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7 The Environment

7.1 Overview
Kwale County is endowed with a wide range of terrestrial, freshwater, estuarine and marine
natural capital. These resources are the most valuable assets for the people as they play a
fundamental role in their livelihoods and development. In addition, they serve as unique
identifiers that give spatial character and provide invaluable environmental and ecosystem
services.
The county is dominated by shrublands (50% of the area), dry shrublands (19% of area) and
marine open water (17% of area). The next largest land cover is annual crops at 2%, with
numerous small parcels of land cover or marine assets. Environmentally sensitive areas make
up a significant portion of the county’s total surface area which includes wetlands, terrestrial
forests, mangroves, marine parks, wildlife conservation areas and swamps among other
ecosystems.

7.2 Natural Assets in Kwale County

7.2.1 Terrestrial Assets

7.2.1.1 Forests
The county has a forest cover of about 4.5%, which is approximately 38, 119 ha of which 800
ha are not gazetted. There forests comprise of tropical rainforests, planted forests, dryland
forests and shrubland. The county’s forest cover is far from the recommended minimum of
10%.

a. Tropical Rainforest

Only remnants of this forest exist and cover about 29,000 ha. Most of the Shimba Hills
Plateau, Muhaka, Mrima and Dzombo Hill forests, Buda, Muhaka and Gogoni fall under this
type.

b. Planted Forest

The planted forests are mainly of exotic species and they amount to approximately 1000 ha,
of which 90% is soft wood while 10% is indigenous species. Part of the open grassland in
Shimba Hills Plateau is planted with exotic species.

c. Dryland Forest

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Dry land forests in the region include Marenje Forest, Shimoni Forest, the northern
escarpment of Shimba Hills National Reserve and parts of Mkongani. Some Kaya forests also
fall in this category.

Shrubland
This type of vegetation covers areas next to the tropical forests, dryland forests and
uncultivated areas outside these two areas. Where bushes have been cleared giving way to
cultivation and charcoal burning, the most dominant vegetation type is grass.

Farmland
This type of vegetation is composed of coconuts, cashew nuts and mango trees. Others are
citrus. Most of this vegetation is along the coastal strip and in areas of good rainfall such as
Shimba Hills.

A summary of the forest inventory of Kwale County is tabulated below:

Table 7- 1: Type and Size of Forests in Kwale County

Name Location Size Indigenous / Dominant Status(gazetted/n

planted species on-gazetted)
Shimba Shimba Hills 24,000ha Mostly Indigenous Gazetted in 1932
Forest indigenous species
Mwache Mwache 450ha Indigenous Indigenous spp Gazetted in 1932
Mangroves Along the coast 8354ha Indigenous Mangrove Gazetted in 1932
(rhizopherus)
Buda Msambweni 685ha Indigenous Indigenous spp Gazetted
Complex
Mrima Lunga Lunga 380ha Indigenous Indigenous Gazetted 1932
spp
Marenje Lunga Lunga 1000ha Indigenous Indigenous Gazetted
Dzombo Lunga Lunga 800ha Indigenous Indigenous Gazetted
Gogoni Msambweni 850ha Indigenous Indigenous Gazetted
Kilibasi Hill Kinango 600ha Indigenous Indigenous Not gazetted
(under county)
Taru hill Samburu 100ha Indigenous Indigenous Not gazetted
Gonja Forest Lungalunga 837 ha Indigenous Indigenous Gazetted
Kiruku Lunga Lunga 2.49 ha Indigenous Indigenous Not Gazetted
Forest
Source: Kenya Forest Service, 2018

Over the years forest cover has been changing. Considering a period of 20 years map 3-3
shows the changes that have occurred since 1990 to 2010. The analysis is as follows:

In 1990 the forest cover was 42990.37 Ha, in 2000 there was a drop to 41482.87 Ha and by
2010 the cover increased to 42975.86 Ha. Between 1990 and 2000 about 1,507.5 Ha of forest
was cleared equivalent to 3.5% loss.
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Between 2000 and 2010 there was an increase in the cover, of about 1,493 Ha. This can be
attributed to replanting what was lost the previous years, among other conservation efforts.
However, the forest cover reduced by approximately 1139.27 ha by 2018, emphasizing the
need to regulate logging and embark on reforestation, See table below.

Table 7- 2: Changes in Vegetation Cover 1990 to 2018

Cover 1990 Change 2000 Change 2010 2018 Change

type
Forest 42,990.37 -1,507.5 Ha 41,682.87 + 1,493 Ha 42,975.86 41836.29 -1139.27
Ha Ha Ha Ha Ha
Grassland 344,412.39 -25,309.89 319,102.5 - 30,520.48 288,582.02 21753.84 -
Ha Ha Ha Ha Ha 266829.02
Ha
Wetland 802.34 Ha -498.63 Ha 303.71 Ha + 348.01 651.72 Ha 817.6 Ha +165.88
Ha
Source: Consultant’s assessment

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Map 7- 1: Forest cover changes

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7.2.1.2 Rivers
There are seven permanent rivers and other seasonal rivers and streams. The permanent
rivers include Mkurumudzi, Umba, Pemba, Mwache, Mwachema, Ramisi and Marere; all of
which drain into the Indian Ocean. The table below highlights key statistics of the main rivers
in Kwale County:

Table 7- 3: Flow Statistics of Major Water Sources in Kwale

Mean
Areas Volume Annual
River Source Quality Destination
Traversed M3/D flow
(M3/s)
Marere -
Spring Shimba Hills Indian Ocean
Marere Shimba National 9087 Good at Bombo
rain Park Creek
forest
Marere 3.067
Good, Indian Ocean
Spring Kinango-
Pemba 7605 saline at at Bombo
Kinango Tsunza
destination Creek
area
Shimba Hills Good, Indian Ocean 0.841
Shimba
Mkurumudzi – 9917 saline at at Gazi –
Hills
Msambweni destination Msambweni
Lunga- Good 3.726
Usambara Indian Ocean
Umba lunga – 6104 saline at
Mountains at Vanga
Vanga destination
Good, Indian Ocean 1.932
Chenze Mwereni –
Ramisi 8190 saline at at
Ranges Shimoni
destination Bodo/Shimoni
Majimboni- Good 0.401
Majimboni Indian Ocean
Mwachema Gombato 341.73 saline at
Msulwa at Diani
– Diani destination
Good, 1.242
South
Mwache Taita Hills - saline at
Samburu
destination

7.2.1.3 Ground water resources and potential

Ground water potential is a function of rainfall and porosity of the underlying rock. Its
quality is largely determined by the geology of the area. The Duruma sandstone series
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occupy a great part of the middle area of the region, Kinango and Samburu Divisions. Most
of underground water in this series is saline and found in greater depths. Along the coastal
belt, the region has a great potential of potable underground water. There are six
underground water catchments and/or reservoir areas along the coastal belt. These are: Tiwi
Catchment- has a width of 20 km with good quality water; Msambweni Catchment- covers
about 42 km2; Diani Catchment-covers 19 km2 and Ramisi Catchment- is a very large
catchment that reaches westward to include outcrops of the Duruma sandstone series.

7.2.1.4 Terrestrial Wetlands

The main wetlands in Kwale are Kanana wetlands, Ramisi wetland, Milalani wetland, Mshiu
wetland, Tiwi wetlands, Lemba wetland, Mwakole wetland and Lunga Lunga wetland.

Wetlands play a vital role in the environment including carbon sequestration, providing
wildlife habitat, purification of water, serving as floodplains, recharging aquifers among
other roles.

7.2.1.5 Terrestrial Wildlife

Kwale County is endowed with unique terrestrial wildlife resources, with Sable antelopes
being endemic to the county. Among the main faunal species found in the reserves are
elephant, eland, sable antelope, giraffe, yellow baboon, Angolan colobus, sakes monkey,
Grimm’s bush buck, hyena, leopard, buffalo, and water back.
These animals are found in Shimba Hills National Reserve which is a gazetted tropical forest
in the county and Mwaluganje Elephant Sanctuary, which is a community conservancy
specializing in the conservation of elephants.
In the ranches of Kinango and Samburu Ward, there are a number of wild fauna including
zebra, impala, Grants gazelles, eland oryx, gerenuk, lesser kudu and lion. Some of these
animals have specific migratory routes which they follow seasonally as they traverse to
other areas such as Tsavo and Umba and Mkomazi in Tanzania and vice versa

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Map 7- 2: Wildlife Migration Corridors

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In addition, the county also has Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in places such as Kaya Kinondo
and Kaya Diani. Over 110 forests birds, including 20 coastal birds and different species of
butterflies are found within these areas.

7.2.1.6 Hills and Hilltops

Hills are topographic features which are found in the county and offer significant
environmental services including creating stability of surrounding lands, serving as
landmarks for fishermen in the open sea, modifying climatic conditions, providing habitat,
creating scenic landscapes, providing strategic security points, providing grounds for
hoisting communication infrastructure etcetera.
Hills have varied characteristics, some of which are pristine and vegetative like Dzombo,
Mrima, Kiruku and Shimba hills while some are rocky and dry such as Taru and Kilibasi hills.

Plate 7- 1: Kilibasi Hill

Source: Field Survey

7.2.2 Marine Assets

These are natural resources found within the marine ecosystem. They include the open sea,
mangroves, beaches, coral reefs, sea weed, sea birds, marine fauna, islands and marine
minerals.

7.2.2.1 Mangroves
Mangroves in Kwale County constitute about 14% of the total mangrove cover in Kenya
(KMFRI, 2018). The Mangroves locally referred to as Mikoko, cover approximately 8354 ha,
with the largest systems in Gazi, Vanga, Tsunza, Bodo-Shirazi and Funzi area. Other areas
where mangrove appears in small quantities include Tiwi estuary, Shimoni, Wasini Island,
and Chale Island. The most dominant mangrove species in Kwale County are Rhizophora
mucronata, Avicennia marina, and Sonneratia alba.

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Mangroves serve a number of invaluable ecosystem functions including providing habitat

and spawning areas for marine organisms such as fish, crabs, octopi and holothurians;
sediment stabilization, carbon sequestration, coastal protection (against erosion, wave
action storm surges and tsunamis), filtering land-based impurities etc. Mangrove forests and
sea grass beds perform vital functions in protection and enrichment of the coast ecosystem.
Mangroves also offer a big opportunity for carbon trading.
Local communities have traditionally harvested mangrove posts for subsistence, and for
commercial use such as building material, wood fuel, medicine and tannin. Despite this,
estimates of area under mangrove cover have not changed significantly.
Mangroves have steadily emerged as viable income generators by offering ecosystem
payment services. As part of the Kenya Coastal Development Project (KCDP) implementers,
KMFRI has helped establish one of the foremost community-based Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) projects known as Mikoko Pamoja. The project is a carbon offset project
in Gazi bay which protects and rehabilitates degraded mangrove while selling carbon credits.
Seaweeds
Seaweeds occur along the region’s coastline, usually adjacent to or associated with coral
reefs. They serve as an important habitat for many species and as sediment trap, thus
keeping coastal beaches pristine through detoxification. In addition, seaweed is among the
most dependable carbon sinks in the marine ecosystem, accounting for 20% of all the carbon
absorbed within the ecosystem. The main seaweed species in Kwale County are Thalassia
hemprichii, Halophila ovalis, Cymodocea rotundata, Kappaphycus alverezzi and Eucheuma
denticulatum. Kappaphycus alverezzi and Eucheuma denticulatum are the two main species of
seaweed in Kwale County (Kibuyuni in Shimoni, Funzi, Gazi and Mkwiro) grown
commercially. They are used as food and production of food thickeners, soaps, shampoos
and cosmetics.

7.2.2.2 Marine Wildlife

The county’s main marine fauna include fish, prawns, crabs, molluscs, turtles, dolphins
etcetera. Sea grass beds provide feeding ground for endangered species such as
the green turtle, the hawksbill turtle and the dugong. The Kisite Mpunguti
and Diani-Chale marine reserves have been established to
protect and conserve some of the endangered species and
their breeding grounds.

7.2.2.3 Coral reefs Plate 7- 2: Turtle; Source WWF Kenya

Coral reefs in Kwale County can be categorized into: Emergent and subtidal coral reefs
outside of protected areas and Emergent and subtidal coral reefs within protected areas.

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While coral reefs are among the largest marine ecosystem biomes, they are also the most
delicate and the most threatened. The Kenyan coral reef is among the longest in Africa,
straddling all the way from the north of Lamu to the Kenya-Tanzanian border. They are
among the most threatened marine resources. The following are the main contributors to
destruction of coral reefs in Kenya:

a) Bleaching: Large sections of Kenyan coral reefs have been bleached (lost their
colouration) and remained pale and without life. The rise in oceanic temperatures,
sediment deposition from terrestrial runoff and heavy industrial pollution are among
factors that have contributed to the death of the all-important zooxanthellae algae.
The algae are attached to the surfaces of coral and give the corals colour and food
through their symbiotic relationship, a rise in stress levels lead to desertion of corals,
thus exposing them to diseases.
b) Improper fishing methods: These often lead to mechanical (sometimes inadvertent)
removal of coral reefs have also contributed significantly to destruction of corals

7.2.2.4 Islands
There are twenty islands in Kwale County, with the three main islands being Wasini, Funzi
and Chale. Four islands i.e. Funzi, Wasini, Chale and Mzizima are inhabited while the other
smaller islands still exist in their natural form.

This is proof that Kwale County is an archipelago and provides an opportunity for
exploration.

The islands play significant functions such as habitat (for humans and wildlife),breeding sites
for marine species, provide defense against natural disasters such as tsunamis, support sand
and soil formation, and present potential in tourism, research, recreation and mining.

7.2.2.5 Open Water

Being a county along the Indian Ocean, Kwale has access to Kenya’s Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ). This 200 nautical mile zone consists of the 12 nautical miles of Territorial and 12
nautical miles of Contiguous Zone.

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Figure 7-1: Maritime Zones

Source: www.gc.noaa.gov

These three zones contain resources such as fish, oil and gas, tidal energy, wind energy,
seabed minerals etcetera. The waters also offer maritime services and sea transport as well
as providing grounds for water sports and tourism. Kwale County has the territorial zone
and its resources at its disposal to use for development.

7.2.2.6 Beaches
Kwale County has approximately 250 Km of coastline which comprises of both sandy and
rocky beaches, stretching from Pungu to Vanga. These beaches are found along the coastal
strip abutting the mainland and the islands. Beaches provide world-class recreation
destinations and have provided an appropriate avenue for the setting up of resorts and
beach hotels. They are also habitats for marine fauna such as turtles and provide breeding
grounds for fish. Beaches also serve as disposal grounds for ocean self-cleaning.

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Map 7- 3: Kwale County Natural Assets

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7.3 Environmentally Significant Areas

Terrestrial and marine ecosystems within the county can be described within three broad
categories; Protected Areas (PAs), Critically Environmentally Significant Areas (CESAs) and
Ecologically Significant Areas (ESAs).

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Figure 4- 2: Classification of Environmentally Significant Areas

Category Protected Critical Ecologically Significant Areas Ecological Support Areas

Area
Specific Protected Critical Ecologically Critical Ecologically Ecological Support Area Ecological Support
Category Area: Significant Areas 1: Significant Areas 2: 1: Area 2:
PA CESA 1 CESA 2 ESA 1 ESA 2
Description Legally Critical natural and semi- Critical natural and Natural and semi- Impacted
protected natural areas with little semi-natural areas natural supporting supporting areas,
areas choice. with some choice. areas, areas important areas important for
for services or services or
ecological ecological
infrastructure. infrastructure.
Examples National Parks Indigenous non- Sandy beaches and Intact wildlife corridor Non-natural areas of
of features and Reserves, gazetted forest and other natural areas and dispersal areas; wildlife or riparian
Marine kayas; community supporting tourism; intact buffers around corridors; areas
National reserves and selected priority protected areas and which were forested
Reserves and conservancies; group areas required for along the coast if they water towers,
other Marine ranches and private landscape are not CESA; range and buffers around
Reserves, sanctuaries if managed connectivity; connectivity areas for protected areas and
Gazetted for ecotourism and gazetted heritage key species such as coastal buffers
Forests and wildlife; other areas sites; non-gazetted elephant; areas required which have been
Kayas. under CBNRM; intact indigenous forest if for connectivity; intact converted to
Mostly state water towers; critical they are not CESA1; riparian buffers if they agricultural fields.
owned and intact wetlands, intact riparian are not a CESA; other
managed, ecosystems (e.g. corridors if not in areas important for
apart from the mangroves, coral and CESA1. ecosystem services.
Kayas which seagrass), riparian areas
are and lakes; key areas for
community threatened species.
owned.

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Map 7- 4: Environmentally Significant Areas

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7.4 Climate Change

Climate Change is a global phenomenon whose impacts have been experienced both in the
developed and developing countries. Kwale County’s geographical positioning near the
Indian Ocean increases its vulnerability to the effects of climate change. Some of these
impacts are already being experienced and they include:

a) An emerging trend of unpredictable weather pattern which destabilizes farming

calendar, increases cost of production and causes costly fluctuations in farm yields.
Examples include flooding during harvesting seasons and minimal or no precipitation
during planting seasons.
b) The rise in the average temperatures which has created conducive conditions for the
breeding of pests, spread of noxious weeds, rise in crop and livestock diseases and
breeding of mosquitoes- increased spread of malaria.
c) Drying of some streams and reduction in the volume of water within permanent
rivers.
d) Salt water intrusion, which has led to the contamination of erstwhile freshwater
community boreholes and wells in some areas abutting the ocean such as in Gazi.
e) Destruction/bleaching of coral reefs due to the rise in oceanic temperatures
f) Sea level rise which is evident along the coastal line where the highest water mark
has risen over recent years. Example is in Galu and Kinondo regions
g) Extreme weather events such as recent extreme flooding in Vanga and drought in
Kinango and parts of Lunga Lunga sub counties have been attributed to climate
change.

The above effects of climate change have an implication on the food and water security of
the area. This therefore justifies the need to initiate programs to empower communities to
adapt to climate change and promote rejuvenation of affected natural
resources/ecosystems. Through UNFCCC’s Adaptation Fund, Kwale County has benefitted
from the ongoing implementation of an Adaptation Programme aimed at increasing
resilience to sea level rise and shoreline changes through Integrated Shoreline and
Mangrove Ecosystem Management in Vanga and Gazi.

7.5 Human-Wildlife Conflict

Human-wildlife conflict is a phenomenon that continues to be a major hindrance to
conservation efforts, not only in Kwale County but also other parts of the country
neighbouring wildlife reserves and parks. In addition, it continues to claim lives, lead to
destruction of property and lifelong maiming. Incidents of human-wildlife conflict have been
reported in three sub-counties: Matuga, Lunga Lunga, and Kinango sub-counties.
1. Kinango sub-county –elephants and buffaloes
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2. Matuga sub-county – elephants and baboons

3. Lunga lunga sub-county – elephants, buffaloes and crocodiles

7.6 Waste Management

7.6.1 Solid waste

According to the household survey that was conducted in 2018, most households in the
Kwale County (44.5%) burn the solid waste they generate while 29.6% throw their waste in
gardens. Approximately 0.7% dispose solid waste in rivers, 7.10% bury their waste while those
that dump along pavements are 3%. Only about 15.10% of households have access to
designate receptacles; highlighting the lack of proper waste disposal sites/equipment as a
major contributor to improper waste disposal practices. This could trigger an upsurge in the
prevalence of waterborne and other sanitation-related diseases and increase pollution of
surface water sources including marine pollution. Additionally, inefficiencies in solid waste
management could compromise the county’s competitiveness as a tourist hub as a result of
reduced aesthetic beauty. There is no waste processing/recycling within the county and
disposal is through dumping. The county has one designated dumpsite at Muhaka in
Kinondo Ward.

7.6.2 Liquid waste

Kwale County does not have sewage reticulation and treatment infrastructure. Most
households in the rural areas and some urban households use pit latrines. Exhauster trucks
are relied upon for emptying urban septic tanks. There are reported incidences of
exhausters emptying their content in the ocean. This practice poses a major concern on the
environment due to the risk of pollution of ocean resources. In addition, the lack of
sewerage facilities poses an imminent danger to both ground and surface water resources
as most households and institutions, including those over aquifers, use pit latrines for
disposing human excreta.

The household survey, 2018 also revealed that 73.2% of households use private pit latrines to
dispose their excreta, 3.2% use Ventilation Improved Pits (VIP). Worryingly though and about
13.6% practise open defecation.

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Chart 7-1: Disposal of Human Excreta

Source: Household survey, 2018

According to the household survey, 68.8% of all household grey water is poured on open
grounds within living quarters while 12.3% ends up on roadsides. Ideally, such wastes, which
harbour pathogens, should be reticulated in closed drainage channels.

Chart 7-2: Household Grey Water Disposal Methods

Source: Household Survey, 2018

7.7 Urbanization and Environment

Urbanised areas cover approximately six per cent of Earth’s surface, yet they have
extraordinarily large ecological ‘footprints’, complex, and often indirect effects on
ecosystems.
Urban areas have the highest per capita generation of solid and liquid waste which
ultimately affects aesthetic makeup and environmental health of not only the towns but also
peri-urban areas. It is therefore critically important to regulate interactions between urban
ecosystems and the ecosystems within their precincts, including but not limited to rural-
urban interfaces and surrounding natural resources.

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Kwale county has two main urban centres; Kwale Town in Matuga sub-county and
Ukunda/Diani in Msambweni Sub-county. The two towns are adjacent to environmentally
sensitive areas; Kwale Town bordering Shimba National Reserve and Ukunda/Diani adjacent
to the beachfront. These two natural resources serve as greenways for the two towns.
Owing to this proximity, various ecosystem services are enjoyed by the people of these
towns.
The Shimba Hills Forest acts as a carbon sink for Kwale Town. It is also a conservation area
for different species of flora and fauna. Moreover, the forest is a catchment area/source for
some of rivers in the county. This kind of interrelation between the human population and
ecological functions bring about different effects is what urban ecology seeks to study.
The beachfront in Diani has provided an appropriate avenue for the setting up of resorts and
beach hotels. These facilities are beneficial to the country for revenue from both domestic
and foreign tourism. However, for the beachfront to be sustainably productive, it has to be
protected from various illegal practices such as; Private developers, who block access to the
beach, Pollution (Solid waste, raw sewerage) and Oil spills (Mostly from poorly maintained
boat and other vessels) ,Uncontrolled beachfront developments in Diani and Uncontrolled
development and urban sprawl in Ukunda.

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