses
needed forare the
divided into three
process; secondly,
different kinds of energy input. Firstly, conventional fuels that are needed for the process;
additional electrical power, which is not covered by the integrated power plants; and thirdly, the fuel secondly,
additional
that is needed electrical
to replacepower, which
missing is notand
COG covered by the
BF gas integrated
to keep power plants;
the power and production
and heat thirdly, the fuel
output
that is needed to replace missing COG and BF gas to keep the power and heat production output of
of the integrated steelworks constant (see Sections 6.1 and 6.2). In a similar manner, CO2 emissions
the integrated steelworks constant (see Sections 6.1 and 6.2). In a similar manner, CO2 emissions
(Figure 9, right side) are divided into three different types, namely CO2 emissions from fuel combustion,
(Figure 9, right side) are divided into three different types, namely CO2 emissions from fuel
process-related
combustion,emissions and indirect
process-related emissions
emissions through
and indirect the use
emissions of electrical
through the usepower from the
of electrical German
power
power gird.
from the German power gird.

Change of 80
-8% -10% +5% -20% +5% -35%
fuel demand -1%
66.9 Mt

CO2 emissions, Mt/a

800
+22% 60
Energy demand, PJ/a

+15%
+8% -30%
600 566 PJ -41%
-8% -8%
40 -46% -46%
-18%
400
-68%
20
200
0
1990 2012 1 2 3 4 5
0 Cases
2008 2012 1 2 3 4 5
Cases Case 2: 23.45 Mt/a CO2 are separated
Fuel Substitute fuel (NG) Electrical power Process related
Cases
Defined integrated steelworks (see Section 6.1) with:
2008: Conventional blast furnace in 2008 only for comparison of the energy demand
1990: Conventional blast furnace in 1990 only for comparison of the CO2 emissions
2012: Conventional blast furnace in 2012
1: Blast furnace with blast furnace gas recirculation (see Section 5.1)
2: Blast furnace with blast furnace gas recirculation and carbon capture (see Section 5.2)
3: Reduced conventional blast furnace production and 6.1 Mt/a more steel production by EAF (see Section 5.3)
4: Circored process with EAF using hydrogen produced by natural gas (see Section 5.4)
5: Circored process wit EAF using hydrogen produced by electrolysis (see Section 5.4.1)

Figure 9. Energy demand and CO2 emissions depending on the considered cases.
Figure 9. Energy demand and CO2 emissions depending on the considered cases.
Case 1: Blast Furnace with Gas Recirculation
Case 1: Blast Furnace with Gas Recirculation
The energy demand of the conventional integrated steelworks in 2012 (corresponding to the
definition
The energy in Section
demand 6.1 of
andthe
defined as case 2012),
conventional as well as steelworks
integrated steelworks with a BF-GR
in 2012 (see Section 5.1),
(corresponding to the
definition in Section 6.1 and defined as case 2012), as well as steelworks with a BF-GR (seeconsists
is 8% lower than in 2008. However, in the case with BF gas recirculation, the energy demand Section 5.1),
is 8%of not only
lower thanfuels such However,
in 2008. as coke, butinalso
the electrical
case withpower and
BF gas a relatively high
recirculation, amount demand
the energy of substitute
consists
fuel to ensure power and heat generation for own use and export. Thus, the missing BF gas is replaced
of not only fuels such as coke, but also electrical power and a relatively high amount of substitute fuel
by a substitute fuel (natural gas) with a lower emission factor, achieving a CO2 reduction of 46% on
to ensure power and heat generation for own use and export. Thus, the missing BF gas is replaced by
1990. However, the saving in fuel is relatively low, with 10% against 2008 and additional power from
a substitute
the gridfuel (natural gas) with a lower emission factor, achieving a CO2 reduction of 46% on 1990.
needed.
However, the saving in fuel is relatively low, with 10% against 2008 and additional power from the
Case 2: Blast Furnace with Blast Furnace Gas Recirculation and Carbon Capture
grid needed.
In Case 2 (Figure 9), when the blast furnace is equipped with a BF gas recirculation and CO2
Case separation
2: Blast Furnace with 5.2),
(see Section Blasttotal
Furnace
energyGas Recirculation
demand andthan
is 8% higher Carbon Capture
in 2008, but as a reason for the
separation of 23.45 MtCO2/a and simultaneous reduction of coke, the CO2 emissions are 68% lower
In Case 2 (Figure 9), when the blast furnace is equipped with a BF gas recirculation and CO2
than in 1990. Moreover, the remaining BF gas, which is used for heat and power production, has a
separation (see Section 5.2), total energy demand is 8% higher than in 2008, but as a reason for the
lower emission factor due to the lower CO2 concentration as a reason for the CO2 separation (see
separation
Figure of
5).23.45
As inMtCO2 /a
Case andsubstitution
1, the simultaneous reduction
of GF of coke,gas
gas by natural thealso
COleads
2 emissions are 68%inlower
to a reduction
than in 1990. Moreover,
CO2 emissions. the remaining BF gas, which is used for heat and power production, has a lower
emission factor due to the lower CO2 concentration as a reason for the CO2 separation (see Figure 5).
As in Case 1, the substitution of GF gas by natural gas also leads to a reduction in CO2 emissions.
Energies 2017, 10, 451 15 of 21

Case 3: Reduced Conventional Blast Furnace Production and 6.1 Mt/a More Steel Production by EAF
The production of 6.1 million tons more steel per year in an EAF instead of a blast furnace (see
Section 5.3) leads to a total energy reduction of 18% and a reduction in fuel demand of 20% against
2008 (Figure 9). The slight increase in electrical power demand is caused by the EAF itself, which needs
four-times more electrical power for the production of one ton of steel/pig iron than the integrated
steelworks that use a conventional blast furnace. Nevertheless, the CO2 emissions are 41% lower than
in 1990. In this case, it is also assumed that the power plant produces a constant amount of electricity
for export and own use, as well as a constant amount of heat. It is for this reason that substitute fuel is
still needed.

Case 4: Circored Process with EAF Using Hydrogen Produced by Natural Gas
In Case 4 (Figure 9), the iron ore is reduced by hydrogen via the Circored process, followed by
further processing in an EAF (see Section 5.4). The necessary hydrogen is produced by the steam
reforming of natural gas. Although the sinter plant, coke oven and conventional blast furnace are not
necessary, the total energy demand increases by 15% and fuel demand, inclusive of substitute fuel, by
5%. The higher energy demand is primarily due to the hydrogen supply. Nevertheless, it is possible
to achieve a CO2 reduction of 46% against 1990, because the main part of the energy is provided by
natural gas instead of coal or BF gas. Nevertheless, the process is not free of process-related CO2
emissions, because these kinds of emissions occur during the steam reforming of natural gas for
hydrogen production.

Case 5: Circored Process Wit EAF Using Hydrogen Produced by Electrolysis

From a technical point of view, Case 5 is very similar to Case 4 (see above), but as shown in
Figure 9, the kind of energy used and the resulting CO2 emission levels are very different. In Case 5,
the energy demand is dominated by electrical power for hydrogen production via electrolysis (see
Section 5.4.1). In spite of a reduction of fuel demand by 35% against 2008, the total energy demand is
higher because of the high demand for electrical power. As a result of the relatively high CO2 footprint
of the German electricity mix, CO2 emissions are only 1% lower than in the year 1990, but higher than
in 2012.

6.4. Alternative Processes with the Integration of Renewable Power

In this section, as already suggested above, the feasibility and influence of insertion of renewable
electrical power for the same cases as in Section 6.3 are investigated. At the conventional steelworks,
coke is not only used as an energy carrier, but is also necessary for the correct operation of the blast
furnace, because coke is also a reducing agent and responsible for the gas permeability and stability
of the layers inside the furnace and cannot be easily replaced. The alternative processes are less
dependent on coke, but more dependent on electrical power and a substitute fuel for COG and BG gas
to ensure electricity and heat export beyond the balance limit (see Figures 7 and 9).
Although in Section 6.3 and Figure 9 natural gas is used to ensure the production of electricity, at
this point synthetic natural gas is not used to substitute this part of the natural gas. The reason for this
is that from an energetic point of view, it makes no sense to convert electrical power into synthetic
methane and directly back into electrical power unless the synthetic methane is used as a large energy
storage medium for excess power from fluctuating renewable sources (see Section 1). Since the focus
of the present study is on the integrated steelworks and not on a possible energy supply system for
Germany, it is assumed that the missing output of the power plant, due to the lack of BF and COG
gas, is directly replaced by renewable electrical power without the detour via synthetic methane or
the methanation process. However, the provision of heat is still based on gas, which is substituted by
synthetic methane. The impact on energy demand and CO2 emissions through the use of renewable
electricity, either directly or via synthetic methane or hydrogen, is shown in Figure 10.
Energies 2017, 10, 451 16 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 451 16 of 21

Change of 80
-9% -36% -27% -28% -95% -95%
fuel demand
1200 66.9 Mt

CO2 emissions, Mt/a

+79% 60

Energy demand, PJ/a

1000
+56% -31%
800 40 -47%
+19%
566 PJ -2%
600 -7.5% -61%
-20% 20
400 -82%
-95% -95%
200 0
1990 2012 1 2 3 4 5
0 Cases
2008 2012 1 2 3 4 5
Cases Case 2: 23.45 Mt/a CO2 are separated
Fuel Electrical power for H2 and CH4 provision Electrical power Process related
Cases
Defined integrated steelworks (see Section 6.1) with:
2008: Conventional blast furnace in 2008 for the comparison of energy demand
1990: Conventional blast furnace in 1990 for the comparison of CO2 emissions
2012: Conventional blast furnace in 2012
1: Blast furnace with gas recirculation (see Section 5.1)
2: Blast furnace with gas recirculation and carbon capture (see Section 5.2)
3: Reduced conventional blast furnace production and 6.1 Mt/a more steel production by EAF (see Section 5.3)
4: Circored process with EAF using hydrogen produced by natural gas (see Section 5.4)
5: Circored process with EAF using hydrogen produced by electrolysis (see Section 5.4.1)

Figure 10. Energy demand and CO2 emissions of the different cases using as much renewable electrical
Figure 10. Energy demand and CO2 emissions of the different cases using as much renewable electrical
power as possible directly and indirectly for the provision of synthetic methane and hydrogen.
power as possible directly and indirectly for the provision of synthetic methane and hydrogen.
Figure 10 also shows for this case the potential to integrate renewable power. It is only possible
to substitute
Figure 10 also a relatively
shows forsmall this amount
case theofpotential
natural gas (0.214 GJ/trenewable
to integrate pig iron) by synthetic
power. methane
It is onlyused in to
possible
the coke oven and sinter plant. All other energy carriers are not replaceable
substitute a relatively small amount of natural gas (0.214 GJ/tpig iron ) by synthetic methane used in by renewables, because
they are a conversion product of the coal used and must be burned for heat and electrical power
the coke oven and sinter plant. All other energy carriers are not replaceable by renewables, because
generation. Given the electricity demand for the production of synthetic methane (see also Table 1)
they are a conversion product of the coal used and must be burned for heat and electrical power
and a production volume of 27 Mt pig iron per year, 5.8 PJ of natural gas could be replaced with 2.86 TWh
generation. Givenelectricity
of renewable the electricity
in the demand for the
conventional production
process. of synthetic
This would lead to anmethaneincrease (see also
of 0.5% ofTable
energy 1) and
a production
demand and volume
a COof 27 Mt pig
2 reduction of iron
only per
one year, 5.8(compare
percent PJ of natural
Figures gas9 andcould 10).be replaced with 2.86 TWh
of renewable electricity
In Cases 1–5, thein the conventional
integration of renewableprocess.
energy This would lead
technologies hadto an increase higher
a significantly of 0.5% of energy
impact
demand and a CO2 reduction of only one percent (compare Figures 9 and 10).
on CO 2 emissions. In Cases 4 and 5, a CO 2 reduction of 95% against 1990 is achievable. However, the
total
In energy
Cases demand
1–5, increased of
the integration byrenewable
79% and 56%, respectively,
energy so higher
technologies hadthan in the use of higher
a significantly conventional
impact on
energy sources
CO2 emissions. (see Figure
In Cases 4 and 9),
5, abecause the provision
CO2 reduction of 95% of against
synthetic1990 methane has an electrical
is achievable. However, energy
the total
demand of 1.785 MJ el/MJCH4. Furthermore, at this point Case 4 does not make sense, because the
energy demand increased by 79% and 56%, respectively, so higher than in the use of conventional
necessary hydrogen is first produced via electrolysis and then converted into methane, and finally
energy sources (see Figure 9), because the provision of synthetic methane has an electrical energy
reconverted into hydrogen. This leads to a higher energy demand than in Case 5, where hydrogen is
demand of 1.785 MJel /MJCH4 . Furthermore, at this point Case 4 does not make sense, because the
directly used. In both cases, the energy demand is almost completely covered by renewable power,
necessary
and sohydrogen
the higheris energy
first produced
demand of viaCase
electrolysis
4 has noand then converted
influence on CO2 emissions,into methane,
resultingand in finally
a
reconverted into hydrogen. This leads
reduction of 95% against 1990 in both cases. to a higher energy demand than in Case 5, where hydrogen is
directly used.
Only inInCase
both2cases,
does the theenergy
energy demand
demand is almost
decrease completely
compared covered
to the results by renewable
in Section 6.3, becausepower,
and so
thethe higher
direct useenergy demand
of renewable of Case
power 4 has
instead ofno influencegas
a substitute on CO
bypasses2 emissions, resulting
the efficiency in aofreduction
losses the
power
of 95% againstplant.
1990 in both cases.
Only in Case 2 does the energy demand decrease compared to the results in Section 6.3, because
7. Discussion
the direct use of renewable power instead of a substitute gas bypasses the efficiency losses of the
Table 5 summarizes the different cases, with and without the integration of renewable power
power plant.
sources (Sections 6.3 and 6.4). Even with the conventional energy supply, a significant reduction of
CO2 is possible through the use of alternative technologies. The only exception is Case 5, which
7. Discussion
presents the Circored process that uses hydrogen produced by electrolysis. In this case, only CO2
Table 5 summarizes
emissions are 1% less the
thandifferent cases, with and
those of conventional without
integrated the integration
steelworks of renewable
in 1990, because power
the high
sources (Sections 6.3 and 6.4). Even with the conventional energy supply, a significant reduction
of CO2 is possible through the use of alternative technologies. The only exception is Case 5, which
presents the Circored process that uses hydrogen produced by electrolysis. In this case, only CO2
Energies 2017, 10, 451 17 of 21

emissions are 1% less than those of conventional integrated steelworks in 1990, because the high
electricity demand is provided by the German electricity mix. However, this case achieves the highest
reduction in fuel demand, because the main share of the energy demand is supplied by electrical
power. The greatest CO2 reduction using conventional fuels is achievable by using a blast furnace
with blast furnace gas recirculation and carbon capture (Case 2, −68%). However, in this case the
gross reduction is lower, because 23.45 MtCO2 per 27 Mtpig iron are separated, which must be further
treated to prevent it from entering the atmosphere, such as by means of geological storage, even if
such storage is legally limited to 4 Mt/a in Germany [47]. Nevertheless, in countries such as Germany,
the separated CO2 can be reused as a feedstock in the chemical industry [10] or for the production of
synthetic methane. In all analyzed cases, the CO2 (−80 to −95% vs. 1990) and energy reduction targets
(electrical power −25% and primary energy demand −50% vs. 2008) of the German government (see
Section 1) are not achievable by using conventional energy carriers. In all cases, the electrical power
demand increases. Only in Case 2 (a higher share of EAF) is a relatively high reduction of CO2 emissions
and a simultaneous reduction in energy demand achievable, because steel production in the integrated
steelworks decreases and the additional production in EAFs needs less energy and emitted less CO2 .
In addition, the technical effort is relatively low compared to the other alternative processes, and
so the production of more steel in an EAF can lead to a significant reduction in CO2 and energy saving
in the steel industry in the short term. However, the availability of scrap is limited, so that other
technologies are also necessary to achieve further CO2 reductions.

Table 5. Changes in thermal and electrical energy demand of the conventional steelworks in 2012 and
the steelworks with alternative processes against 2008, as well as the changes in terms of CO2 emissions
towards 1990, with and without the integration of renewable energies.

Results with Conventional Energy Provision Results with Integration of Renewable Energies

Case Electrical Energy Electrical Energy

Fuel Demand CO2 Emissions Fuel Demand CO2 Emissions
Demand against Demand against
against 2008 against 1990 against 2008 against 1990
2008 2008
2012
(Conventional 0 TWh −8% −30% +3 TWh −9% −34%
steelworks in 2012)
1
(Blast furnace with gas +3 TWh −10% −46% +54 TWh −36% −61%
recirculation)
2
(BF gas recirculation +6 TWh +5% −68% +72 TWh −27% −82%
with CO2 separation)
3
(Reduced conventional
blast furnace production +3 TWh −20% −41% +12 TWh −28% −47%
and 6.1 Mt/a more steel
production by EAF)
4
(Direct reduction of iron
+16 TWh +5% −46% +274 TWh −95% −95%
ore with H2 produced by
steam reforming)
5
(Direct reduction of iron
+90 TWh −35% −1% +237 TWh −95% −95%
ore with H2 produced by
electrolysis)

The application of alternative technologies not only has the potential to reduce CO2 emissions,
but also opens a way to using renewable energy sources instead of coal, so that the effect of CO2
reduction can be increased. With the integration of renewable energies, either directly by electrical
power or indirectly by synthetic methane or hydrogen as a reduction agent, CO2 emissions significantly
decrease in all cases (see Table 5). Both the Circored processes (Cases 4 and 5) and the integration
of a blast furnace with BF gas recirculation and CO2 separation achieve the CO2 reduction targets
of the German government. At the same time, the fuel demand decreases by 82–95% against 2008.
As already mentioned above, by using renewable power sources, Case 4 does not make sense, because
Energies 2017, 10, 451 18 of 21

the necessary hydrogen can be delivered directly by an electrolyzer without additional methanation
and reforming steps, which only leads to unnecessary additional energy demand (Figure 10).
Nevertheless, the huge reduction in fuel demand leads to a strong additional demand for electrical
power for heat (via synthetic methane) and hydrogen provision, which is contrary to the electrical
power saving targets of the German government. Apart from this, the required renewable electrical
energy demand (237 TWh) is higher than that generated (194 TWh) in Germany in 2015 [48]. This,
along with the high present cost of synthetic methane and hydrogen [4], are from today's perspective
a factor that makes instant implementation implausible. However, in numerous studies, such as
Sternberg 2015, Robinius 2015, ETG-Task-Force 2012, DLR 2012 and Prognos AG 2012, about the
future energy system in Germany, it is assumed that both the massive expansion of renewable power
generation and the availability of large quantities of excess power will also lead to a reduction in
costs [8,49–53]. Through the use of alternative technologies for steelmaking, future energy systems
could also be supported because the released power generation capacity of the integrated steelworks
could be used as backup power to ensure security of supply in a strong share of fluctuating renewable
energies for power generation.

8. Conclusions and Outlook

This study demonstrates that it is possible to reduce CO2 emissions by up to 95% through
the integration of renewable electrical power into the currently coal-based steel industry by using
alternative technologies. Both the possibility to integrate renewable power and CO2 reduction is mainly
achieved by an increase or complete discontinuation of coal or the resulting BF gas, which is usually
burned for power and heat production in order to avoid release into the atmosphere. With less or no BF
gas production, there is an opportunity to use lower-emission fossil fuels or even renewable energies for
heat and electricity provision. The latter would allow the coupling of renewable electricity and the steel
industry, which could also be seen as “Power-to-Steel”. However, to achieve the CO2 reduction targets of
the German government in the steel industry, a major extension of renewable electrical power generation
is necessary for providing the processes with energy. Thereby, a large reduction in CO2 emissions would
only be enabled by an increase in electrical power demand and a simultaneous reduction of both is
not possible. Nevertheless, the mere substitution of steel production in blast furnaces with the direct
reduction via hydrogen could reduce current CO2 emissions in Germany by about 5%.
Further questions that must be resolved are, for example, how the integration of renewable
energies and hydrogen into the steel-making process can be introduced, such as through a specific
subsidy regime or by considering carbon pricing. Nevertheless, steel is an internationally-traded
product and must therefore be cost-competitive, which necessitates concerted international action.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Helmholtz Association under the Joint Initiative
“EnergySystem 2050—A Contribution of the Research Field Energy”. Additionally, it was performed in the
frame of the TESA (Technology based energy systems analysis) Seed Fund financed by JARA Energy (Jülich
Aachen Research Alliance Energy) to promote science and research at German universities and research units.
Author Contributions: Alexander Otto and Martin Robinius proposed the research topic and the structure of
the paper. Alexander Otto designed the model and analyzed the results. Martin Robinius and Aaron Praktiknjo
added the context of sector coupling. Martin Robinius took care of the reviewer comments. Thomas Grube and
Sebastian Schiebahn took part in validating the idea. Detlef Stolten took part in validating the idea and revising
the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2017, 10, 451 19 of 21

Abbreviations
Abbreviations and symbols
BF-CC Blast furnace with carbon capture
BF gas Blast furnace gas
BF-GR Blast furnace gas recirculation
BOF gas Basic Oxygen Furnace gas
CaCO3 Limestone
CaMg(CO3 )2 Dolomite
CH4 Methane
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
COG Coke oven gas
DR Direct reduction
EAF Electrical arc furnace
Fe2 O3 Hematite
Fe3 O4 Magnetite
H2 Hydrogen
η Efficiency
HBI Hot briquetted iron
H-DR Direct reduced iron with hydrogen as reduction agent
IEA International Energy Agency
N2 Nitrogen
NG Natural gas
OHF Open hearth furnaces
SR Smelting reduction
ULCOS Ultra-Low Carbon Dioxide Steelmaking
VPSA Vacuum pressure swing adsorption
Subscripts
el Electrical
LS Liquid steel
S Steel
th Thermal

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