1.

Gauss’ Law for the Electric Field

Let us first discuss the flux of the vector of electric field E. Consider a
surface S placed in a region where there is a vector field E (Fig. 1). We divide
the surface into small surfaces of areas dS1, dS2, dS3, ….and draw at each of
them a unit vector uN perpendicular to the surfaces. The unit vectors are
oriented in the sense of advance of a right-handed screw rotated in the sense in
which we decide to orient the rim of the surface. If the surface is closed, the
vectors are oriented in the outward direction. Let θ be the angles between the
normal vectors uN and the electric field vectors E at each point on the surface.
Then the flux ФE of the vector E through the surface S is
Ф𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑1 cos 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝐸𝐸2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2
or
Ф𝐸𝐸 = ∫𝑆𝑆 𝐸𝐸 cos θ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝑆𝑆(𝑬𝑬 ∙ 𝒖𝒖𝑁𝑁 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, (1),
where the integral extends over all the surface, as indicated by the subscript S.

uN ƟN
S E

dS

Fig. 1
This integral in (1) is called as surface integral. It is evident that if the vector of
electric field E is tangent or parallel to the surface element dS resulting in zero
flux through dS. So, the total flux ФE may also be positive, negative, or zero.
When it is positive the flux is outgoing and when it is negative the flux is
incoming.
If the surface is closed, such as for example, it is for a sphere, a circle is
written on the integral sign, and the flux is written in the following form
Ф𝐸𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸𝐸 cos θ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∮(𝑬𝑬 ∙ 𝒖𝒖𝑁𝑁 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (2)
 Let us now consider a point charge q and compute the flux of its electric
field E through a spherical surface concentric with the charge. The electric field
produced by the charge at each point of the spherical surface is
𝑞𝑞
𝑬𝑬 = 𝒖𝒖 .
4πε0 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑟𝑟
The unit vector uN normal to a sphere coincides with the unit vector ur along the
radial direction. Therefore the angle θ between the elrctric field E and the
normal unit vector ur is zero, and cos θ = 1. The electric field E has the same
magnitude at all points of the spherical surface and the area of the sphere is 4π.
Hence equation (2) gives the electric flux ФE as
𝑞𝑞 2) 𝑞𝑞
Ф𝐸𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸 𝑆𝑆 = (
2 4πε0 𝑟𝑟 = . (3)
4πε0 𝑟𝑟 ε0
The electric flux through the sphere is proportional to the charge and
independent of the radius of the concentric spherical surface S1, S2, S3, …
around the charge q (Fig. 2).

S3
S2
+q

Fig. 2
Next consider a charge q inside an arbitrary closed surface S. The total flux
through S of electric field produced by q is given by
𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos θ
Ф𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐸𝐸 cos θ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � cos θ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � .
𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 4πε0 𝑟𝑟2 4πε0 𝑆𝑆 𝑟𝑟2
Note that the term dS cosθ /r2 is the solid angle dΩ. Since the total solid angle
around a point is 4π, we have
𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
Ф𝐸𝐸 = � 𝑑𝑑Ω = 4π = .
4πε0 4πε0 ε0
If a charge is outside of closed surface, the electric flux is zero, because the
incoming flux is equal to the outcoming flux; hence a net flux of zero results.
If there are several charges q1, q2, q3, … inside the arbitrary surface S the
total electric flux will be the sum of the fluxes produced by each charge. We
state Gauss’ law: The electric flux through a closed surface surrounding
charges q1, q2, q3, … is
𝑄𝑄
Ф𝐸𝐸 = ∮𝑆𝑆(𝑬𝑬 ∙ 𝒖𝒖𝑁𝑁 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = , (4)
ε0
where Q = q1 +q2 +q3 + … is the total net charge inside the closed surface. So,
we have proved that Gauss’ law can be applied to a surface of any shape.

Gauss’ law can be written in the differential form as

ρ
div𝑬𝑬 = , (5)
ε0
where ρ = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the density of electric charge (or charge per unit volume).

The expression on the left-hand side of (5) is the divergence of E. Expression

(5) in the XYZ-axes can be written as
𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 ρ
+ + = .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ε0
The physical meaning of Gauss’ law in its differential form is that it relates the
electric field E at a point in space to the charge distribution, expressed by 𝜌𝜌, at
the same point in space.

Gauss’ law is particularly useful for a computing the electric field produced by
charge distributions having certain geometrical symmetries such as infinitely
extended charged plane, spherical and cylindrical charge distribution.
 2. Electric Field Created by a Charge Uniformly Distributed
over a Plane
Using Gauss’ law, obtain the electric field created by a charge uniformly
distributed over a plane. We consider the plane, which carries a charge 𝜎𝜎 per
unit area (Fig. 3).

S2
S
E

S1

Fig. 3

The symmetry of the problem indicates that the lines of force are
perpendicular to the plane, and if the charge is positive, they are oriented as
indicated in the figure. Choosing for our closed surface the cylinder shown in
the figure, we separate the electric flux in three terms: The flux through S1
which is +ES , where S is the area of the base of cylinder; the flux through S2
which is also +ES since, by the symmetry, the electric field must be the same in
magnitude and opposite in direction at points at the same distance on both side
of the plane; and the flux through the lateral surface of the cylinder, which is
zero because the electric field is parallel to the surface. Therefore, we have
ФE = 2ES. The charge inside the closed surface is that in the shaded area and is
equal to q= 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎. Applying Gauss’ law we have
σ
2𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = σ𝑆𝑆�ε0 or 𝐸𝐸 = . (6)
2ε0
The result indicates that the electric field is independent of the distance to the
plane and is therefore uniform. The electric potential, using relation φ = 𝐸𝐸 𝑥𝑥
and assuming that the potential of the plane is zero, is
σ
φ=− 𝑥𝑥.
2𝜀𝜀0
Using the relation (6) we may obtain the electric field created two parallel
planes with equal but opposite charges (Fig. 4).

+Q −Q

Fig. 4
We observe that in the region outside the two oppositely charges planes there
are electric fields equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, a resultant field
and the resultant field is twice as large as the field of a single plane

σ
𝐸𝐸 = .
ε0
Thus the two parallel and oppositely charged planes produce a uniform field
contained in the region between them.

3. Electric Field Created by a Spherical Distribution of Charge

Let us consider a sphere of radius a and a spherical distribution of charge Q
(Fig. 5). Due to the symmetry of the problem the electric field at each point
must be radial and depend only on the distance r from the point to the center of
the sphere. Therefore, the electric flux through a spherical surface of radius r
concentric with the charged sphere is

Ф𝐸𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = E (4π𝑟𝑟 2 ) .

 B E

E S'
A S

Q C R

Fig. 5
Considering first the range r>R, we find that the charge inside the surface
S is the total charge Q of the sphere. Thus, applying Gauss’ law (4) , we obtain
𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄
𝐸𝐸 (4π𝑟𝑟 2 ) = or 𝐸𝐸 = .
ε0 4πε0 𝑟𝑟2
Note that this is the same result as for the field of a point charge.
Considering the range r<R, we have two possibilities. If all the charge is at
the surface of the charged sphere, the total charge inside the surface 𝑆𝑆′ is zero,
and Gauss’ law gives E = 0. Thus the electric field at point inside a sphere
which is charged only on its surface is zero.
But if the sphere is uniformly charged throughout its volume and 𝑄𝑄′ is the
charge inside the surface 𝑆𝑆′, we have
3
𝑄𝑄4π𝑟𝑟3� � = 𝑄𝑄𝑟𝑟 .
𝑄𝑄′ = � 3
4π𝑅𝑅3 ⁄3 𝑅𝑅3
Therefore Gauss’ law now gives
𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄
𝐸𝐸 (4π𝑟𝑟 2 ) = 𝑄𝑄′ ⁄𝜀𝜀0 = 𝑄𝑄𝑟𝑟 3 ⁄𝜀𝜀0 𝑅𝑅 3 or 𝐸𝐸 = ,
4πε0 𝑅𝑅3
showing that the electric field at a point inside a uniformly charged sphere is
directly proportional to the distance from the point to the center of the sphere.