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DESENTRALISASI Pengukuran Kinerja Di Organisasi Yang Terdesentralisasi
DESENTRALISASI Pengukuran Kinerja Di Organisasi Yang Terdesentralisasi
yang terdesentralisasi
Materi Akuntansi Manajemen
Dr.Reschiwati.SE.MM.Ak.CA
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 2
Decentralization in Organizations
May be a lack of
coordination among
autonomous
Lower-level managers managers.
may make decisions
without seeing the
“big picture.” Disadvantages of
Decentralization
Lower-level manager’s
objectives may not
be those of the May be difficult to
organization. spread innovative ideas
in the organization.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 3
Cost, Profit, and Investments Centers
Cost, profit,
and investment
centers are all
known as Responsibility
Center
responsibility
centers.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 4
Cost Center
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 5
Profit Center
Revenues
A segment whose
Sales
manager has control
Interest
over both costs and
Other
revenues,
Costs
but no control over
investment funds. Mfg. costs
Commissions
Salaries
Other
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 6
Investment Center
Corporate Headquarters
A segment whose
manager has control
over costs, revenues,
and investments in
operating assets.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 7
Responsibility Centers
Investment
Centers Superior Foods Corporation
Corporate Headquarters
President and CEO
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 11
Decentralization and Segment Reporting
An Individual Store
Quick Mart
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 12
Superior Foods: Geographic Regions
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 13
Superior Foods: Customer Channel
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 14
Keys to Segmented Income Statements
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 15
Identifying Traceable Fixed Costs
No computer No computer
division means . . . division manager.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 16
Identifying Common Fixed Costs
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 17
Traceable Costs Can Become
Common Costs
Time
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 19
Traceable and Common Costs
Traceable Common
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 20
Activity-Based Costing
Activity-based costing can help identify how costs
shared by more than one segment are traceable to
individual segments.
Assume that three products, 9-inch, 12-inch, and 18-inch pipe, share 10,000
square feet of warehousing space, which is leased at a price of $4 per square
foot.
If the 9-inch, 12-inch, and 18-inch pipes occupy 1,000, 4,000, and 5,000 square
feet, respectively, then ABC can be used to trace the warehousing costs to the
three products as shown.
Pipe Products
9-inch 12-inch 18-inch Total
Warehouse sq. ft. 1,000 4,000 5,000 10,000
Lease price per sq. ft. $ 4 $ 4 $ 4 $ 4
Total lease cost $ 4,000 $ 16,000 $ 20,000 $ 40,000
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 21
Levels of Segmented Statements
Webber, Inc.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 22
Levels of Segmented Statements
Our approach to segment reporting uses the
contribution format.
Income Statement Cost of goods
Contribution Margin Format sold consists of
Television Division variable
Sales $ 300,000 manufacturing
Variable COGS 120,000 costs.
Other variable costs 30,000
Fixed and
Total variable costs 150,000
variable costs
Contribution margin 150,000
are listed in
Traceable fixed costs 90,000
separate
Division margin $ 60,000
sections.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 23
Levels of Segmented Statements
Our approach to segment reporting uses the
contribution format.
Income Statement
Contribution Margin Format Contribution margin
Television Division is computed by
Sales $ 300,000 taking sales minus
Variable COGS 120,000 variable costs.
Other variable costs 30,000
Total variable costs 150,000
Segment margin
Contribution margin 150,000 is Television’s
Traceable fixed costs 90,000 contribution
Division margin $ 60,000 to profits.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 24
Levels of Segmented Statements
Income Statement
Company Television Computer
Sales $ 500,000 $ 300,000 $ 200,000
Variable costs 230,000 150,000 80,000
CM 270,000 150,000 120,000
Traceable FC 170,000 90,000 80,000
Division margin 100,000 $ 60,000 $ 40,000
Common costs
Net operating
income
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 25
Levels of Segmented Statements
Income Statement
Company Television Computer
Sales $ 500,000 $ 300,000 $ 200,000
Variable costs 230,000 150,000 80,000
CM 270,000 150,000 120,000
Traceable FC 170,000 90,000 80,000
Division margin 100,000 $ 60,000 $ 40,000
Common costs 25,000
Common costs should not
Net operating be allocated to the
income $ 75,000 divisions. These costs
would remain even if one
of the divisions were
eliminated.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 26
Traceable Costs Can Become
Common Costs
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 27
Traceable Costs Can Become
Common Costs
Product
Lines
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 28
Traceable Costs Can Become
Common Costs
Income Statement
Television
Division Regular Big Screen
Sales $ 200,000 $ 100,000
Variable costs 95,000 55,000
CM 105,000 45,000
Traceable FC 45,000 35,000
Product line margin $ 60,000 $ 10,000
Common costs
Divisional margin
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 30
External Reports
The Financial Accounting Standards Board now requires
that companies in the United States include segmented
financial data in their annual reports.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 31
Omission of Costs
Product Customer
R&D Design Manufacturing Marketing Distribution Service
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 32
Inappropriate Methods of Allocating Costs
Among Segments
Failure to trace
costs directly Inappropriate
allocation base
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 33
Common Costs and Segments
Common costs should not be arbitrarily allocated to segments
based on the rationale that “someone has to cover the
common costs” for two reasons:
1. This practice may make a profitable business segment appear
to be unprofitable.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 34
Quick Check
Income Statement
Hoagland's
Lakeshore Bar Restaurant
Sales $ 800,000 $ 100,000 $ 700,000
Variable costs 310,000 60,000 250,000
CM 490,000 40,000 450,000
Traceable FC 246,000 26,000 220,000
Segment margin 244,000 $ 14,000 $ 230,000
Common costs 200,000
Profit $ 44,000
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 36
Quick Check
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 38
Quick Check
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 40
Allocations of Common Costs
Income Statement
Hoagland's
Lakeshore Bar Restaurant
Sales $ 800,000 $ 100,000 $ 700,000
Variable costs 310,000 60,000 250,000
CM 490,000 40,000 450,000
Traceable FC 246,000 26,000 220,000
Segment margin 244,000 14,000 230,000
Common costs 200,000 20,000 180,000
Profit $ 44,000 $ (6,000) $ 50,000
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 42
Learning Objective 2
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 44
Return on Investment (ROI) Formula
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 45
Net Book Value vs. Gross Cost
Acquisition cost
Less: Accumulated depreciation
Net book value
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 46
Understanding ROI
Net operating income
ROI =
Average operating assets
Net operating income
Margin =
Sales
Sales
Turnover =
Average operating assets
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 48
Increasing ROI – An Example
Regal Company reports the following:
Net operating income $ 30,000
Average operating assets $ 200,000
Sales $ 500,000
Operating expenses $ 470,000
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 49
Increasing ROI – An Example
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 50
Investing in Operating Assets to Increase
Sales
Assume that Regal's manager invests in a $30,000
piece of equipment that increases sales by
$35,000, while increasing operating expenses
by $15,000.
Regal Company reports the following:
Net operating income $ 50,000
Average operating assets $ 230,000
Sales $ 535,000
Operating expenses $ 485,000
ROI = $50,000 ×
$535,000
$535,000 $230,000
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 52
Criticisms of ROI
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 53
Learning Objective 3
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 54
Residual Income - Another Measure of
Performance
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 55
Calculating Residual Income
Residual
income
=
Net
operating -
income
(
Average
operating
assets
Minimum
required rate of
return
)
This computation differs from ROI.
ROI measures net operating income earned relative
to the investment in average operating assets.
Residual income measures net operating income
earned less the minimum required return on average
operating assets.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 56
Residual Income – An Example
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 57
Residual Income – An Example
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 58
Motivation and Residual Income
Residual income encourages managers to
make profitable investments that would
be rejected by managers using ROI.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 59
Quick Check
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 60
Quick Check
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 62
Quick Check
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 64
Quick Check
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 66
Quick Check
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 68
Divisional Comparisons and Residual
Income
The residual
income approach
has one major
disadvantage.
It cannot be used
to compare the
performance of
divisions of
different sizes.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 70
Zephyr, Inc. - Continued
Recall the following Assume the following
information for the Retail information for the Wholesale
Division of Zephyr, Inc. Division of Zephyr, Inc.
Retail Wholesale
Operating assets $ 100,000 $ 1,000,000
Required rate of return × 20% 20%
Minimum required return $ 20,000 $ 200,000
Retail Wholesale
Actual income $ 30,000 $ 220,000
Minimum required return (20,000) (200,000)
Residual income $ 10,000 $ 20,000
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 71
Zephyr, Inc. - Continued
The residual income numbers suggest that the Wholesale Division outperformed
the Retail Division because its residual income is $10,000 higher. However, the
Retail Division earned an ROI of 30% compared to an ROI of 22% for the
Wholesale Division. The Wholesale Division’s residual income is larger than the
Retail Division simply because it is a bigger division.
Retail Wholesale
Operating assets $ 100,000 $ 1,000,000
Required rate of return × 20% 20%
Minimum required return $ 20,000 $ 200,000
Retail Wholesale
Actual income $ 30,000 $ 220,000
Minimum required return (20,000) (200,000)
Residual income $ 10,000 $ 20,000
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 72
Learning Objective 4
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 73
The Balanced Scorecard
Financial Customers
Performance
measures
Internal Learning
business and growth
processes
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 74
The Balanced Scorecard: From
Strategy to Performance Measures
Performance Measures
Financial What are our
Has our financial financial goals?
performance improved?
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 78
The Balanced Scorecard and Compensation
Incentive compensation should be linked to
balanced scorecard performance
measures.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 79
The Balanced Scorecard ─ Jaguar Example
Profit
Financial
Contribution per car
Internal
Business Number of Time to
options available install option
Processes
Customer satisfaction
with options Satisfaction
Increases
Number of Time to
options available install option
Employee skills in
installing options
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 82
The Balanced Scorecard ─ Jaguar Example
Profit
Results
Contribution per car Contribution
Increases
Customer satisfaction
with options Satisfaction
Increases
Number of Time to
options available install option Time
Decreases
Employee skills in
installing options
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 83
The Balanced Scorecard ─ Jaguar Example
Results
Profit Profits
Increase
If number
Contribution per car Contribution
of cars sold Increases
and contribution
Cars Sold
per car increase, Number of cars sold
Increases
profits
increase. Customer satisfaction
with options
Number of Time to
options available install option
Employee skills in
installing options
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 84
Transfer Pricing
Appendix 12A
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 86
Three Primary Approaches
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 87
Learning Objective 5
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 88
Negotiated Transfer Prices
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 89
Grocery Storehouse – An Example
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 90
Grocery Storehouse – An Example
The selling division’s (West Coast Plantations) lowest acceptable transfer
price is calculated as:
Variable cost Total contribution margin on lost sales
Transfer Price +
per unit Number of units transferred
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 91
Grocery Storehouse – An Example
If West Coast Plantations has sufficient idle capacity (3,000 crates) to
satisfy Grocery Mart’s demands (1,000 crates), without sacrificing
sales to other customers, then the lowest and highest possible
transfer prices are computed as follows:
Selling division’s lowest possible transfer price:
$ -
Transfer Price $10 + = $ 10
1,000
Buying division’s highest possible transfer price:
Transfer Price Cost of buying from outside supplier = $ 20
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 95
Transfers at the Cost to the Selling Division
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 96
Transfers at Market Price
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 97
Divisional Autonomy and Suboptimization
The principles of
decentralization suggest
that companies should
grant managers autonomy
to set transfer prices and
to decide whether to sell
internally or externally,
even if this may
occasionally result in
suboptimal decisions.
This way top management
allows subordinates to
control their own destiny.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 98
Service Department Charges
Appendix 12B
Operating Service
Departments Departments
Do not directly
Carry out central
engage in
purposes of
operating
organization.
activities.
To provide operating
To encourage
departments with
operating departments
more complete cost
to wisely use service
data for making
department resources.
decisions.
Whenever possible,
variable and fixed
service department costs
should be charged
separately.
Variable service
department costs should be
charged to consuming departments
according to whatever activity
causes the incurrence
of the cost.
Budgeted variable
and fixed service department
costs should be charged to
operating departments.
Actual hours
Actual hours
Percent of
Peak-Period
Capacity Miles Miles
Hospitals Required Planned Used
Mercy 45% 15,000 16,000
Northside 55% 17,000 17,500
Total 100% 32,000 33,500
Allocating fixed
costs using a variable Result
allocation base.
Fixed costs
allocated to one
department are
heavily influenced by
what happens in
other departments.
Using sales
dollars as an
allocation base. Result
Sales of one department
influence the service
department costs
allocated to other
departments.
Departments
New Used Parts Total
Sales by department $ 1,500,000 $ 900,000 $ 600,000 $ 3,000,000
Percentage of total sales 50% 30% 20% 100%
Allocation of service
department costs $ 40,000 $ 24,000 $ 16,000 $ 80,000
Departments
New Used Parts Total
Sales by department $ 2,000,000 $ 900,000 $ 600,000 $ 3,500,000
Percentage of total sales 57% 26% 17% 100%
Allocation of service
department costs $ 45,714 $ 20,571 $ 13,714 $ 80,000