Electronic System Design

& Manufacturing (ESDM)

Intrinsic Noise Sources
(Unit 3)
 Intrinsic Noise Sources
�In electronics, Noise is an unwanted disturbance in an electrical signal.
� Noise can be generated within a circuit or picked up from external
natural or artificial sources.
�When noise is generated within a circuit, it is called Intrinsic noise.
�When noise is picked up from an external source, it is called Extrinsic
noise.
�There are three important sources of intrinsic noise:
1. Thermal noise: generated by random motion of electrons in any
resistance.
2. Contact noise: caused by the flow of current across the imperfect
boundary formed between two materials, and
3. Shot noise: caused by the flow of current across a potential barrier,
such as a pn junction.
 Thermal Noise
� 
 Thermal Noise
� 
 Thermal Noise
� 

�The function N(f) cannot be zero at all frequencies,

because it is a function of the network. Voltage Vtc
must therefore be zero, which demonstrates that a
capacitor cannot generate thermal noise.
 Thermal Noise
�Let us now connect two unequal resistors (at the same temperature)
together, as shown below and check for thermodynamic equilibrium.
 Thermal Noise
Thermal Noise:
�Let us now consider the case when the two are equal in value, and
maximum power transfer occurs between the resistors. We can then
write

�The quantity kTB is referred to as the ‘‘available noise power.’’

�It can be shown that the thermal noise generated by any arbitrary
connection of passive elements is equal to the thermal noise that would
be generated by a resistance equal to the real part of the equivalent
network impedance.
 Thermal Noise
CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMAL NOISE
�The frequency distribution of thermal noise power is uniform.
�For a specified bandwidth anywhere in the spectrum, the available
noise power is constant and independent of the resistance value.
�Such noise—with a uniform power distribution with respect to
frequency—is called ‘‘white noise,’’ which implies that it is made up of
many frequency components.
�The instantaneous amplitude of thermal noise has a Gaussian, or
normal, distribution.
 Thermal Noise
CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMAL NOISE
�The probability density function is greatest at zero magnitude, which
indicates that values near zero are most common.
�The crest factor of a waveform is defined as the ratio of the peak to the
rms value.
�For thermal noise the probability density function, shown to be
asymptotically approaching zero for both large positive and large
negative amplitudes.
�Because the curve never reaches zero, the magnitude of the
instantaneous noise voltage has no finite limit.
▪ Normally, only peaks that occur
at least 0.01% of the time are
considered, and a crest factor
of approximately 4 is used
for thermal noise.
 Thermal Noise
EQUIVALENT NOISE BANDWIDTH
�The noise bandwidth B is the voltage-gain-squared bandwidth of the
system or circuit being considered.
�The noise bandwidth is defined for a system with uniform gain
throughout the passband and zero gain outside the passband.
�Figure shows this ideal response for a low-pass circuit and a bandpass
circuit.
�Practical circuits do not have these ideal characteristics but have
responses similar to those shown in fig. 2.
� The problem then is to find an equivalent noise bandwidth that can be
used in equations to give the same results as the actual non ideal
bandwidth does in practice.
 Thermal Noise
EQUIVALENT NOISE BANDWIDTH
�In the case of a white noise source (equal noise power for a specified
bandwidth anywhere in the spectrum), the objective is met if the area
under the equivalent noise bandwidth curve is made equal to the area
under the actual curve.
�This is shown in Fig. 8-9 for a low pass circuit.
 Thermal Noise
EQUIVALENT NOISE BANDWIDTH
�For any network transfer function, A(f) (expressed as a voltage or
current ratio), an equivalent noise bandwidth exists with constant
magnitude of transmission A0 and bandwidth of

�A typical bandpass function is shown in Fig. 8-10.

�A0 is usually taken as the maximum absolute value of A(f).
 Shot Noise
SHOT NOISE
�Shot noise is associated with current flow across a potential barrier.
�It is caused by the fluctuation of current around an average value that
results from the random emission of electrons (or holes).
�This noise is present in both vacuum tubes and semiconductors.
�In vacuum tubes, shot noise comes from the random emission of
electrons from the cathode.
�In semiconductors, shot noise is caused by random diffusion of carriers
through the base of a transistor and the random generation and
recombination of hole electron pairs.
�The power density for shot noise is constant with frequency and the
amplitude has a Gaussian distribution, therefore it is a type of white
noise and has the same characteristic as previously described for
thermal noise.
�When amplified, it sounds something like lead shot raining on a metal
roof-hence the term shot noise.
 Shot Noise
SHOT NOISE
�The shot effect was analysed theoretically by W. Schottky in 1918. He
showed that the rms noise current was equal to:

�Dividing above equation by the square root of the bandwidth gives:

�The noise current per square root of bandwidth is only a function of

the direct current (dc)-current flowing through the device.
�Therefore, by measuring the dc current through the device, the amount
of noise can be accurately determined.
 Contact Noise
CONTACT NOISE
�Contact noise is caused by fluctuating conductivity from an imperfect
contact between two materials.
�It occurs anywhere when two conductors are joined together, such as in
switches and relay contacts.
�It also occurs in transistors and diodes, because of imperfect contacts,
and in composition resistors and carbon microphones that are
composed of many small particles molded together.
�Contact noise is also referred to by many other names. When found in
resistors, it is referred to as ‘‘excess noise.’’ When observed in vacuum
tubes, it is usually referred to as ‘‘flicker noise.’’ Because of its unique
frequency characteristic it is often called ‘‘1/f noise,’’ or ‘‘low-
frequency noise.’’
�Contact noise is directly proportional to the value of direct current
flowing through the device.
�The power density varies as the reciprocal of frequency (1/f) and the
magnitude is Gaussian.
 Contact Noise
CONTACT NOISE
�The noise current If per square root of bandwidth can be expressed as:

�It should be noted that the magnitude of contact noise can become very large at
low frequencies because of its 1/f characteristic.
�1/f or contact noise is also referred to as ‘‘pink noise.’’ Pink noise is
bandlimited white noise.
� Pink noise, however, has equal noise power per octave of bandwidth, and
therefore, it has a flat response when plotted on a logarithmic frequency scale.
�The characteristics of pink noise, low-frequency emphasis and equal power per
octave, closely match the response of human hearing.
�In addition, pink noise somewhat resembles speech in the frequency spectrum,
and therefore, pink noise sources are often used in the testing of audio systems.
POPCORN NOISE
�Popcorn noise, which is also called burst noise, was first discovered in
semiconductor diodes and has also appeared in integrated circuits(ICs).
�If burst noise is amplified and fed into a loudspeaker, it sounds like corn popping,
with thermal noise providing a background frying sound—thus the name popcorn
noise.
�Unlike the other noise sources, popcorn noise is caused by a manufacturing defect,
and it can be eliminated by improved manufacturing processes.
�This noise is caused by a defect in the junction, usually a metallic impurity, of a
semiconductor device.
�Popcorn noise occurs in bursts and causes a discrete change in level, with the width
of the noise bursts varies from microseconds to seconds.
�The repetition rate, which is not periodic, varies from several hundred pulses per
second to less than one pulse per minute.
�For any particular sample of a device, however, the amplitude is fixed because it is
a function of the characteristics of the junction defect.
�Typically, the amplitude is from 2–100 times the thermal noise.
�The power density of popcorn noise has a 1/f n characteristic, where n is mostly
two.
�Because the noise is a current-related phenomenon, popcorn noise voltage is
 NOISE
ADDITION OF NOISE VOLTAGES
� Noise voltages, or currents, produced independently with no relationships
between each other are uncorrelated.
�When uncorrelated noise sources are added together, the total power is equal
to the sum of the individual powers.
�Adding two noise voltage generators,V1 andV2,together on a power basis,
gives:

�Therefore, uncorrelated noise voltages can be added by taking the square root
of the sum of the squares of the individual noise voltages.
�Two correlated noise voltages can be added by using

�where γ is a correlation coefficient that can have any value from +1 to –1.
When γ equals 0, the voltages are uncorrelated; when |γ| equals 1, the voltages
are totally correlated. For values of γ between 0 and +1 or 0 and –1 the
voltages are partially correlated.
 NOISE
MEASURING RANDOM NOISE
� Noise measurements are usually made at the output of a circuit or amplifier.
�This is done for the following two reasons: (1) the output noise is larger and
therefore easier to measure and (2) it avoids the possibility of the noise meter
upsetting the shielding, grounding, or balancing of the input circuit of the
device being measured.
�If a value of equivalent input noise is required, then the output noise is
measured and divided by the circuit gain to obtain the equivalent input noise.
�Three general requirements for a noise meter are (1) it should respond to noise
power, (2) it should have a crest factor of four or greater, and (3) its bandwidth
should be at least 10 times the noise bandwidth of the circuit being measured.
�A true rms meter is obviously the best choice, provided its bandwidth and
crest factor are sufficient. A crest factor of three provides less than 1.5% error,
whereas a crest factor of four gives an error of less than 0.5% No correction to
the meter indication is required.
 NOISE
MEASURING RANDOM NOISE
� The most common alternating current (ac) voltmeter responds to the
average value of the waveform but has a scale calibrated to read rms.
�This meter uses a rectifier and a dc meter movement to respond to the average
value of the waveform being measured.
�For a sine wave, the rms value is 1.11 times the average value. Therefore, the
meter scale is calibrated to read 1.11 times the measured value.
�For white noise, however, the rms value is 1.25 times the average value.
Therefore, when used to measure white noise, an average-responding meter
reads too low.
�If the bandwidth and crest factor are sufficient, such a meter may be used to
measure white noise by multiplying the meter reading by 1.13 or by adding 1.1
dB.
� Measurements should be made on the lower half of the meter scale to avoid
clipping the peaks of the noise waveform.
�Peak-responding voltmeters should not be used to measure noise since their
response depends on the charge and discharge time constants of the individual
meter used.
 NOISE
MEASURING RANDOM NOISE
� An oscilloscope is an often overlooked, but excellent, device for measuring
white noise.
�One advantage it has over all other indicators is that the waveshape being
measured can be seen.
�In this way, you can be sure that you are measuring the desired random noise,
not pickup or 60-Hz hum.
�The rms value of white noise is approximately equal to the peak-to-peak value
taken from the oscilloscope, divided by eight.
� When determining the peak-to-peak value on the oscilloscope, one or two
peaks that are considerably greater than the rest of the waveform should be
ignored.
�With an oscilloscope, random noise can be measured even when 60-Hz hum or
other non-random noise sources are present, because the waveforms can be
distinguished and measured separately on the display.
 NOISE
MEASURING RANDOM NOISE
 NOISE
Summary:
�Thermal noise is present in all elements that contains resistance.
�A reactance does not generate thermal noise.
�The thermal noise in any connection of passive elements is equal to the
thermal noise that would be generated in a resistance equal to the real
part of the equivalent network impedance.
�Shot noise is produced by current flow across a potential barrier.
�Contact noise (1/f noise) is present whenever current flows through a
nonhomogeneous material.
�Contact noise is only a problem at low frequencies.
�Popcorn noise can be eliminated by improved manufacturing
processes.
�The noise bandwidth is greater than the 3-dB bandwidth.
 NOISE
Summary:
�As the number of poles (time constants) increase, the noise bandwidth
approaches the 3-dB bandwidth.
�The crest factor for thermal noise is normally assumed to be four.
�Noise having equal power in each unit of bandwidth (such as thermal
and shot noise) is referred to as white noise.
�Noise having equal power per octave (or decade) of bandwidth (such as
1/f or contact noise) is referred to as pink noise.
�The characteristics of pink noise are similar to white noise that has
been passed through a 3 dB per active roll off low-pass filter.
�Uncorrelated noise voltages add on a power basis; therefore