Component-I(A) - Personal Details

Name Affiliation
Role
Prof. Masood Ahsan Siddiqui Department of Geography,
Principal Investigator
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi
Dr. Saleha Jamal Department of Geography
Paper Coordinator, if any
Aligarh Muslim University
Dr. Poonam Sharma Department of Geography
Content Writer/Author
Shaheed Bhagat Singh College,
(CW)
Delhi University
Dr. Saleha Jamal Department of Geography
Content Reviewer (CR)
Aligarh Muslim University

Language Editor (LE)

Component-I (B) - Description of Module

Description of Module
Items
Geography
Subject Name
Environmental Geography
Paper Name
Ecological Pyramid
Module Name/Title
EG-06
Module Id

Pre-requisites

Objectives

Keywords
 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

Learning Objectives

• Introduction

• Concept of Ecology

• Perspectives of Ecology

• Ecosystem Ecology

• Ecosystem Organization

• Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycle

• Ecosystem Productivity

• Ecological Efficiencies

• Ecological Pyramids

1. INTRODUCTION

Ecology is a multidisciplinary field encompassing the biological, physical and social

sciences. It is the scientific study of relationships in the nature. It is the study of the
interactions between organisms and their environment. It is concerned with relationships,
distributions, abundance, scarcity, competition and cooperation among organisms in an
environment. The environment comprises two distinct components i.e. the physical
environment which includes water, wind,
soil, temperature, alkalinity, salinity etc Just think???

and biotic environment that includes the
interdependence and interactions among
organisms. Ecology includes material and
processes ranging from the physiological
genetics of small organism to carbon
balance in the entire biosphere. There are
numerous ways to study the material
system of ecology at all scales. If the
Why there are so many plants and animals?
Why there are so many different types of plants
and animals?
Many living in the same habitat but different...?
Sustain in one habitat but perishes in other..?
How resources are shared in the habitat......?
The abundance, the scarcity, and resource
partitioning....
How nonliving environment have a role to play?
relationships between organisms and their physical environments are explored it is called
physiological ecology; community ecology explains interactions between organisms of
different species; it is population ecology when associations between organisms of the same
species are studied; and ecosystem ecology explains interdependence between organisms and
the movement of matter and energy through biological systems.

The word ecology was coined by Professor Ernst Haeckel in 1866 in the book General
Morphology. The word ecology has been derived from Greek words oikos which means
house and logos mean study. He defined ecology as: By ecology we mean the body of
knowledge concerning the economy of nature- the investigation of the total relations of the
animal both to its inorganic and to its organic environment; including above all, its friendly
and inimical relation with those animals and plants with which it comes directly or indirectly
into contact -in a word, ecology is the study of all the complex interrelations referred to by
Darwin in as the conditions of struggle for existence.

The term ecology was coined in 1866 but it was not recognised and widely used for long until
it became institutionalised with the formation of British Ecological Society in 1913 and
Ecological Society of America in 1915. Many scholars have used this term with different
perspectives to the original Haeckel’s definition; for example British Ecologist Charles
Elton(1927) used it as scientific natural history; American plant ecologist Frederick
Clement(1905) emphasised as science of community , another American animal ecologist
Victor Shelford(1937) considered it as the branch of general physiology. German ecologist
Karl Friederichs(1958) explained it as the science of environment, Eugene P. Odum(1959)
American ecologist who had actually influenced the understanding of the concept, has
defined ecology as the study of the structure and function of nature . Thus it was seen that
Haeckel’s definition of ecology was applied by various scientists in a much diversified ways.
This aspect can be further explained that how the study of ecology is approached in numerous
ways. For example types of ecology as defined by concept or perspective include landscape,
ecosystem, physiological, behavioural, community and many other kind of ecology. If it is
defined by organism it comprises plant, animal, microbe, zooplankton, human and many
other organisms. When ecology is explained in terms habitats the kind of ecology it includes
are terrestrial, marine, freshwater, arctic, equatorial forest, urban and many more. There is
another perspective to the definition of ecology that is with reference to application, the types
of ecology which encompasses are theoretical, conservation, restoration, management
academic, public policy and so on. Ecological studies are not restricted to natural systems
rather understanding of both the human impacts on nature and the ecology of environment
created by human. (Figure 1 and 2)

Ecology as
Perspective

Ecology by
Habitat Ecology Ecology by
Application

Ecology by
Organisms

Figure 1: Ecology and its different perspectives

Coastal
Equitorial Arctic

Marine Urban

Ecology
Terrestrial by and so on
Habitat

Landscape
Community Ecosystem

Behavioral Physiological

Population
Ecology as and others
Perspective
 Human Planktons

Animals Microbes

Ecology by Many
Plants Organisms others

Management

Academic Policy

Restoration Conservation

Theoretical
Ecology by Many more
Application

Figure 2: Ecology and its different perspectives

2. ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY

Ecosystem ecology studies the interdependence and interactions between organisms and their
environment as a complex system. The ecosystem approach is vital in understanding
interactions that link biotic component with the physical systems on which they depend.

The term ecosystem was coined by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in 1935. He defined
ecosystem as the whole complex of physical factors that is the environment of the habitat and
organism complex. Tansley emphasised that it is not easy to study the interactions of
organism separately from the physical and chemical features of their environment. He
proposed that organisms and their physical-chemical environment be studied in an integrated
way called ecosystem. Though the organisms are the essential concern but they cannot be
separated from their unique environment with which they form the unified whole system. It is
these unified systems so formed are the basic units of the nature on the face of the earth. The
ecosystem dynamics conceptualisation evolved from Shelford (1918) where food chain has
no link through detritus feeders; Storn(1928) elaborated the system with decomposers as
central to the system and Lindemam in 1942 have developed the concept and introduced the
unity of energy and nutrients. Odum in 1969 integrating Tansley and Lindeman conceptions
in a contemporary light with humans as critical components gives it the grand view.

Ecosystem analysis seeks to understand the factors that direct the quantities and flows of
materials and energy through ecological systems. These materials are found in abiotic pools
which are physical chemical substances, inorganic elements and compounds which includes
calcium ,oxygen, carbon dioxide ,carbonates and phosphates in soils, rocks, water, and the
atmosphere and an array of organic compound which are by-products of organism activity
and novel chemicals such as pesticides or radio nuclides that have been added to the
environment. The aboitic factors also include physical factors as moisture, winds, heat, light,
currents and tides. The biotic pools such as plants, animals, and soil micro organisms existing
in that aboitic setting .There is great diversity in the types of ecosystems from small to large ,
terrestrial to aquatic, fresh water to salt water. The objective of ecosystem ecology is to
understand the functioning of ecosystem that includes the flow of energy and matter through
the organisms and their environment. Energy from the Sun is captured by plants which can be
consumed by animals and further by next levels of organism and microbes. Thus, ecosystem
ecology is concerned to understand the fundamentals of the production of organic energy, its
transfer among other organism, nutrient cycling among organism and environment, problems
of environmental management, impact of human activities on environment and many other
interactions of people and nature.

2.1 LEVELS OF ORGANISATION

A system consists of constantly interacting and interdependent components forming a unified

whole .Organisationally ecosystems are constituted hierarchically. The community and
nonliving environment function together as an ecological system or ecosystem. Hierarchical
theory provides a convenient framework for subdividing and examining the complex
structures. Individuals which are at the base of the hierarchy compose a species, and
population at following level; communities are at the next order, it is these communities
existing in particular physicochemical environments that constitute an ecosystem. The
aggregation of all ecosystems on the earth is referred as to as ecosphere, the ecosystem for
the whole planet. In this pyramidal hierarchy there are many individual at the base ,a smaller
number of species and individuals at the next level, fewer populations than species at further
next and so on the top of the pyramid .
 Ecosphere

Biome

Landscape

Ecosystem

Community

Population

Organism

Organ Sytem

Organ

Tissue

Figure 3: Level of Organisation

Different categories of organism fit together in the biotic structure and the feeding
relationships between organisms constitute the trophic structure (trophe mean nourishment).
All ecosystems have the same three basic categories of organisms that are connected in the
same way. The major categories of organism are producers, consumers and decomposers.
These groups together manufacture food, transfer along food chains and return the initial
materials to the aboitic part of the environment.

Producers are also called autotrophs( self nourished) that imply the organisms which prepare
their own organic material from the inorganic constituents of the environment. Producer
performs the fundamental task, uses the radiant energy of the Sun and in the process of
photosynthesis assimilates energy rich carbon compounds. They are mainly chlorophyll
carrying green plants. Producer are of varied types ranging from microscopic photosynthetic
bacteria, single celled algae through small sized plant as grass ,cacti to medium sized plant
and massive trees. Chemosynthetic producers prepare organic material in anaerobic
conditions of deep ocean floors in the absence of sunlight.

Consumers are the organism whose nutritional needs are met by feeding on to the other
organisms. They are also called heterotrophs(other nourished). Primary consumer or
herbivore is a heterotroph that obtains its nutrition from plants, followed by carnivore, the
secondary consumer that feed on herbivore which may further provide nutrition to tertiary
and higher order consumers and omnivore which obtain their energy from both plants and
herbivore. This autotroph to heterotroph , producer to consumers and herbivore to carnivore
connections are direction of energy transfer through the ecosystem which is one way flow
and not a cyclic movement.

Decomposers are the heterotroph organisms which feed only on dead organic matter, mainly
include bacteria, fungi and protozoa. They do not consume food in ingestive manner as
herbivore or carnivores rather through the absorption. Chemicals or enzymes are produced
within their bodies which are released on dead plant or animal. Terrestrial bacteria act on
animal tissues and fungi on plant tissues. In the aquatic ecosystem decomposers mineralise
the organic matter. Eventually the waste products of the final lines of decomposers are energy
poor mineral nutrients that are reabsorbed and thus recycled by plants again into the system.

There is symbiosis in the interaction in the ecosystem which implies an interaction between
individuals of different biological species. One of the organisms receive a benefit from the
interaction, the other can either receive a benefit, be harmed, or not be affected in any way
.Three main kinds of symbiotic relationships: commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism.

Table 1 : Ecological Symbiosis

Interaction Species A Species B
Commensalism Receives benefit Not affected
Mutualism Receives benefit Receives benefit
Parasitism Receives benefit Harmed

2.2 ENERGY FLOW AND NUTRIENT CYCLING

The two vital ecological processes of energy flow and nutrient cycling is constantly working
in the ecosystem is the central to the dynamics of ecosystem; the former has been explained
as a unidirectional movement while later is cyclic. The flow of energy in ecosystem and the
laws of thermodynamics says: as per the first law of thermodynamics energy is converted
from one form into another and it is neither gained nor lost. The second law of
thermodynamics states that every transformation results in loss of some of the usable energy.
The transformation of energy from producers of the ecosystem to herbivore, through
carnivore ,further trophic levels and to decomposers; in theses transformations energy flows
in the unidirectional way and some energy is lost. The loss occurs largely in the form of
heat as by product of metabolic reaction.

Within ecosystem matter (nutrient) is used and cycled within organisms, and among
organisms and environment. In contrast of energy which flows from space through the
Earth’s environment and then back to the space; matter is not lost to space but is recycled
within the earth’s environmental system. The cycling of nutrients through the ecosystem is
also called biogeochemical cycle because these pathways involve biological, geological and
chemical processes. There are two types of nutrient cycles which include sedimentary and
gaseous cycles. The sedimentary cycles begins from rock , different nutrient are released
during variety of weathering process ,gets dissolved in water ,absorbed by plants ,animals
,transferred through the ecosystem and eventually end up as sedimentary residue at the end of
the cycle. For example phosphorous, potassium, calcium cycles. These are very long cycles
may be hundreds or millions of years. In gaseous cycles nutrients are exchanged between the
biosphere and atmosphere without going into the lithosphere, this is a much faster cycle, may
be hundred year .for example carbon, nitrogen and oxygen cycles.

3. ECOSYSTEM PRODUCTIVITY

The productivity of an ecosystem is of two types i.e. primary productivity and secondary
productivity. The primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate at which organic matter is
produced during photosynthesis. There are two variations in the primary productivity; The
gross primary productivity (GPP) is the total fixation of energy by photosynthesis which is
expressed in Kcal/m2/yr. Part of this energy is used as plant matter and rest of the chemical
energy is metabolised by the plant’s own respiration and released to the environment a heat.
Subtracting this respiration(R) from GPP gives the Net Primary Productivity (NPP),it
represents the actual rate of production of new biomass that is available for consumption by
heterotrophic organisms. Biomass is the mass of an ecosystem component per unit area and
per unit time.

Net Primary Productivity = Gross Primary Productivity - Plant Respiration

The productivity of an ecosystem is rate of generation of new biomass, it may be expressed
either in energy per unit area or as weight. The total quantity of organic matter available in at
any given time in an ecosystem is called biomass. The productivity depends on various
factors such as sunlight, temperature, rainfall, availability of nutrients and also indirect
impact of intervention of human activities. For comparing different ecosystems productivity
is usually included over the year to compute annual production that means generation of new
biomass per unit area in a year. A common ecological measure of efficiency is the trophic
level efficiency, the rate of production at one trophic level to that of the next lower trophic
level. The rate of production of new biomass by heterotrophs or consumers from the net
primary production available to them is called secondary production. Though there are large
variations from one ecosystem to another ecosystem, with reference to energy content, the
transfer is only about 10 percent, and grossly for every 10kcal of plant obtainable to
herbivore, about 1kcal is consumed and 0.1 kcal is absorbed in the form of body weight and
in the similar way amount of energy transfer is dwindles with each transfer.

There are optimum conditions for an organism, low and high limiting factor creates a
condition of tolerance threshold and may become acute if conditions are not corrected, where
the survival is at stake. The disturbance from the external environment include the sudden
events of flood, storms, draughts etc these situation disrupts the flow of the basic components
of the photosynthesis for example extreme soil erosion will reduce availability of nutrient, or
physical damage of plant foliage due storm. Ecosystems are in state of incessant adjustments
with these sudden and progressive changes.

The ratio of net primary production that gushes along these pathways depends on
transformation efficiencies in the way energy is used and transferred from one level to the
next. Ecological efficiency is the ratio of the biomass integrated by consumer trophic level to
the biomass from its lower trophic category. Some of the efficiencies are explained here.
Photosynthetic efficiency (PE) is the percentage of received solar energy a plant utilises in
complete photosynthesis process. It can be derived by dividing GPP by the solar input of
energy per unit area per unit time. Consumption efficiency (CE) is the percentage of total
productivity available at one trophic level which is consumed by a trophic category one level
up. Assimilation efficiency (AE) is the percentage of food energy ingested by the consumers
in a trophic category and the remainder is lost as faecal waste and enters the decomposers
system. Production efficiency (PE) is the percentage of assimilated energy which is included
into new biomass and remainder is entirely lost as heat. Exploitation Efficiency (EE) is the
net productivity of each trophic level as a proportion of the net productivity of the previous
level.

Table 2 : Ecological Efficiencies

S.N. Type of Efficiency Method to derived
1 Photosynthetic Efficiency (PE) Energy equivalent to carbon compound
produced/unit area/unit time
PE = x 100
Energy input/unit area/unit time

2 Consumption Efficiency (CE) Total productivity available at

one trophic level
CE = x 100
Actually ingested by trophy
category next level up

3 Assimilation Efficiency (AE) Food energy consumed by trophic category

AE = x 100
Energy absorbed by the body

4 Production Efficiency (PE) Energy incorporated in new biomass

PE = x 100
Percentage of assimilated energy
5 Exploitation Efficiency (EE) Net productivity of a trophic level
EE = x 100
Net productivity of preceding trophic level

4. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

British ecologist Charles Elton in 1920s for the first time, explained this feature about the
energy flow in ecosystem, he established the principal that there is not enough energy to
support more than a very few carnivore at the carnivore level.

The trophic relationships, the food chains, the ecosystem productivity, the flow of energy and
organic matter among different organisms are visualized through flow model, statistical
models and also as static pyramid. An ecological pyramid is used to graphically represent the

structure of ecosystem depicting the new biomass at various trophic levels. The pyramid
shows first trophic level or producers at the bottom that forms the base followed by the
successive tiers of the trophic categories of consumers. By photosynthesis energy enters in
the producers at the base of the trophic categories, energy flows through the food chain and
moving up in the chain through various levels of consumers. Due to inefficient energy
transfer from one level to the next, energy reaching to the higher levels is very low. It is very
interesting to note that number and biomass of the organisms differ across various trophic
levels which are influenced by the amount of energy available at the trophic level. The
relationship between energy, biomass, and number is subjective to the growth form and
size of organisms and ecological relationships occurring among trophic levels.

There are three types of ecological pyramids:

A Energy Pyramid

B Biomass Pyramid

C Number Pyramid

4.1 ENERGY PYRAMID

An energy pyramid conveys the general trophic relations in the system and confirms that
major principle of progressive decline of energy in the higher trophic levels. It is graphical
method that shows the energy flow in ecosystem through a pyramid shape. Producers play
vital role in the food chains and webs as they are capable to transform radiant energy of
the Sun into large amount of organic energy through the process of photosynthesis. The
organism at consumers’ level feed on plants .At this level the pyramid size is smaller than
plants and energy is used for growth, reproduction and respiration. The secondary
consumers depend on primary consumers and the pyramid size further reduces and in
further movements to tertiary and higher order consumers the energy transfer becomes
lesser and lesser thus the size of pyramid. It is estimated that 90 percent of energy is
released in respiration and only 10 percent is available to the next level. This pyramid
shows that energy is highest at lowest level and its minimal at highest category explains
that there is successive loss of energy as it moves through the trophic levels. (Figure 4 and
5)
Figure 4 : Upright Energy Pyramid

15 Carnivore II
319
Carnivore I

1478 Herbivore

8833 Producer

88
Net Production Kcal/m2 /yr

Adapted from Odum H.T. Silver Spring Data

Figure 5 : Energy Pyramid

4.2 BIOMASS PYRAMID

Biomass is mass of the organism per unit are of ground (or water). It is usually expressed
per unit area in terrestrial ecosystem and for aquatic ecosystem it is expressed as per unit
area or volume. The biomass pyramid graphically illustrates the quantity of biomass
generated or available at each trophic level. Biomass decreases with each movement in the
food chain. The autorophs or producers generates the highest biomass in the ecosystem ,
the quantity of biomass prepared by herbivores is lesser than producers and for carnivore
and higher order consumers the biomass generation is very small. Biomass at trophic
levels depends upon the reproductive potential and longevity of organisms. The biomass
pyramids are of two types for different ecosystems. (Figure 6 and 7)

A. Upright pyramid is observed in terrestrial ecosystems with broader base where

producers generate larger net biomass to support the consumers with smaller
weight.
B. Inverted pyramids are seen in aquatic ecosystems where smaller weights of
producers provide growth support for consumers of larger weight.

Figure 6 : Upright Pyramid of terrestrial ecosystem

Figure 7: Inverted Pyramid of an aquatic ecosystem

4.3 NUMBER PYRAMID

This is another graphical way to represent the structure of ecosystem in terms of energy by
carrying out a census of each of the major categories to produce the pyramid number. The
number pyramid illustrates the trophic relationships in terms of the number of autotrophs
and heterotrophs or the number of producers, different consumers i.e. herbivore, carnivore
and further higher order consumers in the successive chain on trophic category. This
pyramid explains that the number of individuals declines from the lower to higher levels of
trophic category. This pyramid also varies as the energy and biomass pyramid from one
ecosystem to another as follows: (Figure 8 ,9 and 10)
Figure 8 : Upright Number Pyramid

Figure 9 : Inverted Number Pyramid

Figure 10 : Spindle Shape Number Pyramid

A. Upright number pyramid is witnessed in forest ecosystem , as these ecosystems

have huge number of small producers to support lesser primary consumers which
further provide support even smaller secondary consumers and they give nutrition
to just a few tertiary consumers. It is because of this type of transfer of organic
matter the shape of the pyramid is upright.
B. Inverted number pyramid is observed in parasitic food chain where one primary
producer sustains several parasites and which in turn support many more
hyperparasites. Hyperparasites is an organism which is parasitic on or in another
parasite.
C. Partly upright or Spindle number pyramid is seen in forest ecosystem where small
number of producers maintain large number of primary consumers which further
supports only a few secondary/tertiary consumers.

If the Energy, biomass and number pyramids of the same ecosystem are compared it
is clear that base is broader in each type of presentation and it narrows down
towards the top. (Figure 11)
Figure 11 : Comparison of Energy, Biomass and Number Pyramid

5. CRITIQUE
These graphical methods provide comprehensive and illustrious understanding to the
structure and functioning of ecosystem through the pyramids of energy, biomass and
numbers. But demerits are observed for example energy pyramid does not have provision
to show the decomposers and to represent loss of energy. In biomass pyramid it is assumed
that significance of unit are same for varied group of organism in a trophic level. In case
of number pyramid besides these all limitations, the additional problem is that all
organisms are considered same such as a bunch small grass at producer level is of same
value as the carnivore in the secondary or tertiary trophic level. Therefore , the static
pyramid model of an ecosystem are impressive graphical methods for understanding but is
not a functional model to describe energetic of an ecosystem as flow models and
mathematical formulation and computer replication.