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ISSN 1062-8738, Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences: Physics, 2019, Vol. 83, No. 1, pp. 97–103. © Allerton Press, Inc., 2019.
Russian Text © M.E. Mazurov, 2019, published in Izvestiya Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, Seriya Fizicheskaya, 2019, Vol. 83, No. 1, pp. 113–120.

Physical Mechanisms and Properties of Tornadoes

M. E. Mazurov*
Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Moscow, 117997 Russia
*e-mail: mazurov37@mail.ru

Abstract—Many well-known types of tornado (e.g., atmospheric (air), electric, fire, dust, liquid (water), and
snow) are classified according to their substrates and shapes. Known tornado theories are also given. In this
work, a model of a tornado is proposed in which it is a structure that arises in the active medium of a thun-
dercloud, where concave spiral autowaves that transfer energy excite vortices that travel into the environment.
An exact analytical solution is given to the vortex regimes of the Navier—Stokes equation for a tornado model.
The results from computer modeling of rotational concave spiral autowaves that excite a tornado vortex are
given. The satisfactory nature of the proposed model with regard to the set of basic properties of a tornado
and the variety of its characteristic properties is shown.

DOI: 10.3103/S1062873819010155

INTRODUCTION CLASSIFYING TORNADOES

A twister—also called a tornado—is a mysterious
and enigmatic natural phenomenon of tremendous
destructive power. A tornado is usually considered an
atmospheric phenomenon in which a vortex forms
during a thunderstorm and is accompanied by rain or
hail [1–9].
Cyclones and typhoons [8, 9] can also result in
mass destruction. They are atmospheric structures
that usually originate in tropical regions, have consid-
erable lengths of hundreds of kilometers, and are capa-
ble of generating vortex structures and hurricane-force
winds. Below, we consider vortex structures of the tor-
nado type only.
A number of tornado classifications and a wide
variety of tornado types are known. It is natural that a
tornado be classified according to the substrate of
which it consists. The following types of tornadoes can
be distinguished according to the vortex substrate:
(1) atmospheric (air); (2) electrical; (3) fire; (4) dust;
(5) liquid (water); and (6) snow. There are others as
well, e.g., smoke, steam, and fog. Tornadoes that dif-
fer by substrate are shown in Fig. 1.
Let us consider the classification of atmospheric
tornadoes according to shape, where air masses are the
substrates: (1) whiplike and thin; (2) columnar;
(3) barrel-shaped and shaggy; and (4) composite. In

(а) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 1. Tornadoes differ in their substrates: (a) an atmospheric (air) tornado; (b) an electric tornado; (c) a fire tornado; (d) a dust
tornado; (e) a liquid (water) tornado; (f ) a snow tornado.

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98
(а)
(d)
Fig. 2. Air tornadoes: (a) a whip-like tornado; (b) a columnar tornado; (c) a barrel-shaped tornado; (d–f) composite tornadoes.
the last category, several additional vortices are usually
very powerful and rotate around one vortex.
Tornadoes can be created artificially. Artificial tor-
nadoes will therefore be considered a specific class to
be discussed in more detail later. This class allows us to
visualize how tornadoes emerge, and to explain their
properties.
KNOWN TORNADO THEORIES
Some known tornado theories are given below:
(1) Self-organization in the mathematical model-
ing of highly nonequilibrium and nonlinear processes
[10–13].
(2) The model of tornadogenesis in which espe-
cially disturbed parts of the atmosphere, where the
distortion of the electric field reaches critical values
[10–13], play an important role in the formation of a
tornado.
(3) The separation of electric charges. The accu-
mulation of electric charges in the atmosphere is
accompanied by their separation according to polarity
and is uneven for a number of reasons, including ones
that remain poorly studied and not understood. It has
also been established that tornadogenesis depends
directly on the development of thunderstorm pro-
cesses with exceptional power [10–13].
(4) The emergence of a set of internal waves [13]. It
is assumed the existence of a tornado is due to great
amounts of internal lightning. It has been shown that
a stream of electromagnetic energy can circulate in a
tornado, so the energy produced by a tornado during
electrical discharges can be stored. The generation of
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MAZUROV
(b) (c)
(e) (f)
lightning and its possible connection with torna-
dogenesis was discussed in [14–18].
(5) Mesoscale turbulence, based on the simple idea
that a small vortex (an element of a turbulent meso-
structure) obeys its own dynamics as an object rotating
with a spin speed in accordance with Newton’s law for
a finite body [19, 20]. Three dimensional visualization
that is topologically equivalent to a tornado’s form can
be obtained.
(6) V.S. Politov’s dynamic gas structure of a tor-
nado, based on the concept of a tornado as a swirling
flow of atmospheric air with an axis of symmetry per-
pendicular to the Earth’s surface [21]. A characteristic
feature of this is the rotational motion of a thunder-
cloud’s particles in the paraxial region. Rotational
motion is transferred from the paraxial region of the
initial vortex to the atmospheric air below it, due to
internal friction. There are a number of other works
devoted to swirling vortices and their applications [22].
PROPOSED STRUCTURAL MODEL
OF A TORNADO
Let us consider the definition of a tornado given
below:
A tornado is a structure that occurs in an inhomo-
geneous active medium where excited self-oscillating
concave spiral autowaves that transfer energy excite
vortices that escape into the environment.
It can be said that an atmospheric tornado is a self-
oscillating system that is in the active medium of a
thundercloud and generates periodic concave spiral
autowaves which transfer energy (CSATE) and create
large-scale atmospheric vortices. The generation of
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PHYSICAL MECHANISMS AND PROPERTIES OF TORNADOES 99

CSATEs in active media on the periphery of a region

was described in [23–28]. A structural diagram of a
tornado according to the proposed model is shown in
Fig. 3.
H1
According to the above definition of a tornado’s D1 D2
Thundercloud
structure, the specific properties of an atmospheric Active region that forms
tornado are determined by the active medium (the rotating concave waves
thundercloud and the substrate of a vortex). Start of a mother
vortex-forming region H

z Vortex ring of dust

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF A TORNADO and splinters
x
Let us consider a mathematical model of a tor- 1 km

nado’s active medium. Systems of nonlinear differen-

tial equations of the parabolic type are usually used in
synergetics to describe an active medium:
∂Vi Fig. 3. Structural diagram of a tornado. On the left is the
= Fi (V1,...,Vn ) + Di ΔVi (i = 1,..., n), (1) view of a tornado and a thundercloud from below; on the
∂t picture is the view of the structural model from below.
where Vi represents variables; Fi , nonlinear functions; D1, H1 are the diameter and height of the active region;
and Di , coefficients of diffusion. D2, H1 are the diameter and height of the mother region;
H is the altitude of the thundercloud above the ground.
∂V ∂V ∂V
2 2 2
ΔVi = 2i + 2i + 2i . In this work, we consider a
∂x ∂y ∂z 
system of two equations, where υ = (V1,...,Vn ) is the vector field of velocities;
∂V1 ∂V2 p is pressure; ∇ is a Hamiltonian operator; Δ is a
= F1(V1,V2 ) + D1ΔV1, = F2(V1,V2 ) + D2 ΔV2. Laplace operator; t is time; ν is the coefficient of kine-
∂t ∂t 
matic viscosity; ρ is density; and f is the vector field of
The FitzHugh—Nagumo equations were used as mass forces. Boundary and initial conditions are
the model of an active medium in our computer exper-
added to the Navier–Stokes equations:
iment:
  
dV1 V
3 υ ∂Ω = 0, υ t =0 = υ0.
= V1 − 1 − V2 + I + D1ΔV1;
dt 3 The vortex solutions to the Navier–Stokes equa-
dV2
= ε(a − V1 + bV2 ) + D2ΔV2, tions are calculated for the circular area in which the
dt parent region of the vortex is approximated. In numer-
where V x , V y are the components of velocity; I, a, b, ical modeling, the solutions are combined for the
and ε are parameters (a = 0.7, b = 0.8, I = 0.142); and active medium and the boundary of the circular area.
D1, D2 are the coefficients of diffusion.
In this mathematical model, the vortex funnel of a INITIAL CONDITIONS FOR EXCITATION
tornado is excited by concave spiral autowaves that OF CIRCULAR ROTATIONAL MOTIONS
transfer energy (CSATEs). CSATEs are periodic cir- OF AN ACTIVE MEDIUM
cular self-oscillatory motions in the active medium of
the considered model. CSATEs excite vortex move- In a two-dimensional domain, Eq. (1) has an
ments of air and the formation of a tornado funnel due infinitely large number of solutions that differ topo-
to bonds caused by viscosity. Below, we use the logically. A specific solution from their infinitely large
Navier—Stokes equations, which describe the motion number can be found using specially selected initial
of a viscous liquid and gas in hydrodynamics, to show
mathematically how the vortex funnel of a tornado conditions or external influences [29]. For example,
forms. They form a system of partial differential equa- two or more oppositely directed winds, or the collision
tions that describes the motion of a viscous Newtonian of two air masses with different temperatures and
liquid. The system consists of two equations (one of humidities, are additional factors in the emergence of
motion and one of continuity). They are written in a rotating structure. The initial conditions for the gen-
vector form for an incompressible liquid [30–32]: eration of circular autowaves in the active medium
     were discussed in [29], which was devoted to their
∂υ = −(υ ⋅ ∇)υ + νΔυ − 1 ∇p + f , occurring in human atria. The initial conditions for
∂t ρ the generation of circular autowaves have much in

∇ ⋅ υ = 0, common for active media of different types.

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100
D2
Vr
VM Vz
Z most suitable for a conceptual study of spiral waves.
Fig. 4. Formation of an atmospheric vortex in the mother
region of a thundercloud, according to the precise analyti-
cal solution to the Navier–Stokes equations obtained by
G.I. Kiknadze and G.K. Krasnov in [30, 31]. D2, H1 are
the diameter and height of the mother region; H is the alti-
tude of a thundercloud above the ground.
EXACT ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS
FOR THE VORTEX OF A TORNADO
The vortex of a tornado rotates in the mother
region due to CSATEs in the active medium and cov-
ers the surface of the cylindrical mother region shown
in Fig. 3. As was shown in [30, 31], the Navier—Stokes
equation for the considered cylindrical mother region
has an exact analytical solution that can be written as
Vr = −C0(t )r, Vz = 2C0(t )z + C1(τ),
Г 0(t )   −C0(t )r 2 
Vϕ = 1 − exp   ,
2πr   2ν 
where C0(t ) = − Vr R is an arbitrary function that
depends on time and determines the compression of
the stream (s−1); Г 0(t ) is an arbitrary function that
depends on time and determines the circulation of the
stream (m2 s−1); C1(t ) is an arbitrary function that
depends on time and determines the value of Vz in
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MAZUROV
plane Z = 0 at time t (m2 s−1); and ν is the kinematic
viscosity (s/m2).
These exact analytical solutions can be given the
geometric interpretation shown in Fig. 4.
Solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations can be
found through a computer experiment using specific
parameters included in the FitzHugh–Nagumo and
Navier–Stokes equations.
CONCAVE SPIRAL AUTOWAVES
THAT TRANSFER ENERGY
Let us consider in more detail the generation of
concave spiral autowaves that transfer energy and are
needed to rotate an atmospheric vortex. To do so, we
shall use the model of autowave processes in active
media that was given in [23–28].
The formation of a concave spiral autowave that
transfers energy is impossible in a uniform two-
dimensional region. A nonuniform circular area bro-
ken into rings was used for a specific instance of a
CSATE. A system of two nonlinear partial differential
equations (the FitzHugh–Nagumo equation [32]) was
used to describe the active environment for CSATE
generation. These equations are known to be the ones
The FitzHugh–Nagumo equation’s parameters in
each ring were selected in such a way as to ensure the
velocity of propagation for each ring that is needed for
the formation of a concave autowave. This velocity
must slow as the outer and inner diameters of the ring
contract. A non-excitable region of small diameter is
created in the center of the ring, since the velocity of
propagation must slow as the diameter of the nonex-
citable region contracts. If the diameter tends to zero,
the velocity must also fall to zero; i.e., when
d → 0  v → 0. This is impossible if there is no non-
excitable region (e.g., a circle of small diameter). The
velocities of autowaves in the rings must therefore slow
as they approach the center. For an area with, e.g., five
rings, we have V5 < V4 < V3 < V2 < V1.
Below, we present the results from a computer
experiment on the creation of a concave wave in a cir-
cular inhomogeneous active medium using the
FitzHugh–Nagumo equations. The velocity of propa-
gation of the autowave falls from the periphery to the
center. The concave autowave is shown in Fig. 5.
Excitation in a given area can spread only if there is
a circular excitation at the boundary of the area. The
active medium can be nonexcitable inside the bound-
ary ring. The excitation in the middle of the region
attenuates inside the boundary ring if there is no exci-
tation near the edge of the region, or if it ceases after a
time. Such an unusual mode of excitation was
achieved in a computer experiment (see Fig. 6).
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PHYSICAL MECHANISMS AND PROPERTIES OF TORNADOES 101

Fig. 5. The concave autowave in the FitzHugh–Nagumo model is shown on the left. A convex autowave in a uniform circular
region extending from the center of the region is shown on the right for comparison.

CONCAVE SPIRAL AUTOWAVE
AS AN INTRANUCLEAR SPIRAL AUTOWAVE
Concave spiral waves can be considered as intranu-
clear waves. Conventional spiral autowaves form due
to the circular movement of a tip around their core,
which usually has the shape of a circle. The circle in
the center is thus a nonexcitable core for an ordinary
concave spiral wave, and the wave itself propagates
outward, from the core to the periphery. A concave
spiral autowave propagates from the periphery of the
region to the center. It is important that the peripheral
region is the main source of energy for a concave spiral
wave, which transfers energy from the periphery of the
region to the center. If we consider the peripheral
region as the core of a CSATE, the concave spiral
autowaves that transfer energy may therefore be con-
sidered to be intranuclear waves.
cloud itself. Then part of it descends in the form of a
funnel that gradually grows longer and finally con-
nects to the ground in the form of a huge pillar (or ele-
phant trunk) with a strong vacuum inside.
The rotation of the active medium in which such
self-oscillatory movements as concave waves are
observed can be seen from photos of tornadoes
obtained by eyewitnesses (Fig. 7).
EFFECT THE DIRECTION OF THE PLANE
OF THE ACTIVE MEDIUM HAS
ON TORNADOGENESIS
The initial direction of the axis of a tornado is
determined by the direction of the normal to the plane
of the active mother medium. The directions of the

FORCES THAT ACT ON A VORTEX

The compression of the vortex toward the axis is
due to the compression that arises from the impact of
concave spiral auto waves that transfer energy
(CSATE) and seek to condense the concave waves
toward the center of the cloud’s self-oscillating active
material medium. The vortex motion escaping from
the throat of the active medium and ejected downward
toward the Earth’s surface is born due to the emer-
gence of superdensity and thus instability. This pres-
sure persists after the the vortex is ejected. The vortex
does not collapse, since the pressure inside is balanced
by the centripetal force acting on its material (e.g., air,
water, products of combustion, dust, or steam). If this
force of internal pressure is strong enough, it intensi-
fies the vortex funnel; if not, a columnar or even bar-
rel-shaped (“shaggy”) vortex forms. Fig. 6. Excitation of a concave autowave in the inner non-
excitable region, due to the excitation of an autowave in the
A tornado is part of a thundercloud that has rapid excitable boundary region. The boundary region is blocked
rotation around its vertical axis due to the formation of on the lower left slide, resulting in the annihilation of exci-
CSATEs. This rotation is initially visible only in the tation inside the boundary region.

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102 MAZUROV

(а) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 7. Illustration of the presence of an active medium in which such self-oscillatory movements as concave waves occur; (a) and
(b) show the formation of an ordinary tornado; (c) and (d), the formation of a barrel-shaped tornado.

tornado axis shown by arrows (1) ↓ , (2) ↑ , (3) ←,

(4) →, (5) , (6) , (7) , and (8)  can be distin-
guished by the slope of the active medium. The first
four cases are illustrated in Fig. 8.
The direction of a tornado’s axis or that of a funnel
is normal to the plane of the active medium. At the
same time, however, two directions of the axis are pos-
sible (in the forward and backward directions). The
plane of the active medium during the formation of an
atmospheric tornado can be parallel to the plane of the
Earth, or it can be perpendicular to the plane of the
Earth’s surface.

CONCLUSIONS
The proposed model of a tornado allows us to
describe satisfactorily most of the properties of actual
tornadoes (even ones that seem arcane), to conceive
the mechanisms by which they form, and to predict
their evolution.

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Translated by I. Obrezanova
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