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Correlation of Tribological Properties with Microstructure and Mechanical

Properties of Graphite Cast Irons Centrifugally Cast for Engine Liner

Article  in  Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals · October 2014

DOI: 10.1007/s12666-014-0395-6

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Trans Indian Inst Met (2014) 67(5):731–740
DOI 10.1007/s12666-014-0395-6
TECHNICAL PAPER
Correlation of Tribological Properties with Microstructure
and Mechanical Properties of Graphite Cast Irons Centrifugally
Cast for Engine Liner
H. S. Desai Gowda • P. G. Mukunda •
Mervin A. Herbert
Received: 4 October 2013 / Accepted: 2 January 2014 / Published online: 13 April 2014
 Indian Institute of Metals 2014
Abstract This is a study of the influence of centrifugal
process on the graphite morphology, mechanical and wear
properties on flake graphite iron (FGI), spheroidal graphite
iron (SGI) and compacted graphite iron (CGI). Melts of
hypereutectic and almost of identical composition with or
without melt treatment were centrifugally cast. The
microstructure, mechanical and wear properties of these
specimens were studied. In the microstructure for FG iron
it has been observed that the centrifugal process produces
flake size range class 2–3 (range 160–320 lm) and graphite
of flake type A by about 67.9 % (field %) and combined
flakes of type B, C, D and E will be of 32.1 % (field %).
While SGI has been observed to have 96.1 % nodules and
330.0 nodules per square millimeter. Similarly CGI has
been seen to produce 52.0 % nodules and 113 nodules per
square millimeter. SGI possess the highest tensile strength,
rupture strain and hardness of 604 N/mm2, 6.1 %,
233 BHN respectively. Whereas FGI possess the least
tensile strength, rupture strain and hardness of 303 N/mm2,
0.65 %, 185 BHN respectively among the irons. CGI has a
tensile strength, rupture strain and hardness of 369 N/mm2,
1.2 % and 200 BHN respectively which lies in between
those of FGI and SGI. During the wear test similar mate-
rials for both disk and pin combination show higher co-
efficient of friction and wear rate than those for dissimilar
material combinations. SGI disk and FGI pin combination
H. S. Desai Gowda (&)
P. G. Mukunda
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nitte Meenakshi
Institute of Technology, Yelahanka, Bangalore 560 064, India
e-mail: desaigowda@gmail.com
M. A. Herbert
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of
Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangalore 575 025, India
TP 2801
show least wear. This combination would be ideally suited
for engine liner and piston rings.
Keywords Cast irons
Centrifugal process

Cylinder liner
Microstructure
Ultimate tensile strength

Wear
1 Introduction
The properties of cast irons are mainly controlled by the
shape of the graphite in combination with the matrix con-
stituents. Hence a wide spectrum of properties is observed
in the different grades of cast irons [1]. Perhaps the most
interesting feature of the family of cast irons is the control
of the morphology of the graphite phase and the matrix
through changes in chemical composition, melting and
melts handling techniques, the process of solidification and
subsequent cooling. For a given composition of cast iron,
its structure will also depend on the rate of cooling (wall
thickness) of the casting.
Gray cast iron is extensively used in industries because of
its excellent castability, low cost, wide range of achievable
mechanical and tribological properties [2–4]. In FGI the
graphite is in the form of flakes which are formed during the
solidification process that run through the ferrite/pearlite
matrix controlling the mechanical properties. This graphite
structure reduces the strength and toughness of the grey cast
irons but confers many benefits such as low cost, high flu-
idity, low shrinkage, improved wear properties, damping
properties, compressive strength and machinability [2–6].
But the graphite in the ductile iron is spherical. An unusual
combination of properties is obtained in ductile iron because
the graphite is in the spherical form. The solidification of
ductile iron begins with the nucleation and growth of
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732
spherical graphite in the melt containing modifiers. After the
formation of graphite spheroids the concentration of carbon
in the layers covering the graphite decreases. An austenite
shell freezes around the graphite spheroids. The graphite
nodule growth now can progress by diffusion of carbon
through austenite layers [7, 8]. Composition of ductile iron is
kept same as grey iron but for the addition of a very small, but
specific, amount of Mg. This Mg reacts with the sulfur and
oxygen in the molten iron and changes the morphology of
graphite [10].
Compacted graphite cast irons (CGI) of the same com-
position as grey iron but is structurally between those of grey
and ductile irons. This fulfills the need for cast irons stronger
than grey iron resulting in reduction of the part weight, but
with good machinability, thermal-fatigue resistance, damp-
ing capacity, casting mold yield and castability compared to
ductile iron parts. CGI seem to provide a cost-effective
solution to meet these challenges [11].
Wear is a progressive loss of material from interacting
surfaces that are in relative motion. Cast irons have always
been used in a variety of tribological applications with or
without lubrication [12–14]. Wear study is important in
characterizing the suitability of a material in some applica-
tions like cylinder liners [15]. Flake graphite is a well known
solid lubricant [16–18]. The main factors that influence the
wear and friction may be (1) the composition and structure of
the contacting pairs, their harnesses and toughness. (2)
Variables connected with service are normal pressure, slid-
ing speed and temperature. (3) Other factors that play a role
are like lubrication and corrosion [19].
The present investigation deals with the effect of cen-
trifugal processes on cast irons metal matrix morphology
and its influence on their mechanical and tribological
properties. Tribological analysis was also carried out to
determine the wear behavior for different combination of
graphite irons, one against another, not just the standard
wear studies done against a hardened steel counter face. An
attempt has been made to correlate the effect of micro
structure on the mechanical and wear properties. Reports
on cast iron properties by gravity cast process are plenty
but those by centrifugal process are few. This is an attempt
to study of the effect of centrifugal casting on cast irons
morphology, mechanical and wear properties.
2 Experimental Work
The materials for this experimental work were drawn from
the production line of engine liner manufacturing industry.
The alloy was melted in a solid state thyristor controlled
medium frequency induction furnace of 300 kg capacity.
The base iron composition is kept almost the same for all
irons used in this study.
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Trans Indian Inst Met (2014) 67(5):731–740
2.1 Flake Graphite Iron (FGI)
The liquid metal untreated for flake graphite iron was poured
into the horizontal rotating mold with the chosen quantity of
the melt for controlling the liner thickness. The centrifugal
force generated by mold rotation holds the melt against the
mold wall and forces lighter, non-metallic impurities to the
inside of the liner to be removed in the cleaning process.
After the melt has solidified, the casting machine is stopped
and the liner is stripped from the mold. In this process molten
metal solidifies very quickly. The composition for FGI is
presented in Table 1. The carbon equivalent for all cast irons
is obtained from the relation Ceq. = (C/3) ? (1/3)(Si ? P).
2.2 Spheroidal Graphite Iron (SGI)
The base iron was superheated approximately to 1,560 C,
to take care of temperature drop during the melt treatment
followed by teeming. The molten metal was melt treated
with the addition of 1.4 % Mg–Fe–Si nodulariser, 0.6 %
Mg–Fe–Si ladle inoculation and 0.2 % Mg–Fe–Si post
inoculation (ferrosilicon will be 70–75 %) The spheroi-
dizing process was carried out by applying the sandwich
method in an open ladle. The magnesium (nodularizing)
alloy is placed on a pocket in the bottom of an open pre
heated ladle. The melt is poured on the other side to react
with the magnesium alloy effectively and then tapped at
1,500 C to a preheated ladle. The metal so prepared was
cast by centrifugal casting processes as described in Sect.
2.1. The composition for SGI is shown in Table 2.
2.3 Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI)
The base iron with low sulphur content was melted and
superheated to approximately 1,560 C, to take care of
temperature drop during melt treatment operation. The
melt treatment was carried out with the addition of 0.9 %
Mg–Fe–Si nodulariser, 0.6 % Mg–Fe–Si ladle inoculation,
0.2 % Mg–Fe–Si post inoculation (Ferrosilicon will be
70–75 %) and re-sulphurisation by late addition of known
quantity of iron sulphide to promote the formation of
vermicular graphite. The composition for CGI is shown in
Table 3. The metal so prepared was cast by centrifugal
casting processes as described in Sect. 2.1.
2.4 Metallographic Analysis
The metallographic specimens of the casts were prepared
by cutting the centrifugally cast liner along the length
parallel to its axis. Selection of metallographic specimens
of the centrifugal cast is presented in Fig. 1. The micro-
graphic samples were prepared initially by grinding on a
series of abrasive papers. Final polishing was performed on
Trans Indian Inst Met (2014) 67(5):731–740 733

Table 1 Chemical composition of flake graphite iron (FGI)

Chemical composition (%) C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Al

Actual 3.61 2.52 0.8 0.41 0.07 0.31 \0.0020 \0.0123 0.018
Chemical composition (%) Ti V Pb Sn Mg Cu Zn Fe Ceq

Actual – \0.0010 0.00410 0.0032 % – 0.25 % 0.0065 % 92.300 % 4.59 %

Table 2 Chemical composition of spheroidal graphite iron (SGI)

Chemical composition (%) C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Al

Actual 3.57 2.57 0.438 0.0230 0.0063 0.0240 \0.0020 0.240 0.018
Chemical composition (%) Ti V Pb Sn Mg Cu Zn Fe Ceq

Actual 0.00019 \0.0010 0.00410 0.0032 % 0.036 0.54 % 0.0065 % 92.300 % 4.57 %

Table 3 Chemical composition of compacted graphite iron (CGI)

Chemical composition (%) C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Al

Actual 3.61 2.40 0.33 0.045 0.0026 0.0259 \0.005 \0.0123 0.014
Chemical composition (%) Ti V Pb Sn Mg B Zn Fe Ceq

Actual 0.0091 0.0085 0.0083 0.0036 0.015 0.0021 \0.005 \93.1 4.425

a series of disc polishers using fine silicon carbide (SiC)
powder suspension in water until the surfaces were free
from scratches (ASTM-3-95E 1995). The shape, size and
distribution of graphite for FGI are evaluated in accordance
with the STD ASTM A247. The characterization of
graphite in cast irons is performed using a computer-based
image analyzer. The nodule numbers and perfection of
shape (nodularity) are evaluated using image analyzer with
Metalite software interfaced with optical microscope De-
winter DMI-CROWN-I. The nodularity describes the type
and shape distribution of graphite in cast irons.
2.5 Mechanical Properties
normal load on the pin was applied by dead weight through a
pulley string arrangement. The system had a maximum load
capacity of 200 N. The rpm of the disk can be varied
0–2,000 rpm and to get a sliding speed 0–10 m/s. Pins of
6.5 mm diameter and 30 mm length were used for wear
testing. A constant track diameter of 120 mm was used for all
studies. Three disks of the three cast irons under investiga-
tion were also used in the wear test (refer Tables 1, 2 3).
Before each test the disk and the pin were polished to a
roughness value (Rz) of about 0.8 lm and degreased. The
test was conducted for a duration of 10 min. The machining
of pins from the centrifugal cast liner is shown in Fig. 3.

Tensile test was carried out for the specimens machined
from centrifugal cast liner as shown in Fig. 2. Tensile
testing was performed using electronic tensometer of
loading capacity 20 Kilo Newton (model PC 2000), with
load cells of minimum sensing capacity 20 N (2 kg). The
test specimens were prepared according to ASTM E8. The
ultimate tensile strength and elongation to failure were
recorded. Also hardness was measured using standard
Brinell hardness testing machine.
2.6 Wear Properties
In this study wear tests were performed using a pin-on-disk
machine (model TR-20LE, Ducom make). The tests were
conducted as per ASTM standards (ASTMG-99, 1995). The
3 Results and Discussion
The microstructures of cast irons (FGI, SGI and CGI) were
evaluated in the polished and un-etched condition to better
understand the graphite morphology. Graphite flake type,
size and distribution were noted in case of FGI. For SGI and
CGI graphite nodule shape, distribution of diameters, nod-
ules count, and nodules per unit area are evaluated. The
graphite type, size and count are parameters sensitive to the
processing route. The graphite nature, size and numbers
influence the mechanical and tribological properties of cast
irons. Increase in the graphite count will result in decrease in
their sizes improving the tensile properties. One of the fac-
tors influencing the fineness of structure is the cooling rate
during solidification.

123
734 Trans Indian Inst Met (2014) 67(5):731–740

Fig. 1 Fabrication of
metallographic specimen from
centrifugally cast liner

Fig. 2 Fabrication of tensile

test specimen from the
centrifugally cast liner

Fig. 3 Fabrication of wear

specimen from centrifugal cast
liner

3.1 Micrograph of FGI combined flakes of type B, C, D and E will be of 32.1 %

Figure 4 shows the as-cast and analyzed microstructure of
FGI melt centrifugally cast with composition as given in
Table 1. The analysis shows that the flake graphite is of
type A by about 67.9 % (field %, blue colour) and
(field %, red colour). Flake size is in the range class 2–3
(range 160–620 lm) according to ASTM 247 are presented
in Table 4. Long very fine randomly oriented graphite
flakes are observed in the microstructure of FGI sample.
Micro structure of this material reveals that the graphite is

123
Trans Indian Inst Met (2014) 67(5):731–740 735

in the form of plate like structure with sharp edges at the
ends called flakes which are formed during the solidifica-
tion process that run through the ferrite/pearlite matrix,
basically control the mechanical properties [20]. This
graphite structure leads to very little ductility and confers
low strength and toughness.
3.2 Micrograph of SGI
Spheroidal graphite iron centrifugally cast samples are
studied for diameters of spheroidal graphite, nodules count,
percentage and nodules per unit area. The result (refer
Figs. 5a, b, and 6) shows the analysis of amounts of nod-
ules in size ranges 2–243, 243–485, 485–727 and
727–970 lm. There is a decreasing trend in the amounts as
the nodule size increases from 2 to 243, 243 to 485, 485 to
727 and 727 to 970 lm as 110 (48.7 %), 54 (23.9 %), 32
(14.2 %) and 15(6.6 %) respectively. Also the result (refer
Figs. 7, 8) show the nodules count, nodularity percentage
(nodule and non-nodules) and nodules per square milli-
meter as 149, 96.1 (nodules 96.1 % and remaining non-
nodules) and 330 respectively. The nodule count per unit
area varies inversely with the size directly affecting the
tensile and wear properties. Nodularity percentage (nodules

Fig. 4 a Typical as cast microstructure of FGI through centrifugal casting and b analyzed microstructure showing flake type and distribution

Table 4 Graphite flake size and type in FGI centrifugally cast sample
Flake size Flake A Flake B Flake C Flake D Flake E Flake comb

2–3 67.9 0 0 0 0 32.1

Fig. 5 a Typical as cast microstructure of SGI through centrifugal cast and b analyzed microstructure

123
736
Fig. 6 Comparison of the effect of centrifugal method on nodule
count and percentage of SGI sample
Fig. 7 Typical as cast analized microstructures of SGI in centrifugal
casts showing nodules and non-nodules (nodularity percentage)
Fig. 8 Effect of centrifugal process on nodules count, nodularity
percentage and nodules per square millimetre of SGI samples
and non-nodules), nodule size distribution and nodule type
distribution in SGI centrifugally cast samples are presented
in Fig. 9.
123
Trans Indian Inst Met (2014) 67(5):731–740
3.3 Micrograph of CGI
Microstructure of CGI centrifugally cast sample showing
the nodules and non-nodules (vermicular shape graphite)
are presented in Fig. 10a and its analysis of microstructure
is shown in Fig. 10b. The result (refer Figs. 10a, b, 11)
shows that for smaller size nodules (2–243 lm range
graphite) the count and percentage is the largest in the
given classes just as was found in case of SGI indicate
nodularity percentage (nodules and non-nodules), nodules
per sq. mm, nodule size distribution and nodule type dis-
tribution in CGI centrifugally cast sample are presented in
Figs. 12, 13 and 14.
3.4 Mechanical Properties
The superior performance of ductile iron over grey iron has
been attributed to the dissimilarity in graphite morphology
between the two materials [9]. The tensile strength of
spheroidal graphite iron is superior to that of the FGI [21]
and CGI because of the differences in the continuity of the
matrix brought about by their differences in graphite
morphologies. It has been reported that for a given strength
property the size or weight of CGI is 15 % less in com-
parison to that of FGI. This should be of great interest for
the automotive industry [22]. Tensile test results show that
the tensile strength, of CGI (369 N/mm2) lies in between
that of FGI (303 N/mm2) and that of SGI (604 N/mm2).
The rupture strain of CGI (1.19 %) lies in between those of
FGI (0.65 %) and SGI (6.14 %). Also the Brinell hardness
value of CGI (200 BHN) is in between those of FGI
(185 BHN) and SGI (233 BHN) as shown in Table 5. It is
also observed that ductility and rupture strain are also
different for the three irons. This is due to the difference in
graphite morphology and its distribution in metal matrix
among these materials.
3.5 Tribological Properties
Gray cast iron is one of the materials known to meet the
requirements of the cylinder liners and piston rings. The
disadvantage of gray cast iron is that it is heavy; it causes
higher stresses on the bearing and connecting rod assembly
of the engine and thereby limiting the engine operating
speed [15]. The presence of graphite in the metallic matrix
lubricates the sliding interface resulting in substantial
reduction in metal wear rates [17, 18]. Wear resistance is
not just a material property, all though it is controlled by the
strength or hardness of the material. It depends upon the
combination of all intrinsic and extrinsic factors involved in
the wear process. Therefore, friction and wear must be
considered as general characteristics of the friction couple
as a system. In a routine pin on disk test we normally run a
Trans Indian Inst Met (2014) 67(5):731–740 737

Fig. 9 a Nodularity percentage

(nodules and non-nodules),
b nodule size distribution and
c nodule type distribution in
SGI centrifugally cast sample

Fig. 10 a Typical as cast optical micrograph of CGI unetched condition centrifugally cast and b analyzed micrograph

test using pins of materials of interest against a hardened

steel counter face. The data generated may be useful. More
meaningful information can be generated if materials in
actual use are adopted as pin and disk pairs.
Tribological test for different combinations of pin and
disk materials was carried out on pin on disk wear testing
machine. Wear test was conducted with the following
combination of pin and disk materials.
• SGI disk V/S SGI pin (SS).
FGI pin (SF).
CGI pin (SC) combinations. Fig. 11 Comparison of the effect of centrifugal method on nodule
count and percentage of CGI sample
• FGI disk V/S SGI pin (FS).
FGI pin (FF). Pin of diameter 6.5 mm was prepared from centrifugal
CGI pin (FC) combinations. cast liner. Dry sliding wear test was carried out for a
duration of 10 min with a track diameter of 120 mm, disk
• CGI disk V/S SGI pin (CS).
speed of 1,000 rpm. These test conditions were kept same
FGI pin (CF). for all the test runs and hence comparisons can be done
CGI pin (CC) combinations. using wear itself.

123
738 Trans Indian Inst Met (2014) 67(5):731–740

(sliding distance of 3,768 m) which is higher than those for

CGI and FGI pins. CGI pin on SGI disk combination shows
a wear of 17 micron after 600 s which is an intermediate
value between those of the other two pins. FGI shows wear
of 2.5 micron after 600 s which is the lowest value com-
pared to the other two combination of disk and pin. SGI
disk and FGI pin combination has the least wear and may
be a suitable combination from wear point of view for liner
and piston ring combination. Table 6 shows wear and mean
COF. comparisons of wear characteristics of SGI disk with
SGI pin, FGI pin and CGI pin combinations are presented
in Fig. 15.

3.5.2 FGI Disk with SGI Pin (FS), FGI Pin (FF) and CGI
Pin (FC) Combinations

Fig. 12 Typical as cast analyzed microstructures of CGI centrifu-
gally cast showing nodules and non-nodules (nodularity percentage)
It is observed from the result that FGI disk and FGI pin
combination shows a wear of 26 micron after 600 s which
is higher than that for the other two cast iron pins. FGI disk
and CGI pin combination shows wear of 15 micron after
600 s which is an intermediate value between the other two
pins. FGI disk and SGI pin combination shows a wear of 8
micron after 600 s which is the lowest value. FGI disk and
SGI pin with the least wear may be a suitable combination
from wear point of view for liner and piston ring combi-
nation. Table 7 shows the wear and mean COF of FGI disk
with SGI pin, FGI pin and CGI pin.

3.5.3 CGI Disk with SGI Pin (CS), FGI Pin (CF) and CGI
Pin (CC) Combinations

Fig. 13 Typical as cast analyzed microstructures of CGI in centrif-
ugal cast sample showing nodules count, nodularity percentage and
nodules/sq. mm
3.5.1 SGI Disk with SGI Pin (SS), FGI Pin (SF) and CGI
Pin (SC) Combinations
It is observed from the result that SGI disk and SGI pin
combination showed a wear of 35 micron after 600 s
It is observed from the result that CGI disk and SGI pin
combination show wear of 14 micron after 600 s which is
higher than other two combination of disk and pins. CGI
disk and CGI pin combination show wear of 8 micron after
600 s which is an intermediate value between the other two
combination of disk and pin. CGI disk and FGI pin com-
bination show wear of 5 micron after 600 s which is the
lowest value than the other two combinations of disk and

Fig. 14 Comparison of
a nodularity percentage
(nodules and non-nodules),
b nodule size distribution and
c nodule type distribution for
CGI centrifugally cast

123
Trans Indian Inst Met (2014) 67(5):731–740 739

Table 5 Mechanical properties

Materials Tensile Rupture Hardness
of cast irons cast centrifugally
strength (N/mm2) strain (%) (BHN)

FGI centrifugal cast 303 0.65 185

CGI centrifugal cast 369 1.19 200
SGI centrifugal cast 604 6.14 233

Table 6 Wear and mean

Disk SGI
coefficient of friction (COF) for
SGI disk with SGI pin, FGI pin Pin SGI FGI CGI
and CGI pin combinations
Wear (lm) 35 2.5 17
Mean COF 0.39 0.38 0.385

Fig. 15 Comparison of wear

characteristics of SGI disk with
SGI pin, FGI pin and CGI pin
combination

Table 7 Wear and mean coefficient of friction (COF) for FGI disk 4 Conclusion
with SGI pin, FGI pin and CGI pin combinations
Disk FGI Influence of centrifugal process on microstructure,
mechanical and tribological properties of cast irons of
Pin SGI FGI CGI
identical basic composition has been studied and the fol-
Wear (lm) 8 26 15 lowing conclusions may be drawn based on experimental
Mean COF 0.339 0.427 0.354 study.
We know that cast irons of identical composition can
have differences in graphite morphology by melt treatment
Table 8 Wear and mean coefficient of friction (COF) for CGI disk and casting conditions. Graphite particles are flake shape in
with SGI pin, FGI pin and CGI pin combinations FGI, spherical shape in SGI and both spherical and ver-
Disk CGI micular shape in CGI.
Pin SGI FGI CGI 1. FGI centrifugal cast produces graphite flake of type A
by about 67.9 % (field %) and combined flakes will be
Wear (lm) 14 5 8
of 32.2 % (field %). Flake size will be in the range
Mean COF 0.251 0.119 0.202
class 2–3 (range 160–320 lm).
2. Number of nodules per unit area are more in SGI (330)
pin. CGI disk and FGI pin combination have the least wear and less in CGI (113). The nodule count per unit area
and may be the suitable combination from least wear point is related to graphite size. Increase in nodule count per
of view. Table 8 shows wear and mean COF of CGI disk unit area results in decrease in nodule size that has an
with SGI, CGI and FGI pins. effect on the tensile and wear properties.

123
740 Trans Indian Inst Met (2014) 67(5):731–740

3. The nodularity percentage is more in SGI (96.1) and
less in CGI (52.0). Nodularity percentage also has an
5.
effect on machanical and wear properties. 6.
4. Tensile strength, rupture strain and hardness of CGI
(369 N/mm2, 1.2 %, 200 BHN respectively) lies in 7.
between those of SGI (604 N/mm2, 6.1 %, 233 BHN)
8.
and FGI (303 N/mm2, 0.6 %, 185 BHN). From
strength and toughness point of view CGI has an
intermediate value between those of SGI and FGI.
5. Disk and pin combination of same structures show 9.
higher coefficient of friction and wear than the other 10.
two combinations. SGI and FGI material pairs produce
the least wear. 11.
Acknowledgments The authors express their sincere thanks to Mr.
D. S. Chandrashekar, Director, SHANTHALA Spherocast Pvt. Ltd, 12.
Mr Uday Kumar, Director, Shimoga Piston Rings Pvt. Ltd. and Mr 13.
Pruthviraj, Director, Prarthana Engineering Pvt. Ltd., for their support 14.
in the research work. Also thanks are due to Dr. N. R. Shetty,
Director, NMIT and Dr. H. C. Nagaraj, Principal NMIT, for their 15.
constant encouragement during this work.
16.
17.
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