HW-NUR8103 Lecture- Carbohydrate Metabolism I

Glycolysis
After digestion of carbohydrates, glucose enters the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm, glycolysis takes
place where glucose-6-phosphate (a 6C-molecule) is split into two 3C molecules of gly-3-P, producing 2
pyruvate. The two pyruvates are then converted to two acetyl-CoA and enter the mitochondria where the citric
acid occurs.

1. What reaction is involved in the so called, energy-investing reactions? What chemical compound is needed
to initiate the reaction?

2. Cite the steps in the glycolysis pathway where these energy-investing reactions occur.
- There are 4 pathways involved. It starts off with glucose that has 6 carbon compounds. Second, the glucose
converts into glucose-6 phosphate by an enzyme which is hexokinase. Third, glucose-6 phosphate converts into
fructose-6-phosphate by isomerase. Fourth, the phosphofructokinase catalyzed the phosphorylation reaction
of fructose 6-phosphate by ATP to form fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and ADP.

3. The conversion from glu-6-P to fru-6-P involves isomerization, why?

- Isomerization means the chemical process of converting a compound into any of its isomeric forms.
Isomerization is considered a significant reaction due to its numerous applications in biomass valorization.

4. What stages in the glycolysis pathway are considered energy harvesting reactions? What are the products
of these reactions that will prove its energy yield?
- For the first part, energy production starts at the conversion of 1,3 biphosphoglycerate to 3 phospho-
glycerate by phosphoglycerate kinase. While this conversion occurs, 1 molecule of ADP also converts to 1
molecule of ATP. Second is the conversion of 3 phospho-glycerate into 2 phospho-glycerate by
phosphoglycerate mutase. Third is the conversion of 2 phospho-glycerate into phosphoenol pyruvate by
enolase. The final step is the conversion of phosphoenol pyruvate into pyruvate by a pyruvate kinase
wherein 2 ADP also convert to 2 ATP.

5. The conversion from gly3-P to 1,3-diP uses NAD + and a dehydrogenase enzyme. What is the role of NAD +?
What reactions therefore are involved in these conversions?
- Glycolysis oxidizes glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. It extracts the high energy electrons that collected by the
electron carrier NAD+ which produces NADH. The reaction involved in this step (6 th step of glycolysis)
depends on the presence or availability of NAD +. NADH is continuously oxidized into NAD+ to keep the
process in motion. The second half of Glycolysis stops or slows down if NAD + is not present.

6. The conversion from 1,3-di-P-glycerate to 3-phosphoglyceric acid uses ADP. Why?

- The conversion from 1,3-di-P-glycerate to 3-phosphoglyceric acid is done by the enzyme phosphoglycerate
kinase, involving the transfer of the phosphoryl group from the 1,3-BPG to ADP which produces ATP and 3-
phosphoglycerate. ADP is used to generate ATP in the seventh step of glycolysis.

7. In a reaction where the enzyme involved is phosphoglycerate mutase, what happens to the
substrate, 3-phosphoglycerate?
- Phosphoglycerate is an enzyme that catalyze the movement of a phosphate group from C-3 to C-2,
which contributes to the conversion of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate. The reaction is
simply a movement of the phosphate group to a different carbon atom within the same molecule.

8. The formation of pyruvic acid (a keto-acid) involves what reaction? Account for the total ATP
produced from glycolysis.
- The formation of pyruvic acid involves pyruvate kinase wherein it catalyzes the physiologically
irreversible transfer of the phosphoryl group from PEP. Furthermore, in the process of glycolysis,
glucose breaks down into pyruvate and energy. The total amount of ATP derived in the process of
glycolysis is 2 ATP.

Citric Acid Cycle

9. What does amphibolic pathway mean? What three molecules produced during the citric acid cycle are
indirect or direct source of high-energy compounds?
- Amphibolic pathway is a biochemical pathway. They contain enzymes which engages in both anabolic and
catabolic pathways. The citric acid cycle is a type of amphibolic pathway. Amphibolic pathways breaks down
carbohydrates to smaller molecules and produces energy (ATP). Molecules NADH, FADH2, and GTP
produced in the citric acid cycle are indirect or direct sources of high-energy molecules.

10. Which steps of aerobic metabolism of pyruvate through the citric acid cycle are control points?
11-17. Two moles of pyruvic acids produced per molecule of glucose from glycolysis in the cytoplasm, enters
mitochondria, successively.

11. In the initial reaction, considering the products in the conversion of pyruvic acid to acetyl-CoA, aside
from the condensation reaction of pyruvic acid with CoA-SH, what is the other reaction involved?
- In the process of oxidative decarboxylation, transition reaction converts 2 molecules of 3-carbon pyruvate
to 2 molecules of the 2-carbon molecule of acetyl-CoA and 2 molecules of CO 2.

12. What reactions between acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetic acetic acid are involved in the formation of citric
acid?
- The citric acid cycle is catalyzed by the citrate synthase, in this reaction acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetic acetic
acid is joined together to form a citric acid. Acetyl group CH3COO transfers from CoA to oxaloacetic acid at
the ketone group, afterwards it changes into alcohol.

13. In the 2nd and 3rd steps, what are the reactions involving the formation of isocitric acid?
- In the 2nd step the reaction involved in the formation of isocitric acid is catalyzed by aconitase wherein
water molecule is removed from the citric acid and is placed back on in another location. In the 3 rd step the
oxidation of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate is catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase. During this process NAD +
is reduced to form NADH.

14. Compare the number of carbons between isocitric and a-ketoglutaric acid.
- Isocitric acid or isocitrate has a 6-carbon compound whereas a-ketoglutaric acid has 5 carbon compounds.

15. What are the reactions involved in the formation of succinyl-CoA? Compare the structure of a-
ketoglutaric acid and succinyl CoA.
- The conversion of succinyl CoA to succinate is catalyzed by the enzyme succinyl CoA synthetase. The
reaction requires inorganic phosphate and GDP or ADP. During this process guanosine triphosphate is
synthesized. Synthesis of GTP occurs when a free phosphate group is added to a GDP molecule. A free
phosphate now attacks the succinyl CoA molecule which releases the CoA. As the phosphate attaches to
the molecule, it is transferred to GDP to form GTP which results the molecule succinate.

16. In the 8th step, identify the change of functional group of the reactant and the product.
- Oxaloacetate is regenerated by oxidation of malate. The coenzyme which is NAD + causes the transfer of 2
hydrogens and electrons to NADH + H+.
17. Account the sum of ATP produced from glycolysis and citric acid cycle.
- The ATP produced from glycolysis and citric acid cycle yields a total of 30-32 ATP
 Electron Transport Chain
18-20. The inner membrane has specialized protein channels coenzymes where H + and electrons pass through
and translocated, from the inner to the intermembrane space.

18. Show the reaction what happens to NADH from citric cycle as it moves to co-enzymes and delivers
H+ and electrons.
- NADH oxidizes and transfers more H+(protons) and electrons to the electron transport chain.
19. As H+ ions remain in the intermembrane space, electrons are continuously passed on through series of
co-enzymes. Which acts as the final acceptor of electrons?
- Oxygen acts as the final acceptor of electrons by removing the de-energized electrons from the chain.
Oxygen binds to H+ ions in the matrix to form water. This is done to maintain the electrochemical gradient.

20. As H+ increases in the intermembrane space, the proton gradient also increases. What is the effect of
this increase in proton gradient to H+ ions?
- H+ ions will move its electrochemical gradient down and diffuse back into matrix. The process of the
said diffusion is called chemiosmosis. Hydrogen ions will move through the ATP synthase and trigger the
molecular rotation of enzyme which will synthesize ATP.

REFERENCES

Cornell, B. (n.d.). Electro transport chain. Retrieved September 30, 2020, from https://ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-
level/topic-8-metabolism-cell/untitled/electron-transport-chain.html

Libretexts. (2020, August 15). 18.3: Aerobic Respiration. Retrieved September 30, 2020, from
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Book:_Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_7:_Microbial_Gene
tics_and_Microbial_Metabolism/18:_Microbial_Metabolism/18.3:_Aerobic_Respiration

Libretexts. (2020, August 15). 7.2C: The Energy-Releasing Steps of Glycolysis. Retrieved September 30, 2020, from
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book:_General_Biology_(Boundl
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Ophardt, C. (2003). Virtual Chembook. Retrieved September 30, 2020, from

http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/611citricrx.html

The reactions of the citric acid cycle. (2020). Retrieved September 30, 2020, from
https://www.sparknotes.com/biology/cellrespiration/citricacidcycle/section2/page/2/