Pharmaceutical Botany

Introduction
BOTANY- “Plant Biology”

is the scientific study of plants

 What is a plant?
• Most plants have green leaves, stems, roots and
flowers.

• Conifers have cones rather than flowers.

• Cacti and succulents do not appear to have leaves.

• Ferns (r, s, l) and mosses.

• Bryophyes are non-vascular plant such as mosses; least

in common of all terrestrial plants; no roots
What about these?
All photosynthetic organisms

• blue- greens, red algae, brown algae, green algae

• Fungi (including “water molds”) –never green, diff.
tissues/physiology fr plant
• bacteria
 “Declaring whether these
organisms are plants or not
solves nothing: the important
thing is to understand the
concepts involved and why
disagreement exists”.
Why are plants important?
• Oxygen

• Primary producers

• Economically important to humans

> agricultural plants
> flavoring plants
> euphoric/hallucinogenic plants
> fiber, wood plants
> medicinal plants
Plants are primary producers in a food chain
Agriculture- became a foundation for human civilization,
development of culture, art and government.
Plants are our fundamental source of food.
Many medicines come from plants.

The Cinchona tree and

quinine. Quinine is for
the treatment of malaria.
Many medicines come from plants.
Many flavors come from plants. Volatile oils, glycosides
Plants provide fuel, shelter, and paper products.

Green jet fuel made from the Jatropha plant

Natural Selection

-Species having specific features caused then to adapt and reproduce and passed these
features to their offspring.

-Det w/c features are eliminated and passed into next generation.

-Plant sp. have ability to adapt in harsh conditions

ex. During winter
leaves are drop in autumn, bark formation on stem decreases surface area , dec water
lost
bulbs, corms, tubers – persist and prod new shoot during spring cutinized leaves/
stems of evergreens prevent water loss
Conservation Biology is critical area for research. Prevents extinction of
species
Biotechnology seeks to develop new plant products. The creation of
genetically modified plants.
Biotechnology seeks to develop new plant products. The creation of
genetically modified plants.
Using plants to modify animal responses. A study of this animal’s high tolerance for chilies
may yield information that will help humans control pain.

Counterirritant
Top 10 GMOs
• Biofortified soya beans – pest resistance
• Edible cotton seeds
• Jatropha – biofuel
• Golden rice – inc beta carotene
• Flood resistant rice
• Sugar beets- weed resistant
• Yeast – feed on agricultual waste and excrete crude
oil
• Cassava- Biocassava plus – vit, proteins, virus
resistant
• Papaya- pest resistant
• Castor beans- blocks ricin prodtn, inc castor oil w/c
is used as lubricant in shampoo

http://news.discovery.com/tech/biotec
hnology/ten-genetically-modified-
crops.htm 2012
 Plant Characteristics and Diversity

CHARACTERISTICS OF A TYPICAL PLANT.

The 5 Kingdom System of Classification
• Prokaryotes- w/o nuclei
• Bacteria, cyanobacteria
• Kingdom Monera
• Eukaryote- nuclei, mitochondria
• Protista/Plantae- w/ chloroplasts
• Fungi/ Animalia – w/o chloroplast
The 4 Groups of Plants

Ferns are the largest group of seedless vascular

Mosses are bryophytes.
plants.

Angiosperms are the largest group of modern day

Most gymnosperms are conifers. plants.
Scientific method- 1400s
• A means of analyzing the physical universe
• Observations are used as the basis for constructing a hypothesis that predicts
the outcome of future observations or experiments.
• All accepted informations can be derived from documented and controlled
expt.
Sir Francis Bacon was a firm believer in the power of experimentation and the
scientific method to uncover truth.
Charles Darwin’s experiment with stems detecting light.
The Three principal methods for analyzing and explaining the universe

• Religious method
• Metaphysical system
• Speculative philosophy
Religious Method
• Universe is assumed to be created by or to
contain deities.
• Important feature is that the actions of gods
cannot be studied.
• Crops might flourish or fail due to god’s
intervention to reward or punish people
• Faith as fundamental principle of all religion
Metaphysical System
• In addition to natural forces, there are supernatural
, hidden forces that can never be observed or
studied.
Examples:
• luck,
• bad omens,
• accurate horoscopes,
• reliable method for picking the winning numbers
in a lottery
Speculative philosophy
• Started with Greek philosophers
• Sought to develop logical explanations for
simple observations.
• Philosophical postulations of atoms by
Democritus (400 BC)
• Atom- smallest unit
• No verification, no expt were done
 Unifying Concepts to understand plants

Plant metabolism is based on the principles

of chemistry and physics
 2nd Concept
Plants must have means of storing and
using information
Genes – means of storing information
 3rd Concept

Plants reproduce, passing

their genes and
information on their
offspring
 4th Concept

Genes, and the information they

contain, change

• Mutations may occur and may affect the gene, causing

change
• Gradual evolution ( mutants)
• variation may occur in certain species
 5th Concept
Plants must survive in their
own environment

• conifers in cold areas,

Cutinized
 6th Concept

• Plants are highly integrated

organisms

• Structure and metabolism of 1 part

have impact on other parts of the
plant
 7th Concept
An individual plant is the temporary
result of genes and environment
interaction

Plant interacts with environment

- Absorbs nutrients, attract pollinator, reproduce,
resist pathogen
 8th concept

Plants do not have purpose

(teleology) nor decision making
(anthropomorphism) capacity.
 Which of the two statements is correct?

1. Plants have roots in order to absorb water and minerals.

2. Plants’ roots absorb water and mineral salts.
 What properties are present in living things?

All living beings have the following characteristics (5); if even one
is missing, the material is not alive
1. Metabolism
Exchange of energy and matter
with the environment must be
present

Organisms absorb energy/ matter, convert

it to their own bodies and excrete the rest
2. Non-random organization must be present

All organisms are highly structured,

and decay is the process of its
molecules returning to a random
arrangement.
3. Growth
All organisms increase in size from the time they are formed
4. A system of heredity and reproduction
An organism must produce offspring very similar to itself such that
when an organism dies, life persists within its progeny
5. A capacity to respond to the environment

When conditions become dry, an organism

can respond by becoming dormant,
conserving water, or by obtaining water more
efficiently
• In addition, to the 5 characteristics:
• Develop ( young and adult ones have distinctive char)
• Evolve ( changing with time as envt changes)
Botany includes many fields of study.
 1. Plant systematics– evolutionary
history of plants.

Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)

- Father of Taxonomy
- His system for naming, ranking, and
classifying organisms is still in wide use today
(with manychanges).
 SPECIES NAME
○ By convention:
● first word of binomial name is genus and is always capitalized
● second word refers to specific epithet and is not capitalized
○ together form scientific name, written in italics
● a complete scientific name includes the authors name.

Ex. Nepenthes madagascariensis Poir.

Tinospora rumphii Boerl.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
• Species
• Genus
• Family
• Order
• Class
• Phylum
• Kingdom
• Domain
The Kingdoms of Life
• Most biologists use a six-kingdom system.
• Animalia
• Plantae
• Fungi
• Protista
• Archaebacteria
• Bacteria
• Domains - taxonomic level above kingdoms
Classifying Living Organisms
Plant Physiology – aspects such as photosynthesis, flowering and hormones

Plant anatomy– relation of structure to functions

Paleobotany– evolutionary relationship of fossil plants to living plants.

Plant morphology – plant life cycle, evolution of plants.

Plant ecology – plants relate to the environment, human effects to increased

rate of plant extinction.

Plant genetics – transfer of genetic information from one generation to the

next.
Botanists also study:
Algae ( Phycology)
Fungi (Mycology)
Disease-causing microorganisms ( Microbiology)
Ornamental plants (Horticulture)
Important plant compounds ( Phytochemistry)
e.g. papain in papaya
momordicin in ampalaya
beta carotene in tomato
capsaicin in chilies
nicotine in tobacco
caffeine in coffea
ginkgolides in ginkgo
resins in pines
latex in rubber tree

Traditional uses of plants

( Herbal medicine and
Ethnobotany)
Forest and products (Forestry)

Crops and soil management

(Agriculture)

Fruit trees (Pomology)

• “Plants are fascinating life-forms in
and of themselves, and you must
consider yourself to be studying
plants as if your life depended on
them-which it does”
 10 Philippine Medicinal Plants (approved by DOH):

VERNACULAR NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME Family USE / FUNCTION

Lagundi Vitex negundo Lamiaceae Cough preparation,

Ascof®

Sambong Blumea Asteraceae Diuretic, anti-

balsamifera urolithiasis
Bayabas Psidium guajava Myrtaceae Astringent

Ampalaya / BitterMomordica Cucurbitaceae Anti-diabetes

gourd charantia mellitus supplement

Tsaang-gubat Carmona retusa Boraginaceae Stomachic

Ulasimang bato Peperomia Piperaceae Lowers uric acid
pellucida in gout

Yerba Buena Mentha Lamiaceae Analgesic,

cordifolia antipyretic

Bawang Allium sativum Alliaceae Antihypertensive

Niyog-niyogan Quisqualis Combretaceae Anthelminthic

indica
Akapulko Cassia alata Fabaceae Antifungal
(“Ringworm
bush”)
Instructions
1. Each group is assigned 1 medicinal plant to work on.
2. Prepare an infographic containing the following information
1. Common Name of the plant
2. Scientific Name of the plant
3. Vernacular Name of the plant
4. Botanical description
5. Plant uses
6. Method of preparing the plant
3. Reference
4. Infographic size: 800 x 2000 px
5. Save the file in PDF format with a file name: Section_Medicinal Plant (example:
1A_Bayabas.pdf)
6. Attached are the rubrics for the grading
Plant Cells
Cell
Unit of life

Plant cells have diverse sizes, shapes and composition.

Their structure and metabolism vary and are correlated to the
functions of each part of cell.
Cell
• Robert Hooke (1665)
• tiny compartments in cork tissue (cells)
• R. J. H. Dutrochet( 1824)
• osmosis, effect of light on plants
• Robert Brown (1833)
• nucleus, cytoplasmic streaming ( movt of cytosol and organelles), Brownian movt
• Matthias Scleiden (1838)
• Cofounder of cell theory, all plant parts are composed of cell
• Theodor Schwann (1839)
• cell theory
Cells
• basic structural and functional unit
• All living organisms are made up of cells
• Physiological processes are encountered and manifested at cellular level.
e.g. respiration, digestion, growth and
development.
 Two basic types of cells
1. Prokaryote – cell without nucleus and other membrane
bounded organelles.
e.g eubacteria, cyanobacteria and archaebacte
2. Eukaryote – cell with nucleus and membrane bounded
organelles.
e. g. protists, fungi, plants, animals.

* Animal cell- no cell wall, plastid, vacuole and glyoxysome

A plant cell consists of three general parts:
1. the cell wall
2. the protoplasm
3. the cell inclusion
Cell wall
• The most important feature distinguishing the cells of
plants from those of animals is the cell wall. In plants
this wall protects the cellular contents and limits cell
size

• A plant's cell wall is composed of cellulose (a polymer

made up of molecules of the sugar glucose) is the most
important

• Other important are lignins, which

. add rigidity, and
waxes, such as cutin and suberin, which reduce water
loss from cells
Cell wall
• All plant cells have cell walls except sperm cell of some seed plant
• Cellulose crystallized to form strong microfibrils
• Hemicellulose
• Prod by dictyosome, brought to cell wall by dictyosome vesicles.
• Primary cell wall – thin
• Secondary cell wall- bet the primary cell wall and plasma memb
• Thicker, impregnated with lignin
• The cell wall (types) are permanent not degraded nor depolymerized unlike
microtubule/ microfilament
• Middle lamella – made of pectin, attaches the wall to adjacent cell
 Plasmodesmata
• Consist of fine holes in primary walls, has plasma membrane, liquid and
tubule ( desmostubule) attached to ER
• Interconnects plant cells
• Primary Pit Field – area w/ clustered plasmodesmata, increase transport of
materials bet. Cells
• “All protoplasm w/in a plant is part of 1 interconnected mass
called symplast”
• “Individuality of plant cell is diminished’’
• Plant = symplast (Protoplasm)+ apoplast (intercellular space +
wall)
• Apoplast – permits rapid diffusion of gases
Cell membrane - osmoregulator, semi-permeable, phospholipid bilayer, fluid mosaic model.
Cell membrane
• Regulate passage of molecules in/out
• Divides cell into compartment
• Acts as surfaces w/c hold enzymes
• Exocytosis/ endocytosis
• Selectively permeable
• Dynamic and constantly changing
• As nature of membrane changes, nature of cell changes
Fluid Mosaic Model:
- As heterogenous memb, intrinsic proteins can diffuse laterally like lipids while other
proteins are bound to adjacent proteins
 Fluid Mosaic Model:
- As heterogenous liquid, intrinsic proteins can diffuse laterally like lipids while other proteins are bound to
adjacent proteins
• Extrinsic proteins – peripheral, not integral
• Intrinsic – partially immersed in lipid bilayer
Selectively permeable
• Hydrophobic subs – cross membrane
• Charged substances – move through intrinsic proteins which
act as channel ( facilitated diffusion)
• Molecular pumps (protein) – bind molecule from 1 side and
release it to the other using ATP ( Active Transport)
• Exocytosis
• Fusion of vesicle with cell memb, releasing vesicle contents
to cell exterior
• Endocytosis
• Invagination of cell memb, forming vesicle, carries ext. material into the
cell
• Protoplasm – proteins, lipids, Na, H20 w/in cell; except cell wall; composed
of organelles
• Protoplast (old name)
• Plasma membrane
• Membrane w/c covers the surface of protoplasm
Cytoplasm- fluid portion containing the nucleus and the rest of the organelles; material left after the
removal of nucleus and vacuole

Nucleus
• Eukaryotes contain more genetic material than prokaryotes.
• Histones—proteins unique to eukaryotes—combine with the
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to pack the genetic material into compact
chromosomes.
• The nuclear material is enclosed in a nuclear envelope formed of a double
membrane.
• The fluid portion is nucleoplasm (karyoplasm or karyolymph.
• The nucleolus synthesize RNA. The pores are called nuclear pores, for
transport of substances fr nucleus to protoplasm
• Nuclear envelop has nuclear pore
• Nucleoplasm – like protoplasm
• Ass. Of DNA, enzymes, histones, RNA, water
• Chromatin = DNA + histone
• Nucleus & nucleoplasm are different in diff. ages of cell.
• Rapidly div cell= more DNA; young cell = small w/ large nuclei
• Mature cells = large with small nucleus
• Nucleolus – ribosomes are made and assembled
• In some cells, upon maturation, they loose nucleus
• Ex. Conducting cells( sieve tube in phloem), RBC
• Ribosomes –protein syn
• Polysome = ribosome + mRNA
• Legumes – high amt of protein, high in ribosome
• All are membrane bound organelles except ribosome
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Carries large mol like protein (not transported by diffusion)
• Syst of narrow tubes and sheets of membrane w/c form a network thruout the cytoplasm
• Rough ER – attached to ribosome
• Protein produced as storage product like legumes; remains in ER
• Protein to be secreted ( mucilage, nectar); detach, move to plasma memb, fuse with it and
release its contents by exocytosis
• Smooth ER
• Lipid synthesis, membrane assembly
• Abundant in cells w/c prod large amt of fatty acids
• Cutin/ wax on epidermal cells, oil (palm , coconut, fragrances)
Dictyosomes
• Modifies material secreted by cell ( protein modification), ex.. Addtn of sugar to protein ==
glycoprotein
• Stacks of thin vesicles held together by flat/ curved array
• 2 faces:
• Forming face – where vesicles accumulate, embedded
• Maturing face – where vesicles are released, contents have been processed
• GOLGI Body
• Association of hundreds of dictyosmes
• Cisternae – stacks of wide thin flattened vesicle formed by ER vesicles w/c acc. & fused
together at 1 side of dictyosome.
Mitochondrion- respiratory site of the cells (ATP)
 Mitochondrion
• Cell respiration
• Circular DNA, lacks histones, small ribosomes
• Respiration is mediated by enzymes bound to mitochondrial memb
• Cristae- large sheets/ tubes formed by folded inner mitochondrial memb
• Inner Mitochondrial mem- sel. Permeable; with pumps/ channels
• provides room for large # of enzymes
• Matrix – liq, where rxn takes place
Chloroplast- green plastids, captures light for photosynthesis, larger than mitochondrion

Proplastid – small, undifferentiated; simple, few folds inner memb; in young dividing cells
- converted to chloroplast ( light, chlorophyll)
Parts
• Outer memb
• Inner memb, highly folded
• Stroma – inner fluid
• Ribosomes
• Circular DNA, not ass w/ histones
• Folding of Inner membrane forms:inc surface area, inc space for pigments insertion
• Thylakoid- single memb forming stacks of flattened vesicles called grana
• Sel. Permeable; conc of chem inside is diff from the stroma
• Grana – surrounded by liquid stroma
• Photosyn: involves Active transport of H+ into small space to build up an electrical charge
• Grana vesicles are needed to accept the protons from the stroma
• Stroma – area where CO2 ----CHO catalyzed by enzymes
Chloroplast mostly disc-shaped organelles, 4 to 6 micrometres in diameter. They occur most abundantly in leaf cells, where they can apparently orientate themselves to light
Leucoplastids – colorless plastids

•Amyloplast – stores starch.

•Aleuroneplast- stores protein
•Elaioplast – stores oils and fats; in tissues grown
w/o light
• Rapid photosyn, sugar is prod faster than cell can use it ( sugar is polymerized to starch grains
inside chloroplast)
• Root, bark, wood ( cant photosyn)
• Proplastid ---amyloplast ( store starch)
• Potato, yam, squash, starchy seeds
• Highly colored chromoplast, produced from thylakoid when chloroplast produces high amt of
colored lipids
• Fe – stored attached to protein (phytoferritin) in plastids
• Chromoplast- fat-soluble pigments giving red colors to flowers
 RNA- Ribonucleic acid

The mRNA molecule is ribbon-like, and is synthesized from DNA in a process

called “transcription” in which the genetic code is transcribed from the DNA to the
mRNA.
Types of RNA
The mRNA ( has codon) joins temporarily to the anticodon of the tRNA. This protein
building process takes place in the ribosomes of a cell, which consist largely of rRNA. The
large and small subunits of a ribosome are marked in the third illustration above.©
Transfer RNA is instrumental in the “translation” of the genetic code.
Transfer RNAs are small structures in the form of “four-leaf clovers”.
They each carry an amino acid ( anti codon) that is added to the end of a growing protein
chain.
Ribosomal RNA
Protein synthesis
Abundant in animals –liver, kidney cells; closely ass. w/ chloroplasts.

In plants, converts fats to sugar

Impt in germination of fat rich oily seeds like peanut,
coconut, sunflower
Cytosol
• Hyaloplasm
• Clear substance composed of water, enzymes, chem. Precursors, reaction
products in cytoplasm
• Has free ribosomes ( not attached to ER), skeletal structures ( microtubule,
microfilaments)
• Microtubule – most abundant
• Assemble into arrays like antenna w/c guide vesicles to specific sites
• During cell division, involved in pulling chromososmes
• Has α and β tubulin w/c ass. To tubulin dimers or tubule
Flagella and cilia
• Elaborate Microtubule arrangement in flagella and cilia
• Outer doublets ( has 2 arms of protein called Dynein)
• Sliding of 1 set of doublet cause the bending, alternate sliding ( beating
motion)
• “9+2” arrangement
• Cilia – short, occur in grps
• Flagella – longer, in pair, single or in four
• Microfilament
• Assembly of globular proteind, Actin and myosin
• For structure and movement
Vacuole
• Appears empty, cont H20 and salts
• Digestive organelle, has enzymes
• Derived from small cavities scattered in the cytoplasm
• Cell sap (vacuolar sap),enclosed by the tonoplast ( vacuolar memb)-
prevents leaking of waste back to cytoplasm
• Anthocyanin ( water sol pigment)
• In animal: Lysosome
• Functions
1. Maintain turgor pressure
2. Storage area for nutrients like K
3. Accumulation of toxic substances
 Vacuole
• Ergastic substances
1. crystals
a. calcium carbonate
b. calcium oxalate
2. starch and aleurone grains
3. nitrogenous inclusions – crystalloids or protein crystals
4. Granules / fibrous mat

Calcium regulates activity of enzymes

Plant cells regulate Ca conc in protoplasm by moving Ca into vacuole where it forms Ca
oxalate
Crystals (CaC2O4)
raphides

rosette

prismatic

styloid
Crystals (CaCO3)

cystolith
• Crystal protect plants from animals
Different plant cells

• Epidermal cells pear cells

Other specialized cells
• Shoot/ root tip cells – cell division
• Epidermal cells – H20 retention, cutin / wax as barriers fr bacteria, fungi
• Epidermal gland cells- poison prodtn
• Green leaf cells – photosynthesis
• Root epidermal cells – collect water/ minerals
• Vascular cells – transport water, nutrients
• Flower cells
• Petal cell – pigment attraction
• Scent cell- fragrance
• Nectary cell – sugar, attraction
• Stamen cell – indirectly involved in sperm cell prodtn
• Carpal cell – egg cell
• Fruit cell – sugar, aroma, attraction of fruit eating animals
Subunits of cell
• Whole cell
• Cell wall
• Protoplasm
• Nucleus
• Vacuole
• Cytoplasm
• All remaining organelles
• cytosol
Mitosis
Cell cycle
• Life cycle of organism includes:
• Stages of initiation, growth and death
• Length of cell cycle varies:
• Cell type, plant type, health, age, tempt
• Young embryonic plant, all cells divide
• Later on: tips of roots and shoots
• Center of cell division
• Cell cycle arrest
• Enter period of growth, cells differentiate and mature
• Ex: leaf cells grow as leaf expands
• Cortex cells ( stem/ root)
• Stop dividing before the organ matures
Mitosis
• All living cells in a plant have identical sets of chromosomes in their nuclei
• Each cell is said to be totipotent (F. C. Steward, 1950’s)
• Rudolf Virchow (1858) – all cells came from a preexisting cell
Mitosis
• For almost all cell, for growth
• 2N ( diploid)
• Not applicable for sex cells/ gametes
Cell cycle
•2 main parts
1. cell growth
interphase
2. cell division
a. mitosis
b. cytokinesis
Cell division
• Karyokinesis
• Types: mitosis and meiosis
• Nuclear division
• Cytoplasm divides by formation of cell wall
• Cytokinesis
• Division of protoplasm
Interphase
• 3 phases:
1. G1 phase (first gap, Gap1) – growth and rapid biosynthesis
2. S phase (synthesis) – growth and DNA replication
3. G2 phase (second phase) – growth and preparation for mitosis

Alma Howard and S. R. Pelc determined that DNA synthesis occurred during
interphase and designated the phases as G1, S and G2
G1 Phase
• Recovering after cell division, conducts normal metabolism
• Cellular activities arrested during mitosis is reactivated
• Reassembling of the cytoskeleton to support the cell
• Cell enlarges, organelles multiply, DNA of mitochondria and plastids increases
• Synthesis of the nucleotides for DNA replication (S phase)
• Most variable phase (etc.cellular arrest)
S phase
• Gene replication
• Chromatin synthesis ( DNA and histones)
• Self replication of the DNA]
• genome
• Histones
• Chromatid- half of double chromosome
• centromere
 Endoreduplication
• Occur in 80% of maturing plant cells
• Results to nucleus w/ many copies of each gene
• In Cells are rich in ribosome, prod large amt of protein
• Occurs in cells w/ rapid intense metabolism
• Ex. Hair, glandular cells
• Gene amplification
• Similar to endoreduplication, but involved some genes w/c are repeatedly replicated
G2 phase
• Begins after chromatin replication, 3-5 hrs
• Preparation for mitosis
• Production of tubulins (alpha & beta) for microtubules
• Production of proteins for processing chromosomes and breaking down the nuclear
membrane
Mitosis
• Duplication division
• 1870 Walther Flemming various stages of chromatin appearance
(mitosen – threads)
• Process of nuclear division
Phases:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. telophase
Mitosis
• prior to prophase, formation of a preprophase band ( microtubules
and acting filaments)
• Determines the position of division
• Plane is perpendicular to the migrating chromosomes
• Disappearance of microtubules signals mitosis ( actin filaments
remain)
Prophase

Early prophase
•Chromatin condenses and appear as mass of elongated threads, coiling of
chromosomes
Early prophase Late prophase
•Shorter and thicker chromosomes
Late prophase
•Visibility of chromosomes appearing as two parallel threads attached at a point
of constriction called centromere
•Disappearance of the nucleoli and nuclear membrane
 Metaphase
•Accumulation of parallel spindle fibers (microtubules) near the
chromosomes (spindle apparatus)
•Elongation of the spindle with ends pointing towards opposite poles of the cell
•Attachment of the spindle fibers on the either sides of the centromere of the
chromosomes(kinetochore)
•Unattached fibers (polar fibers)
•Alignment of the chromosomes in a circle around the spindle apparatus forming a
metaphase
plane (metaphase plate)
•Centromere divides
•2 chromatids of each chromosome are free of each other
Anaphase

•Begins after the centromere divides

•Shortening of the microtubules and
depolymerization at the end near the
spindle pole (pulling away of each daughter
chromosome toward opposite pole)
•Phragmoplast
Early anaphase ( short segments ofanaphase
Late microtubule)
formation at metaphase plate position
•Cell plate formation
•Row of small vesicles + phragmoplast+ wall
phragmoplast
Telophase
•Chromosomes at the spindle pole
•Appearance of nuclear membrane
•Chromosomes less distinct ( uncoil)
Cell wall •Nucleoli appear ( ribosomes
become active)
•Disappearance of the spindle fibers
•Cell wall formation
•Reversal of prophase
Identify the stages of mitosis
Meiosis
Meiosis
• Reduction Division
• Nuclear division in which the chromosomes are doubled, then divided twice;
daughter nuclei have half the number of chromosomes of the parent nucleus
(N- haploid)
• In plants, formation of spores, gametes (sperm and egg)
• After duplication of chromosomes during interphase, chromosomes enter
two successive nuclear divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II.
• w/out intervening S phase
Meiosis I
• Homologous chromosomes synapse, crossover and move to opposite
poles of the meiotic spindle apparatus
• Separation of the chromosomes resulted in a reduction in chromosome
number and haploid daughter nuclei
• consists of prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I
• Distinction from mitosis- homologous chromosomes form pairs
Prophase 1 of meiosis 1
• All events in prophase of mitosis occur:
• Nucleolus, nuclear membrane break down
• Form spindle fiber
• Chromosomes condenses
• 5 stages
• Most complicated stage of meiosis
Meiosis 1
• Prophase I
• Longest and most complex stage
• Stages:
• 1. leptotene - chromosome condensation
• 2. zygotene - pairing of chromosomes (synapsis)
• Synaptonemal complex between paired homologous chromosomes
• Paired chromosomes (bivalents)- doubled during interphase
• Bivalent consists of 4 chromatids and 2 centromeres
• 3. pachytene – cross – over
• No new gene formed but a new combination of genes in each chromatid
Meiosis 1
• Prophase I
• Longest and most complex stage
• Stages:
• 1. leptotene - chromosome condensation
• 2. zygotene - pairing of chromosomes (synapsis)
• Synaptonemal complex between paired homologous chromosomes
• Paired chromosomes (bivalents)- doubled during interphase
• Bivalent consists of 4 chromatids and 2 centromeres
• 3. pachytene – cross – over
• No new gene formed but a new combination of genes in each chromatid
Meiosis I
• Prophase I
• 4. diplotene - unpairing of the chromosomes (desynapsis)
• Chromosomes separate but held together at the paired centromeres and at the chiasma
• 4 chromatids form the tetrad
• 5. diakinesis – homologs separate as the chiasma moves to the end of the chromosome and
disappear
• Homologs are held together by the centromere
Meiosis I
• Prophase I
• 4. diplotene - unpairing of the chromosomes (desynapsis)
• Chromosomes separate but held together at the paired centromeres and at the chiasma
• 4 chromatids form the tetrad
• 5. diakinesis – homologs separate as the chiasma moves to the end of the chromosome and
disappear
• Homologs are held together by the centromere
Meiosis I
• Metaphase I
• spindle fibers move tetrads towards equatorial plate (metaphase plate)
• Anaphase I
• Homologs move towards opposite poles
•Centromeres do not divide
•Each chromosome consists of two chromatids
•Daughter nuclei are haploid
•Each with one set of chromosomes
•Centromere don’t divide
•1 chromosome = 2 chromatids
Meiosis I
• Metaphase I
• spindle fibers move tetrads towards equatorial plate (metaphase plate)
• Anaphase I
• Homologs move towards opposite poles
•Centromeres do not divide
•Each chromosome consists of two chromatids
•Daughter nuclei are haploid
•Each with one set of chromosomes
•Centromere don’t divide
•1 chromosome = 2 chromatids
Meiosis I
• Telophase I
• Chromosomes are still doubled
• Similar to G2
• Does not undergo interphase (no G1, S and G2)
• Some organisms skip telophase I and prophase II
• Or a partial telophase I – chromosomes uncoil, appearance of nuclear membrane and
nucleolus
• If interphase occurs, no DNA replication, and no S phase (interkinesis)
Meiosis I
• Telophase I
• Chromosomes are still doubled
• Similar to G2
• Does not undergo interphase (no G1, S and G2)
• Some organisms skip telophase I and prophase II
• Or a partial telophase I – chromosomes uncoil, appearance of nuclear membrane and
nucleolus
• If interphase occurs, no DNA replication, and no S phase (interkinesis)
 Meiosis II
• Similar to mitosis
• Straight to metaphase II if condensed chromosomes at prophase II or if telophase I
is bypassed
• Metaphase II, centrome divides forming 2 chromosomes
• Anaphase II – centromeres divide, each chromatids becomes a chromosome
• Telophase II – chromosome decondense, appearance of nuclear membrane
around the 4 daughter nuclei
• Cytokinensis may occur after meiosis I and after meiosis II or only in after meiosis II
• Meiotic errors resulted in a polyploid plant(colchicine)
 Meiosis II
• Similar to mitosis
• Straight to metaphase II if condensed chromosomes at prophase II or if telophase I
is bypassed
• Metaphase II, centrome divides forming 2 chromosomes
• Anaphase II – centromeres divide, each chromatids becomes a chromosome
• Telophase II – chromosome decondense, appearance of nuclear membrane
around the 4 daughter nuclei
• Cytokinensis may occur after meiosis I and after meiosis II or only in after meiosis II
• Meiotic errors resulted in a polyploid plant(colchicine)
• Cytokinesis in plants/ algae
• Formation of large vesicle bet daughter nuclei, formation of middle
lamella and new cell walls
• New nuclei formed, with 1 set of chromosome, each
with single chromatid (N)
Cell division in prokaryotes
• Bacteria, archaebacteria
• Simpler cytokinesis
• All genetic material occur as 1 ring of DNA w/o histone
• Circles of DNA are attached directly to plasma membrane
• Cytokinesis occurs by infurrowing
• Plasma memb furrows inward forming cross wall w/c grows inward and splits forming 2
walls and 2 cells
• Cyanobacteria, cross walls don’t break but form multicellular bodies
• Mitochondria, plastids – has circles of naked DNA w/c are separated by memb. Growth;
infurrowing
Plant Tissue
 The tallest living tree is the Stratosphere Giant in Humboldt
Redwoods State Park, California. At 112.34 meters (308.62 feet) , it
is five stories taller than the Statue of Liberty.

• Wood/ barks- secondary tissues

• Primary tissues are at shoot/ root tips of woody plants
Plant Body is composed of primary and secondary tissues
PRIMARY PLANT BODY:
- Herbaceous plant body
- Primary tissues
- Fr shoot and root apical meristem
SECONDARY PLANT BODY:
- woody plant body
Other meristem aside from apical meristem

Herb - annual
Plant Body is composed of primary and secondary tissues
• BUD
• Axillary
• Vegetable
• Floral
• terminal
 Tissue –group of cells that perform specific function

• Classification:
1. Based on stage of development
a. Embryonic or meristematic
b. Permanent
2. Based on composition
a. Simple
b. complex
Meristematic – tissues where the cells are in the mitotic state
Classification:
1. Based on initiating cells
a. Primary meristem (primordial meristem)
b. Secondary meristem
2. Based on position in the plant body
a. Apical
b. Intercalary
c. lateral
3. Based on function
a. Protoderm (DERMATOGEN)
b. Procambium (PLEROME)
c. Fundamental or ground (PERIBLEM)
Overview of primary meristems and tissues
Permanent – cells are stable, no longer dividing
- differentiated into 2 types
Types:
1. Simple permanent tissue
- composed of one type of cells
- differentiated into dermal or protective and ground or fundamental
2. Complex permanent tissue
- composed of different kinds of cells but perform similar function.
 Epidermis
(simple dermal)
• Outermost surface of a herbaceous stem, leaf, root
• Uses:
• protection
• Regulate exchange of materials
• Encrusted with cutin (cuticle)
• Contains guard cells,
• Composed of parenchymals cells
• Open guard cell – absorb water; closed – lose
water
• Stomata = guard cell + stomatal pore
Guard cells
 Epidermis
• Accessory cells – serves as reservoir of water and
ions
• Bulliform cells – longitudinal rows of
vacuolated cells
- loss turgor pressure
• Epidermal hair/ trichome – elongation of the
epidermal cell outward (trichome and root
hairs)
• Differences:
1. Location 3. structure
2. Function
Trichomes – Epidermal Outgrowths / Hairs

-shade leaves from excess light

-protect plants from insects

-aid in nutrient uptake
-help disperses seeds
- As secretory gland, salt, antiherbivore
compds

Cotton trichomes can be

made into threads, which
are then woven into cloth
 Epidermal hairs
1. Glandular or Secretory
2. Non-Glandular / Non-
secretory
GLANDULAR STINGING

BRISTLE SCALE STELLATE BRANCHING

Root hairs – epidermal outgrowth of root’s epidermis
- increase surface area for absorption

Root hairs of
germinated seed
Cork or Phellem
(simple dermal)

• Outer covering of woody stems and roots

• Cell wall impregnated with suberin
• Produced by the cork cambium (secondary
meristem)
• No intercellular spaces
Lenticels – lens-shaped spot or pores on dicot stem for gaseous exchange
HARVESTING OF CORK FROM PHELLODENDRON TREE
Cortex
• Interior to the epidermis
• Types:
• Simple, w/ parenchyma, collenchyma
• Very complex: specialized cells w/c secrete latex, mucilage, resin, crystals
• In fleshy stems ( tubers, corms)
• Aerenchyma – open tissue w/ large intercellular air spaces
• Aquatic plants
• Air chambers for buoyancy
• Plant cells are grouped into the ff based in nature of their walls
• Parenchyma
• Collenchyma
• sclerenchyma
Parenchyma cells have uniformly thin cell walls. Most common type, constitute all soft parts of plant.

Thin – walled primary wall

Active metabolically, nucleated
Alive at maturity
Isodiametric shape
large vacuole
Specialized for photosynthesis (chlorenchyma)
Specialized for gas exchange capacity - large intercellular spaces
(aerenchyma)
Specialized for short distance transport of solutes (transfer cells)
Storage (storage parenchyma)
Chlorenchyma cells are parenchyma involved in photosynthesis

• w/ chloroplast
• Thin walled, allow light /
CO2 to pass

Cross section of a leaf blade (dicot)

Other types of parenchyma cells are glandular cells, transfer cells,
storage cells.

Storage parenchyma cells

Mucilage from Venus Mucilage from Okra
of potato
Flytrap

Glandular cells – nectar, gragrances, mucilage, resins, oils

- High in dictyosomes, ER
- Transport sugar, minerals into themselves to transform them to products
Parenchymal cells
• Pigmented cells
• Flower/ petals/ fruits
• Thin walls permit pigment in protoplasm to be seen
• Transfer cells
• Short distance transport of material by means of large plasma membrane capable of
holding molecular pumps
 Collenchyma cells have primary walls that thickened in the corners.

• Elongated cells with unevenly thickened non–lignified

primary wall, alive at maturity
• Require more glucose for its production
• Plasticity
• Found in elongating tips and vines, young petiole (
strength)
• Subterranean roots/shoots don’t require collenchyma
• Aerial roots of epiphytes
• Thicker layer of collenchyma
Collenchyma cells are usually found below the epidermis or bands next to the
vascular tissues

• 8-12 cells thick

• Thick primary wall in corners
• No intercellular spaces
• Parenchyma provides inner tissues support, expands
• Expanding is counterbalanced by resistance of collenchyma, so stem becomes rigid
Sclerenchyma has both a primary and thick secondary wall that is
lignified.
Walls are elastic; rigid not usable for growing shoot tips bec it will prevent
elongation
Water transport
In mature organs
Arise from parenchyma due to tension
Dead at maturity (in some)
Support and strengthening tissues
Two types of cells:
1. conducting
- tracheids, vessel elements ( tracheary elements)
2. mechanical –
2.1. sclereids - short
2.2. fibers- long, flexible
Sclereids are short and isodiametric,cuboidal with strong walls, brittle and inflexible,
protective in function

- Remain alive at maturity

- Masses of sclereids form hard, impenetrable surfaces like
shells of walnut, coconut
- Pits- channels for nutrients keeping sclereids alive
Fibers are long, flexible sclerenchyma, wood of most flowering plants

Flax fibers – common source for paper and linen cloth

Some remain alive involved in storage
• Sclereids and fibers, impregnanted with lignin become waterproof
• Nutrients cant enter the cell thru plasmodesmata
• Plasmodesmata in primary wall are narrow for long distance water
conduction
• Pit- means of transport of nutrients
• Area w/c with no secondary wall
Specific Chemicals in walls
Cell type chemical properties

collenchyma pectin plasticity

sclerenchyma lignin Strength, water proofing

epidermis Cutin/waxes Water proof, indigestible

endodermis Suberin, lignin Water proof

Cork/ bark suberin Water proof

The Vascular Tissue System
Two complex tissues:
1. xylem – brings water and mineral salts from the roots to the rest of the
plants.
2. phloem- living cells; moves sugar and other organic nutrients
phloem- parenchyma tissue, conducts sugar over long distances fr sugar sources
Complex Permanent Tissues
1. Xylem
- transport water and minerals from the roots to stem and to the leaves
- thick lignified wall , dead at maturity
- xylem sap travels thru dead cells ( xylem tube)
- primary xylem - procambium
- protoxylem – short – lived, replaced by new protoxylem (outer)
- metaxylem – formed after elongation of stem/root (inner)
- secondary xylem (wood) – vascular cambium
- inner layer of the bark
- conducting cells (xylary elements) :
tracheids and vessel elements
Stems Growth and Differentiation

• Stems grow longer by producing new cells at tips called shoot apical meristem
• Cells expand pushing meristem upward
• Subapical meristem – lower cells producing new cells below
• In subapical meristem:
• Cells --- 1st tracheids or vessel elem ---protoxylem (small)—form cells w/c mature—large
tracheary elem called metaxylem
• Cells ---1st phloem---protophloem (ext cell, shortlived)--- formed cells closed to metaxylem
---metaphloem
• Metaphloem diff to large sieve areas and companion cells
• All cells are expanding : dead functional protoxylem/protophloem, living
undiff metaxylem/metaphloem
• In xylem: all ceased on dividing– become larger as tissue expands
(protoxylem are being stretched)
• Phloem cell continuous to divide so remain small
• Protoderm
• Meristematic epidermal cells, in early stages of differentiation
• Provascular tissue
• Young cells of xylem and phloem
• Ground meristem
• Equivalent stages of pith and cortex
• Subapical meristem
• Consists of protoderm, ground meristem and provascular tissue
The conducting cells of Xylem
1. Tracheids
1. long cells with tapered ends., no
perforations
2. Only type of water conducting cells
in ferns, conifers and most other
non flowering plants.
3. Dead at maturity ( hollow tubular
wall)
4. Secondary wall has pits ( to keep
sclereid alive)
Pits are the gaps in the secondary
walls.
Bordered pits make the opening
narrower, acting like a valve.
Water can pass thru/ bet tracheids
thru pit pairs.
Secondary wall thickenings
• Annular – small amt of 2˚ wall
• As set of rings, weak, large surface area for water movt
• Helical/ spiral – weak, 1 or 2 helices of 2˚ wall
• Scalariform - 2˚ wall covers most of inner wall, for strength
• Reticulate - 2˚ wall is deposited in net shape
• Circular bordered pits – most derived, strongest ( due to borders) tracheary
element
• All primary wall is covered by 2˚ wall , water cant move easily
Secondary Wall thickenings in Tracheids and vessel
elements
Vessel elements
1. Dead at maturity
2. Cell walls form hollow tubes,
3. Wider, shorter, and less tapered
4. With perforation plate (water pass
easily bet vessel elem thru perforation); it
reduces friction
5. Joined together to form a pipe or
tube
In flowering plants, few ferns, gymnosperm
Phloem – food conducting tissues
1. Sieve tube members
- alive and active
- Only primary walls, parenchyma cells
- Presence of sieve plates
- No nucleus
- Forms continuous connection of
cytoplasm from the top to bottom
- 2. Companion cells – nucleated, supply
proteins to sieve tubes
Complex permanent tissues

1. Phloem
- transport dissolved organic compounds (sucrose)
- thin walled primary wall
- primary phloem - procambium
- protophloem – elongating regions (outer); short - lived
- metaphloem – non – elongating regions (inner)
- secondary phloem – vascular cambium
- inner layer of the bark
- sieve elements: sieve cells, sieve tube members (companion
cell)
-plasmodesmata enlarge to form sieve pores
-sieve areas – grp of sieve pores
 Phloem
Sieve tubes – vertical rows of
elongated cells
-Possess a protoplasm but no
nucleus
-Walls are perforated with pits
-Perforated end walls serve as strainer
(sieve plate)

Companion cells – small cells attached to the

sieve cells
-Possess a nucleus
-Regulate the loading and unloading of
carbohydrates from the sieve tubes
Sieve Elements
Sieve cells Sieve tube memb
Shape Long/ narrow Short/ wide
Ends pointed Ends -flat
Sieve areas Small located over On side walls;
all the cell surface small
On end walls- very
large end wall (
sieve plate)
Associated cells Albuminous cells Companion cell
Plant division Non angiosperm Angiosperm only
Secretory Cells

• Not classified but incorporated with other tissues

• Two types
• External (nectary, hydathodes, digestive glands, salt glands)
• Internal (resin ducts, laticifers)
 Nectary (Floral)

- secrete nectar or sugary

exudates

1. for attraction –floral

2. for protection – extrafloral

 parenchyma
hydathode

Hydathodes (water glands) –

secrete water via guttation,
relieve pressure build-up
Digestive glands

secrete enzymes that digest trapped

insects
 Salt glands

Salt glands – dump sites for excess salt absorbed from a

salty (saline) environment
- leaf of mangroves.
Secretory cells
(internal)
Internally located cells that exude protoplasmic products
influenced by pressure or lysis of cell wall
• Secretory cells – large cells contain substances ( oil,
mucilage)
Secretory cells

Basil oil and fragrances

Internal used as storage of secreted oils and
resin ducts resins.

RESINS- “AMBER”
-flammable with turpentine
and rosins.
-aromatic
LATICIFERS– secretory cells with primary wall secreting latex; seal wounds and protection
Internal
laticifers

Articulated laticifers Non – articulated

laticifers