Component-I (A) - Personal Details

Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Prof. Masood Ahsan Siddiqui Department of
Geography,
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi
Paper Coordinator, if any Saleha Jamal Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh
Content Writer/Author Saleha Jamal Department of
(CW) Geography,
Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh
Content Reviewer (CR) Abha Lakshmi Singh Department of
Geography, Aligarh
Muslim University,
Aligarh
Language Editor (LE)

Component-I (B) - Description of Module

Items Description of Module
Subject Name Geography
Paper Name Environmental Geography
Module Name/Title Biogeochemical Cycles
Module Id EG-07

Pre-requisites
Objectives
Keywords Biosphere, water, Carbon, Nitrogen, Carbon, Oxygen,
Phosphorous
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Significant features of Biogeochemical Cycles
1.3 Importance of Biogeochemical cycles
1.4 Mechanism of Biogeochemical Cycles
1.5 Types of Biogeochemical Cycles
1.5.1 Water/Hydrological Cycle
1.5.2 Carbon cycle
1.5.3 Oxygen cycle
1.5.4 Nitrogen cycle
1.5.5 Phosphorous cycle
1.5.6 Sulphur Cycle
1.6 Conclusion

Objectives:

At the end of this module the student should be able to:

 Define biogeochemical cycle.

 Understand significant features and importance of biogeochemical Cycles

 Explain the mechanism of biogeochemical Cycles

 Have clear understanding about the Hydrological Cycle, Carbon cycle,

Oxygen cycle, Nitrogen cycle, Phosphorous cycle, Sulphur Cycle

 1. 1 Introduction
Living organisms, from viruses, bacteria to plants and animals require various kinds of
chemical elements such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus for their
growth and life processes. The absorption and utilization of such elements by organisms is
compensated by their recycling and regeneration back into the environment. The cyclic path
of these elements from environment to organisms and then into the environment are called
biogeochemical cycles. In other words, the organic and inorganic substances of the biosphere
i.e. various gasses (Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen etc.) from atmosphere, chemical elements (iron,
nickel, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen) from lithosphere and water from hydrosphere,
move reversibly through various closed system or cycles in such a way that total mass of
these substances remain almost the same and these substances are always available for use by
the biotic communities. This circulation of various elements in a cyclic manner is termed as
biogeochemical cycle. These cycles are called biogeochemical cycles, because they include a
variety of biological, geological, and chemical processes. . The first part of the word, bio,
involves biological organisms, like bacteria, plants, and animals. The next part of the
word, geo, involves geological processes, like weathering of rocks. The last part of the word
indicates chemical processes, such as the formation of molecules.

Definitions
‘A biogeochemical cycle is the cycling of chemical elements’ through the earth’s
atmosphere, oceans and sediments as it is affected by the geological and biological
cycles. It can be described as a series of components or storage reservoirs, and
pathways between these reservoirs. (D.B. Botkin and E.A. Keller, 1982)
“Biogeochemical Cycles are large scale cycles, involving inorganic substances which
pass through a biotic phase and then return to inorganic state” (P.A. Furley and W.W.
Newey 1983)
“Biogeochemical Cycle is the cycle in which nitrogen, carbon, and other inorganic
elements of the soil, atmosphere, etc. of a region are converted into the organic
substances of animals or plants and released back into the environment” (Webster's
New World College Dictionary, 2014)
 1.2 Significant features of Biogeochemical Cycles
 Biogeochemical cycles are pathways by which nutrients flow between the biotic and
abiotic compartments of the Earth. The abiotic portion of the Earth includes the
lithosphere (the geological component of the Earth) and the hydrosphere (the Earth’s
water) while biotic components include flora and fauna.

 Ecosystems survive due to biogeochemical cycles. Many of the nutrient elements on

which living things depend, such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous are in constant
circulation.

 Essential elements are often stored in reservoirs, where they can be taken out of
circulation for years. For example, coal is a reservoir for carbon.

 Humans can affect biogeochemical cycles. Humans extract carbon and nitrogen from
the geosphere and use them for energy and fertilizer. This has increased the amount of
these elements in circulation, which has detrimental effects on ecosystems.

1.3 Importance of Biogeochemical cycles

An ecosystem survives by combination of energy flow and matter recycling that’s why
biogeochemical cycles are important in following ways.

 Biogeochemical cycles are a form of natural recycling that allows the continuous
survival of ecosystems
 Biogeochemical cycles are pathways by which nutrients flow between the abiotic and
abiotic compartments of the Earth.
 Biogeochemical cycles regulate the elements necessary for life on Earth by cycling
them through the biological and physical aspects of the world.

1.4 Mechanism of Biogeochemical Cycles:

Various elements of the atmosphere i.e. hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen and of
lithosphere i.e. potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus are stored into soil. Energy is
responsible for the flow of these elements in the biosphere. The elements of the atmosphere
are brought to the soils through the precipitation while lithospheric elements are made
available to soil due weathering and erosion of rocks. The elements are taken up by plants in
solution form through the process of root osmosis. The plants then convert these elements
into such forms which are easily used in the development of plant tissues and plant growth by
photosynthesis. Thus these elements or nutrients pass into various components of the biotic
community through the process named as biogeochemical cycles. (Fig. 1)

Fig. 1 Biogeochemical Cycle

(Figure - By Eva Horne and Robert A. Bear; source article is CC BY 4.0)

In Fig. 1 a very simple form of biogeochemical cycle is shown. Here we can see that
inorganic elements (inorganic nutrient pool) i.e. carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur,
phosphorus etc. are used by producers i.e. green plantsand then these nutrients incorporated
into plants are taken by consumer. Further nutrient from consumers are released in the
atmosphere through decomposers and energy is required for each process shown by yellow
arrows and lost to the atmosphere shown by red arrows.
 1.5 Types of Biogeochemical Cycles

Biogeochemical cycle is circulating or repeatable pathway by which an element moves

through both the biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere)
components of Earth.Biogeochemical cycles are basically of two types:

a) Gaseous cycles: In gaseous cycles, the elements have a main reservoir in the gaseous
phase, and the reservoir pool is the atmosphere or water. The biogenetic materials involved in
circulation pass through a gaseous phase before completing the cycle. E.g. carbon cycle,
nitrogen cycle, oxygen cycle

b) Sedimentary cycle: In sedimentary cycles, the elements main reservoir pool is lithosphere
and the biogenetic materials involved in circulation are non-gaseous. The sedimentary cycles
are generally very slow as the elements may get locked up in rocks and go out of circulation
for long periods. E.g. sulphur cycle, phosphorus cycle.

Major biogeochemical cycles are discussed below.

1.5.1 Water cycle/Hydrological cycle

Water is the basis of all the earth processes. In both liquid and frozen forms, it covers
approximately 75% of the Earth's surface.The human body is more than 1/2 water and human
cells are more than 70 percent water. Thus, most land animals need a supply of fresh water to
survive. However, when examining the stores of water on Earth, 97.5 percent of it is non-
potable salt water and only 2.5 percent is the fresh water. Of the remaining water about 99
percent is locked underground as water or as ice. And almost 1 percent of fresh water is
easily accessible from lakes and rivers. (Fig. 2) Many living things, such as plants, animals,
and fungi, are dependent on the small amount of fresh surface water supply, a lack of which
can have massive effects on ecosystem dynamics.
 Fig. 2 Distribution of Earth’s Water

The amount of water in the atmosphere is only enough to supply the needs of the earth
for about for 10 days. Because of the limited supply of water on the earth, there must be a
constant interchange of water between the atmosphere and the surface of the planet. Aided by
the energy from the sun and the force of gravity, water moves in an endless cycle from the
oceans to the atmosphere and back to the oceans again. This circulation is known as
hydrological or water cycle. Water cycling is extremely important to ecosystem dynamics.
Water has a major influence on climate and, thus, on the environments of ecosystems.

Steps of Water Cycle: The water or hydrological cycle at global scale involves the following
steps (Fig. 3).

 Evaporation. Evaporation is the process by which oceanic water changes from liquid
to gaseous state i.e. into water vapour and moisture.
 Evapotranspiration: In general, evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation and
transpiration. Evapotranspiration is defined as the water lost to the atmosphere from
the ground surface, evaporation from the capillary fringe of the groundwater table,
 and the transpiration of groundwater by plants whose roots tap the capillary fringe of
the groundwater table.
 Condensation. Condensation is the process in which water vapour in the air is
changed into liquid water. Condensation is responsible for the formation of clouds.
 Precipitation: Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing
rain, sleet, snow, or hail. It is the primary connection in the water cycle that provides
for the delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain.
 Infiltration: Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters
into the soil. Some water that infiltrates will remain in the shallow soil layer, where it
will gradually move through the soil and might enter a river by seepage into the river
bank. Some of the water may infiltrate deeper, recharging ground-water aquifers.
 Runoff: Runoff can be described as the part of the water cycle that flows over land as
surface.

Fig. 3: Water Cycle (Source:WEATHERNET.COM)

Mechanism of water cycle: Oceanic water is heated by insolation and thus a small fraction
of water is transformed into gaseous form i.e. water vapour or moisture. Water is also
transformed into vapour from ground water and plants by the process of evapotranspiration.
This moisture is transported across the oceans and over the continents by atmospheric
circulation or winds. The air is cooled because of its ascent and moisture and results in
formation of clouds, fog and dew. On further cooling precipitation occurs in the form of
rainfall or snowfall over the oceans and continents. Some precipitation falls directly in the
streams or lakes known as direct fall while some proportion reaches the ground directly as
through fall. The portion of rainfall reaching the ground surface flow as surface runoff and
reaches to various water bodies. Some portion of surface water infiltrates through the soil.
Some of the infiltrated water will remain in the shallow soil layer, where it will gradually
move through the soil and might enter a river by seepage into the river bank. Some of the
water may infiltrate deeper, recharging ground-water aquifers. (Fig. 4)

Fig. 4 the Water Cycle

Source credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)

Importance of Water Cycle: Water Cycle is very important mechanism for the various
biological processes in the biosphere because no life is possible without water. Water cycle
carries freshwater to people, animals and plants all around the world, it also transports things
like nutrients, pathogens and sediment in and out of aquatic ecosystems. Rain and surface
runoff are main ways in which minerals such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur,
are cycled from land to water and then water to land.

1.5.2 Carbon Cycle

Carbon is important for all life on Earth. All living things are made up of carbon. Carbon is
produced by both natural and human-made (anthropogenic) sources.

Natural Sources

1. Atmosphere: Carbon is found in the atmosphere mostly as carbon dioxide. Animal

and plant respiration place carbon into the atmosphere.
2. Lithosphere: Carbon is found in the lithosphere in the form of carbonate rocks.
Carbonate rocks came from ancient marine plankton that sunk to the bottom of the
ocean hundreds of millions of years ago that were then exposed to heat and pressure.
Carbon is also found in fossil fuels, such as petroleum (crude oil), coal, and natural
gas. Carbon is also found in soil from dead and decaying animals and animal waste
3. Hydrosphere: Carbon is found in the hydrosphere dissolved in ocean water and
lakes. Carbon is used by many organisms to produce shells. Marine plants use carbon
for photosynthesis. The organic matter that is produced becomes food in the aquatic
ecosystem.
4. Biosphere: Carbon is found in the biosphere stored in plants and trees. Plants use
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to make the building blocks of food during
photosynthesis.

Anthropogenic Sources

1. Deforestation: After deforestation, plants are no available to remove carbon dioxide

from the air. Thus deforestation results in extra carbon dioxide placed in the
atmosphere.
2. Wood burning: When wood is burned, the carbon that is stored in the trees converts
into carbon dioxide and enters into the atmosphere.
3. Combustion of fossil fuels: When fossils fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) are
extracted from the ground and burn for energy at power plants, this burning of fossil
fuels is called combustion which releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Steps of the Carbon Cycle: Carbon cycle in the biosphere involve following steps. (Fig. 5)
1. Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration by animals and
combustion of fuels.
2. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers and converted into carbohydrates by process
called photosynthesis.
3. Animals consume the plant passing the carbon compounds along the food chain. Most of
the carbon they consume is exhaled as carbon dioxideformed during respiration.
4. After the death of the animals and plants, they are eaten by decomposers and the carbon
in their bodies is released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. In some conditions
decomposition is blocked. The plant and animal material may then be available as fossil
fuel in the future for combustion.

Fig. 5: Carbon Cycle

Source: https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/image_maps/3-carbon-cycle
1.5.3 Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is very important for all life forms in the biosphere because it is an essential part of
the amino acids which make up proteins. Although nitrogen constitutes the largest proportion
of atmospheric gasses by volume, but living organisms cannot use nitrogen directly rather
they obtain nitrogen in the form of ammonia salts and nitrates.

Sources of Nitrogen: Natural sources of nitrogen include some of the nitrogen in the
atmosphere, instream sources (e.g. salmon carcasses and litter fall), and vegetation (e.g. from
N-fixing plants). Nitrogen is also a by-product of many natural biogeochemical processes that
occur in watersheds, rivers and streams, such as the decomposition of plants and organisms.

Steps of Nitrogen Cycle

In general, the nitrogen cycle has five steps: (Fig.6)

1. Nitrogen Fixation

Nitrogen fixation is the process by which gaseous nitrogen (N2) is transformed to ammonia
(NH3 or NH4+) through biological fixation or nitrate (NO3-) through high-energy physical
processes. Gaseous Nitrogen can be converted directly into nitrate through processes that
exert a tremendous amount of heat, pressure, and energy such as combustion, volcanic action,
lightning discharges, and industrial means. However, a larger amount of biologically
available nitrogen is naturally created through the biological fixation of Nitrogen to
Ammonia and Ammonium. A small group of bacteria Known as Rhizobium that live in
nodules on the roots of legumes and some other woody plants are capable of breaking bonds
among the molecular nitrogen and combine it with hydrogen, using the enzyme nitrogenese.

2. Nitrification

Nitrification is a two-step process in which ammonia is converted to Nitrate. First, the soil
bacteria Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus convert Ammonia to Nitrite, and then another soil
bacterium, Nitrobacter, oxidizes Nitrite to nitrate. These bacteria gain energy through these
conversions, both of which require oxygen to occur.

3. Assimilation

In the assimilation process plants and animals incorporate the Nitrate and ammonia formed
through nitrogen fixation and nitrification. Plants take these forms of nitrogen by their roots,
and integrate them into plant proteins and nucleic acids. After assimilation, animals are then
capable to use nitrogen from the plant tissues.

4. Ammmonification

Ammonification is the process in which microorganisms such as bacteria break down organic
nitrogen including proteins and amino acids into ammonia.The ammonia produced by this
process is excreted into the environment and is then available for either nitrification or
assimilation.

5. Denitrification

Denitrification is the conversion of Nitrates to gaseous Nitrogen by anaerobic bacteria. This

process only occurs with the little or no presence of oxygen, such as deep in the soil near the
water table. Hence, areas such as wetlands provide a valuable place for reducing excess
nitrogen levels via denitrification processes.

Fig.6: Nitrogen Cycle

Source:http://ib.bioninja.com.au/options/option-c-ecology-and-conser/c6-nitrogen-and-
phosphorus/nitrogen-cycle.html
1.5.4 Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen plays a significant role in the biosphere and is very essential element for the living
organisms because it supports life. Oxygen gas makes up about 30% of the earth and about
21% of the air in the earth’s atmosphere. Oxygen forms about 70 percent atoms in the living
and plays a major role in the formation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. It is required for
the respiration process by animals including man.

Sources of Oxygen

 Green Plants: One of the major source of oxygen are green plants that produce
oxygen by photosynthesis.
 Atmosphere :Some oxygen is produced when sunlight reacts with water vapour
in the atmosphere.

Steps of Oxygen Cycle: Oxygen cycle involves following steps (Fig. 7)

1. Photosynthesis: During the day time, green plants take energy from the sun, carbon di
oxide from the air, and water from the soil to make glucose which is their food. This process
is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is also done in the marine environment by
phytoplankton. In the process of photosynthesis, Oxygen is released into the air as a by-
product. During the night, this process is reversed asplants take in oxygen and release carbon
di oxide, to uphold their metabolism that is why sleeping under tree during night is not
advisable.

2. Respiration: The oxygen that is released by plants is used by humans, animals, and other
organisms for respiration, i.e. breathing. Animals use oxygen to break down simple sugars
and generate energy to sustain themselves. During the respiration process, animals take in
oxygen and release carbon di oxide into the air.

3. Repeat: This carbon di oxide is again, taken up by plants, for photosynthesis.

 Fig. 7 Oxygen Cycle
Source: https://www.smore.com/6k7zg-carbon-dioxide-oxygen-cycle

1.5.5 Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus is the second most important element in the biosphere and found on earth in
different compound forms, such as the phosphate ion (PO43-), located in water, soil
and sediments. Phosphorus is found in phosphate rocks and it enters into the environment
cycling thorough water, soil and sediments. Phosphorus cannot be found in air in the gaseous
state like other compounds of biogeochemical cycles. The phosphorus cycle is the slowest of
the biogeochemical cycles.

Importance of Phosphorus for animals and plants

Phosphorus is the most essential for the growth of the organisms and being found in the soil
in very small quantity it often limits plant growth. Animals take up phosphates by eating
plants or plant-eating animals. Phosphorus is a crucial nutrient for both animals and plants. It
plays an important role in cell development and is a key component of molecules that store
energy, such as ATP (adenosine triphosphate), DNA and lipids (fats and oils). Deficiency of
phosphorus in the soil can end up in a decreased crop produce.

Steps of the phosphorus cycle

Phosphorus moves in a cycle through rocks, water, soil, sediments and organisms. Here are
the key steps of the phosphorus cycle (Fig. 8).
 1. Phosphorus enters the soil and water through rain and weathering that causes
phosphate rocks release phosphate ions and other minerals. These phosphate ions are
then distributed in soils and water.
2. Plants take up phosphate ions from the soil.
3. The plants may then be consumed by herbivorous animals.
4. These animals are further consumed by carnivores. In this way, in the plant or animal,
the phosphate is included into organic molecules such as DNA and lipids.
5. This phosphates that is absorbed by the animals are returned to the soil through
excretion and from decay and decomposition of plants and dead material by bacteria
and is released out to the environment by this process.
6. The phosphate in the soil is leached out or eroded into water and it eventually reach to
oceans. The phosphate in the water is again used by algae and plants as nutrients.

Fig. 8 Phosphorus Cycle

Source: Biogeochemical Cycles: The Phosphorus Cycle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DM9MEsVRLjs
1.5.6 Sulphur Cycle

Sulphur is the tenth most abundant element in the universe, and is essential part of all living
matter like nitrogen and carbon. Sulphur is one of the components that make up proteins and
vitamins. Proteins consist of amino acids that contain sulphur atoms. Sulphur is important for
the functioning of proteins and enzymes in plants, and in animals that depend upon plants for
sulphur.

Sources of Sulphur
 Most of the earth's sulphur is tied up in rocks and salts or buried deep in the ocean in
oceanic sediments.
 Sulphur can also be found in the atmosphere. It enters the atmosphere through both
natural and human sources.
 Natural recourses can be for instance volcanic eruptions, bacterial processes,
evaporation from water, or decaying organisms
 Human sources can be burning of fossil fuels that release oxides of sulphur in the
atmosphere
 Sulphur occurs as elemental sulphur also.

Steps of Sulphur Cycle

1. The sulphur cycle involves both atmospheric and terrestrial processes.

2. As the main source of sulphur are rocks, the cycle begins with the weathering of
rocks, releasing the stored sulphur.
3. The sulphur then comes into contact with air where it is combined to oxygen and
becomesulphate (SO4).
4. The sulphate is taken up by plants and microorganisms and is converted into organic
forms;
5. Animals then consume these organic forms through foods they eat, thereby moving
the sulphur through the food chain.
6. As organisms die and decompose, some of the sulphur is again released as a sulphate
and some enters the tissues of microorganisms.
 Fig. 9 Sulphur Cycle
Source: https://www.canstockphoto.com/sulfur-cycle-31929868.html

1.6 Conclusion

Biogeochemical cycles are of immense importance as an ecosystem survives by

combination of energy flow and matter recycling. It is a form of natural recycling that
allows the continuous survival of ecosystems and is pathways by which nutrients flow
between the abiotic and biotic compartments of the Earth. It also regulates the elements
necessary for life on Earth by cycling them through the biological and physical aspects of
the world.