EVOLUTION, BIOL

OGICAL
COMMUNITIES, A
ND
SPECIES

INTERACTIONS

BY GROUP 2
ECE - 2103
 raphael nuguit
@part1

M eet lizette angela

ramos

t he @part2

john carlo
REPORTERS capoyan
@part3

nathaniel
lajara
@part4
LEARNING
OU T C O M E S :
Acquire high level of awareness
1 about the environment and its
significance.
2 Describe how evolution produces
species diversity.

3 Discuss how species interactions

shape biological communities.
ECOLOGICAL
CONCEPTS

This lesson includes the discussions about how

species diversity is produced through evolution,
how the biological communities are shaped
through species interactions and how the
species and populations are affected by
community properties. Also, it explains the
dynamic and changing communities.
t a bl e of
contents

1. EVOLUTION
2. SPECIES INTERACTIONS
3. COMMUNITY PROPERTIES
4. DYNAMIC AND CHANGING
COMMUNITIES
 EVOLUTION

CES SPECIES
PRODU

DIVERSITY
ADAPTATION

- The acquisition of traits

that allow a species to
survive in its environment.
 2 ways of using the
term “Adapt"
Genetic
Accl i m a t i o n
traits

- is a gradual, reversible change to - passed from generation to generation and

the body to help adapt to changes to allow a species to live more successfully in
the environment. its environment. This process of adaptation
to environment is explained by the theory of
evolution.
 EXAMPLES OF
ACCLIMATION

SA LM O N LISTERIA

While it's easy to think of big things, like animals,

Salmon move from place to place to
having to acclimate to their environments, small
live out their life cycle. organisms need to do this too.
 GENETIC TS
TRAI
Evolution Natural Selection Mutations
– the basic idea is that – the process of – changes to the DNA
species change over better-selected coding sequence of
generations because individuals that occurs
individuals passing
individuals compete occasionally, and the
their traits to the next
for scarce resources. changed sequences are
generation.
inherited by offspring.
L I M I T I N G
FACTORS
OF SPECIES
crit i ca l
factor
- According to the chemist Justus von
Liebig (1840), the single factor in shortest
supply relative to demand is the critical
factor determining where a species lives.
- Temperature, moisture level, nutrient
supply, soil and water chemistry, living
space, and other environmental factors
must be at appropriate levels for
organisms to persist.
 olerance
t limits
- Ecologist Victor Shelford (1877-1968)
expanded Liebig’s principle.
- He stated that each environmental factor
has both minimum and maximum levels,
called tolerance limits, beyond which
particular species cannot survive or is
unable to reproduce.
 gical
ecolo niche
Habitat – the place or set of environmental
conditions in which a particular organism
lives.

Ecological Niche – describes both the role

played by a species in a biological
community and the set of environmental
factors that determine its distribution.
charles
elton
Charles Elton (1900-1991) – British
Ecologist who defined the concept of
niche in 1927. According to him, each
species had a role in a community of
species, and the niche defined its way of
obtaining food, the relationships it had with
other species, and the services it provided
to its community.
 SPECIATION
The development of a new species.
As a population becomes more
adapted to its ecological niche, it may
develop specialized or distinctive
traits that eventually differentiate it
entirely from its biological cousins.

Directional Selection – the shift toward

one extreme of a trait.
 Allopatr ic Sympatric
Speciation Speciation
– speciation that occurs when populations – speciation that occurs within one geographic
are geographically separated. area.

Geographic Isolation – when the habitat are

Behavioral Isolation – when two identical
far enough apart that population were
species live in similar habitats but have
genetically isolated; they couldn’t
different mating calls. This difference is enough
interbreed with populations on the other
to prevent interbreeding.
habitat.
 CO
M
PR M
OP UN
ER IT
TI Y
ES

Productivity is a measure of biological activity.

Abundance and diversity measure the number and

variety of organisms. Resilience and stability make

communities resistant to disturbance.

 Primary
Productivity
The rate of biomass production.
- An indication of the rate of solar energy
conversion to chemical energy.
- The energy left after respiration is net
primary production.
 dance
Abun
Diversity

-Abundance is an expression of the

total number of organisms in a
biological community.
- Diversity is a measure of the
number of different species,
ecological niches, or genetic
variation present.
- The abundance of a particular
species often is inversely related to
the total diversity of the community.
 Ecological
Structure
- Ecological structure refers to patterns of spatial
distribution of individuals and populations within a
community, as well as the relation of a particular
community to its surroundings.
- At the local level, even in a relatively
homogeneous environment, individuals in a single
population can be distributed randomly, clumped
together, or in highly regular patterns. - In randomly
arranged populations, individuals live wherever
resources are available.
- Ordered patterns may be determined by the
physical environment but are more often the result
of biological competition.
 Resilience

St a b i l i t y

- Many biological communities

tend to remain relatively
stable and constant over time.
 ur (1955)
MacArth
Robert
a graduat
e student
proposed at Yale,
that the m
complex ore
and
interconn
communit e cted a
y is, the m
stable and ore
resilient it
be in the f will
ace of
disturban
ce.
 hree k inds
T
of
stability or resiliency
in ecosystems:
1. Constancy – lack of fluctuations in composition or functions
2. Inertia - resistance to perturbations
3. Renewal - ability to repair damage after disturbance

E D G E S
& Boundaries
-The boundary between one habitat and its
neighbors is an important aspect of community
structure. These relationships are called edge
effects.
- The edge of a patch of habitat is sometime
relatively sharp and distinct.
SPECIES
TERACTIONS
IN

C O M P E T T I O N

- A type of antagonistic relationship within a biological community.

- Organisms compete for resources that are in limited supply such as
energy and matter in usable forms, living space, and specific sites to
carry out life’s activities. - Competition shapes a species population
and biological community by causing individuals and species to shift
their focus from one segment of a resource type to another.

 ecifi c Intersp
Intra sp ecific
e tition compe
comp tition

– competition
– competition
between
among members of
members of
the same species.
different species.

 predator
- Any organism that feeds directly on another
living organism, whether or not this kills the
prey.
- Herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores,
which feed on live prey, are predators.
- Predation is a powerful but complex
influence on species populations in
communities.
 Predation
affects:
1. All stages in the life cycles of predator and
prey species.

2. Many specialized food-obtaining

mechanisms.

3. The evolutionary adjustments in behavior

and body characteristics that help prey avoid
being eaten and help predators more
efficiently catch their prey.
 SYMBIOSIS

Two or more species live intimately

together, with their fates linked.
- Symbiotic relationships often enhance
the survival of one or both partners.
T Y P E S
of symbiosis
Mutualism – type of symbiosis in which both members’ benefits. (e.g. Dogs and Humans)

Commensalism – type of symbiosis in which one member clearly benefits and the other
apparently is neither benefited nor harmed. (e.g. a spider building a web on a tree)

Parasitism – a form predation may also be considered symbiosis because of the dependency
of the parasite on its host. (fleas and mosquitoes feed on blood from other organisms.

Endosymbiosis – one species living inside another one. (e.g. Protozoans that live inside
termites and help them digest wood)

Ectosymbiosis – one species living on the surface of the other species. (e.g. Lice that feed on the
skin, blood, or oil secretions of the host)
 keystone
species:
- Plays a critical role in a biological community
that is out of proportion to its abundance.

- Thought to be the top predators like lions,

wolves, and tigers that limited herbivore
abundance and reduced the herbivory of
plants.
Dynamic &

Changing
communities
COMMUNITY DYNAMICS
-The changes in community
structure and composition
over time.
-These changes are induced
by environmental disturbances
such as volcanoes, earthquakes,
storms, fires, and climate change.
-Communities with a stable
structure are said to
be at equilibrium.
eCOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

- Ecological Succession is the history

of community development. When
succession occurs, organisms occupy
a site and change the environmental
conditions.
 m ar y Second
Pr i ary
es sion succes
su cc sion
- When an existing
- Land that is bare of
community is
soil (a sandbar,
disturbed, a new one
mudslide, rock face,
develops from the
and volcanic flow) is
biological legacy of
colonized by living
the old.
organisms where none

lived before.
PI O NE ER SPECIES
- In primary succession on land, the first
colonists (microbes, mosses, and lichens) that
can withstand a harsh environment with few
resources.
-These early species grow and die, they
add to an ever-growing layer of decomposing
organic material and contribute
to soil formation.

COMMUNITY
CLIMAX
- An ecological community in which
populations of plants or animals
remain stable and exist in
balance with each other and
their environment.
- It is the final stage of succession,
remaining relatively unchanged until
destroyed by an event such as fire or
human interference.
ECOLOGICAL
DISTURBANCE
- Disturbance is regarded as an event of
intense environmental stress occurring over a
relatively short period of time and causing large
changes in the affected ecosystem.
- Disturbance can be caused by physical
stressors such as volcanic eruptions, hurricanes,
tornadoes, earthquakes, and over geological
time, glacial advance, and retreat.
- Humans can also cause physical disturbances,
for example, through construction activities.
iNTRODUCED
SPECIES
- The term can refer to animals, plants,
fungi, or microorganisms that are non-
native to an area.
- Species introduction can be accidental
or intentional.
- It is also called alien species, are those
that have been moved by humans to an
environment where they didn't occur
naturally.

S

C S S O N
 ANSWER:

SUCCESSION


MP T
I
N
ANSWER: COMPETITION
 ANSWER:

SPECIATION
 ANSWER:

PRODUCTIVITY
REFERENCES
Lumen Waymaker. Community Structure and Dynamics. Biology for Majors II. Retrieved from
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mthjCyQxdATA5UBHoDpDKkz4

Thompson, J. Ecological Succession. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/science/ecological-succession

The Pennsylvania State University (2009, July 9). The Virtual Nature Trail at Penn State New
Kensington Ecological Succession. Retrieved from
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WryharN2Q3EnCAvGeJa3uIOpr6uUZ-bkRTwQt-cRJBIEX2_ao

Alida D. (2021). What Is an Introduced Species? - Definition, Effects & Examples. Study. com.
Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-an-introduced-species-
definition-effects-examples.html?
fbclid=IwAR2pbQOL2aQdfA1cNFMBPize8DyGZXU9YdwsGVACH0o0hWjlLVb3mHukfBU
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/intraspecific-competition
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