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Note 25 Level 1

36 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
April 2013 Technical Guidance Note

Introduction to fatigue
Introduction ICON W Definition
of fatigue
Fatigue is a phenomenon that is rarely encountered by structural LEGEND
engineers, especially those who work exclusively in the realm of building
structures. It only occurs when an element of a structure is subjected to W Applied practice
cyclical loading over a sustained period. Hence this being a factor in the
design of bridge elements, especially those that are exposed to vehicular
W Further reading
traffic, as that is a form of cyclical loading.
This Technical Guidance Note defines what fatigue is and how its effects
can be countered. Detailed analysis of fatigue is not covered as it is a W Web resources
complex procedure beyond the scope of a Level 1 Guidance Note.

Definition of fatigue

The New Dictionary of Civil Engineering

defines fatigue as ‘the reduction in the S1
Stress

integrity of a structural element due to

repeatedly applying a stress within the
elastic limit of the material the element is
made from.’ Continued exposure to fatigue
can result in a brittle failure of an element
from a load that would normally be resisted if
it were static in nature. This occurs because
the integrity of the material is broken
down, which results in a crack that rapidly
propagates as further loads are applied. This
then leads to the element ultimately failing.
The concept of fatigue is well known within
the field of structural engineering, but in the
interests of reinforcing the theories behind
the analysis of members that are subject
to fatigue, a simple test demonstrates the
point. By taking a paper clip and bending a
section of it repeatedly until it breaks, the
resistance to the force applied reduces at
every turn, until it eventually breaks due
to the brittle failure described previously.
Some deformation, heat generation and
discolouration will be evident at the point
about which the paper clip is being bent.
Figure 1 shows a paperclip that has been
subjected to fatigue.
S2
S3
n1 n2 n3
Number of cycles to failure
N Figure 2
S-N Curve
Fatigue test
More scientific methods of testing for
fatigue are based on replicating cyclic
loading onto an element within a controlled
environment. Loads are applied to the
element under test within a sinusoidal
pattern. The test continues until failure
occurs or a predetermined number of cycles
are reached. The results are then plotted
on a stress endurance curve (Figure 2).
Generically known as an S-N curve, the
vertical axis is the measured stress within
the element while the horizontal axis
plots the corresponding number of cycles
to failure.
While these tests do demonstrate the
capacity of a material, they do not accurately
reflect the conditions that are common in
actual structures. To correlate between
the ideal sinusoidal approach and the
actual conditions, it is prudent to review
the time-history analysis of the structure
when it is placed under load, and to discover
any sections of the results that match a
sinusoidal pattern. This approach is known
as Miner’s Rule and can be summarised thus:
/ Nn n
1
n
2
n
= N1 + N2 + N3 + ... = 1
3
Where:
N is the number of cycles to the point of
failure at an applied stress level within the
structure
n is the number of cycles applied at an
applied stress level within the structure

However, this can be regarded as an over-

simplification as there is no reference made
to the order of the application of loads that
causes the stress to occur. This should
be born in mind when using Miner’s
W Figure 1
Paperclip
subjected to fatigue
Rule to determine the fatigue lifespan of
the structure.

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Structural steel and fatigue
Steel members contain inherent microscopic
flaws. These flaws can open up when a
steel element is exposed to fatigue and
therefore their presence has an impact on
a member’s resistance. Steel’s inherent
resistance to fatigue can be assumed to be
approximately half of its ultimate strength.
This applies provided the element is small,
has a polished surface and no significant
stress concentrations. When an element
deviates from these conditions its resistance
to fatigue is reduced. For example, if the
surface is not polished then the flaws in the
steel would remain. There would also be no
areas of high stress concentration relative
to the size of the element, as would be the
case with larger steel members.
Corrosion and fatigue
Corrosion must be considered when
analysing a steel structure for fatigue. It
has been proven that due primarily to the
increased brittle state of steel caused
by corrosion, its resistance to fatigue
is significantly reduced. Conversely the
deposits generated due to corrosion can
fill the flaws described previously, which
partially counter the brittle effect of the
corrosion. It does this by reducing the
propagation of crack growth within the
material. This is of great importance when
designing elements that are exposed to
marine environments, which are naturally
corrosive.
Connection type and fatigue
The type of connection within a steel
structure has an impact on its resistance to
the effects of fatigue. Welded connections
react differently to bolted ones. Some
understanding of how these types of
connection resist fatigue is needed when
designing structures that are subject to this
form of loading.
Welded connections
Structures that contain a significant amount
of welded connections are weak against
fatigue. This is due to the difficulty in
creating the connections, which leads to
stress concentrations due to poorly applied
welds. The flow of stress passes directly
through butt welds and as a result, they are
the most effective weld type in terms of
resisting fatigue. By contrast, fillet welds do
not offer the same level of resistance due to
the change in direction of stresses within the
connection (Figure 3).
Bolted connections
Bolted connections resist fatigue via
the friction they provide between the
elements fixed through them. The clamping
TSE16_36-37.indd 37
E Figure 3
Welded connections
showing flow of stress
through them
mechanism created by the bolts prevents
the element from moving and so the
friction between the elements resists the
effects of fatigue. This only applies to
simple connections as bending moment
connections have a tension component
within them. Such connections make use of
its resistance to prying, which becomes an
element that resists fatigue.
Reinforced concrete and fatigue
Reinforced concrete elements are less prone
to fatigue failure due to the relatively low
stresses present, compared to their steel
counterparts. Concrete structures that are
subject to high stresses are more liable to
suffer the effects of fatigue, as are those that
are exposed to cyclic impact loading. A good
example of such structures is road bridges.
Typically the mode of failure consists of
premature cracking from loads that are
approximately half what the element was
designed to resist in the static condition.
Reinforced concrete elements resist
the effects of fatigue through the steel
reinforcement bars within them. According
to tests and research carried out on the
subject, straight bars have a much greater
resistance than those that are bent.
Prestressed concrete elements are almost
immune to the effects of fatigue if the level
of precompression is such that no cracks
are generated within the concrete. This
is due to the fact that the entire concrete
element is resisting stress changes within it
and not just the steel reinforcement, making
it more efficient.
Where prestressed concrete elements do
have cracks, then the resistance to the
effects of fatigue becomes significant.
This is especially the case in exposed
environments that may result in water
ingress. This would cause corrosion in the
prestressing strands within the concrete and
thus reduce their effectiveness.
www.thestructuralengineer.org
37
Butt weld
Fillet weld
Fatigue impact on design life
The effect fatigue has on the design life of
structures can be pronounced. Elements
designed to withstand the effects of fatigue,
cannot be expected to do so indefinitely. The
element will succumb to brittle failure at some
point but it is the responsibility of the designer
to make sure that the point at which this
occurs, is beyond the structure’s design life.
Eurocode 0.
Applied practice
BS EN 1993-1-9 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel
Structures – Part 1-9: Fatigue
NA to BS EN 1993-1-9 Eurocode 3: UK
Annex to Design of Steel Structures – Part
1-9: Fatigue
Glossary and
further reading
Cyclical loading – repeated actions upon a
structure that occur over a long period of time.
S-N curve – A plot of applied stresses vs.
the number of times the stress is applied
prior to failure or when a predetermined
number of cycles are reached.
Sinusoidal – A mathematical phrase for a
curve that describes repetitive oscillation.
Further Reading
Young W.C., Budynas R.G. and Sadegh A.M.
(2012) Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain
(8th ed.) New York: McGraw Hill
Eurocode 0.
Web resources
The Institution of Structural Engineers library:
www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library
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