Engineering Failure Analysis 128 (2021) 105599

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Hydrodynamic study of the oil flow in a protective relay coupled

to a power transformer: CFD simulation and
experimental validation
Ivan Xavier Lins a, *, Hilário Jorge Bezerra Lima Filho a,
Valdemir Alexandre dos Santos a, Júlio César Santos Pereira b, Jose Mak b,
Cynthia Wanick Vieira c
a
Centro de Ciências e Tecnologia (CCT), Departamento de Engenharia Química, Universidade Católica de Pernambuco (UNICAP), CEP 50050-900,
Rua do Príncipe, 526, Recife, PE, Brazil
b
Centro de Gestão de Tecnologia e Inovação (CGTI), CEP 13106-028, Rua dos Expedicionários, 1325, Sousas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
c
Transmissora Aliança de Energia Elétrica (Taesa), CEP 20010-010, Praça XV de Novembro, 20, Centro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present study aimed at performing a hydrodynamic analysis of the safety device’s behavior in
Power transformer a gas relay, using computational fluid dynamics techniques and experimental data validation
CFD obtained in a protective relay pilot unit (PRP) using different safety flaps geometries for fault
Protection relay
detection within high-power transformers. The proposed methodology was carried out in four
Insulating oil
Electrical failure
stages: (i) development of computational meshes from the three-dimensional geometry of the
protective relay and safety flaps; (ii) specification of the physical properties of fluids, boundary
conditions, and fluid dynamic models; (iii) obtaining speed profiles, flap angle, oil flow and
system pressure difference; and (iv) comparison of simulated and experimental data. The devices
installed in the relay showed satisfactory performance for failures caused by the oil volumetric
expansion. It was observed that from the flap 10◦ tilt, the orifice ceases to be the preferred path
oil, reducing detection sensitivity of the flow. Using the CFD (computational fluid dynamics)
computational tool, it was possible to understand the flow behavior within the relay, allowing to
detect quickly and efficiently cases of failure with oil expansion.

1. Introduction

Power transformers are robust and essential equipment to adjust the voltage and current levels in electrical systems. Its primary
function is reducing transmission losses, guaranteeing the uninterrupted supply of energy from generation to consumer centers
through conduction or transmission lines. Failures in this equipment can disable the electrical system for an extended period, resulting
in operational disturbances, financial losses, risks of explosion, costs of repair or replacement of equipment, and probable damage to
the environment [1,2].
During failures, the gas produced, resulting from the chemical and physical decomposition of the insulating oil and winding, caused

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ivanxavierlins@hotmail.com (I.X. Lins), hilario.filho@unicap.br (H.J.B. Lima Filho), julio.cesar@cgti.org.br (J.C.S. Pereira),
cynthia.vieira@taesa.com.br (C.W. Vieira).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2021.105599
Received 26 January 2021; Received in revised form 8 July 2021; Accepted 11 July 2021
Available online 14 July 2021
1350-6307/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
I.X. Lins et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 128 (2021) 105599

Nomenclature

cp specific heat capacity

d pipe conductor inner diameter, m
→g gravitational acceleration, m⋅s− 2
k thermal conductivity, W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1
k turbulent kinetic energy,
P Pressure, Pa
Re Reynolds number
t time, s
u average velocity, m⋅s− 1
→u velocity, m⋅s− 1
x coordinate
y coordinate
z coordinate

Greek letters
1
β thermal expansion coefficient of liquid material, K−
ε dissipation rate, m2⋅s− 3
μ dynamic viscosity, Pa⋅s
ρ density, kg⋅m− 3
→τ tensor stress, Pa

Subscripts
g gas phase
s solid phase
max maximum

Abbreviation
ANOVA Variance Analysis
CFD computational fluid dynamics

by the disordered high voltage gradients in the transformer, can generate a volume of gas from 1 cm3 to 2 m3. When extreme failures
occur, the total oil displacement can reach up to 5 m/s [3].
During operation, the transformer insulation is degraded due to implications resulting from various voltages, leading to the pro­
duction of gases that may be dissolved in the oil. The identification of these gases can be very useful to identify the failures and to avoid
interruptions [4,5]. According to N’cho et al. [6], the main resulting gases can be identified and determined, including Hydrogen (H2),
Oxygen (O2), Nitrogen (N2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6), Ethylene (C2H4), Acet­
ylene (C2H2), Propane (C3H8), and Propylene (C3H6). The composition of the gases produced (key gases) will depend on the type of
failure. Except for O2 and N2, the other gases must have an unpaired electron when the break occurs. These gases are generated by
secondary chemical reactions, breaking up hydrocarbon molecules due to electrical and thermal stresses. According to the IEEE Guide
for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers [7], key gases can identify four types of failure, overheated oil,
overheated cellulose, partial discharges, and electric arc.
The occurrence of transformers’ failures has been a concern of electric power utilities, especially those that occur without any prior
knowledge, causing abrupt interruptions in the power supply. Therefore, it is essential to monitor the transformers in operation by
analyzing key gases’ composition, checking if any reference parameters have been exceeded. The collection must be performed with
the shorter possible periodicity to determine the gas generation rate and the correct failure diagnosis [6,8,9].
Communication and data acquisition technological advances, as well as the development of sensors have allowed monitoring
operating conditions of power transformers immersed in oil. In recent years, different research groups have been dedicated to
monitoring and diagnosing incipient failures through Dissolved Gas Analyzes (DGA); for example, Fourier-transform infrared spec­
troscopy (FTIR) with continuous oil collection [10], on-line monitoring based on a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) sensor through gas
chromatography [11], fuzzy logic and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) [12], artificial neural network (ANN) [13]. However, the
DGA on-line monitoring still presents sensitivity and selectivity limitations, considering that produced gases create gas mixtures.
On the other hand, according to Rodrigues et al. (2017) [14], several approaches can be carried out, alone or combined with other
techniques, aiming to improve power transformers’ performance. Thermo-hydraulic models can be considered to obtain detailed
information on oil flow and temperature gradient in all the equipment. Thus, the methodologies based on the Finite Element Method
(FEM) and the Finite Volume Method (FVM) have stood out in the thermal, dynamic, and magnetic study of fluids in different elements
of the transformer, facilitating detailed analysis and representation of variables in bi and three-dimensional environments, considering
geometry, initial conditions and boundary. Due to the high cost of simulating the entire system, the Computational Fluid Dynamic
(CFD) technique has been used to evaluate a power transformer’s specific components.

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I.X. Lins et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 128 (2021) 105599

Cotas et al. (2020) [15] studied the hydrodynamic behavior of the oil flow in a transformer winding, simulating a sinusoidal
disturbance in the oil inlet region. Different parameters were tested, such as oil speed and temperature. The friction factor was
calculated for each flow regime as a function of the Reynolds number. Raeisian et al. (2019) [16] combined CFD and the response
surface methodology (RSM) to represent an optimized cooling system in power transformers, detailing the heat transfer mechanisms
involved. Bearing in mind that the equipment’s useful life and performance depend on the mechanism of heat dissipation generated
during operation, Ranjith and Shaji (2016) [17] simulated a thermal radiator based on natural convection. They determined the best
geometry as a function of the spacing between sections and the radiator sections’ length. Hasan (2016) [18] numerically studied the
cooling performance of the transformer, replacing the insulating oil with a suspension (microencapsulated phase change material
MEPCM), reducing its temperature and consequently increasing the protection against failures.
In this work, a new design of a gas relay was studied with the aid of commercial CFD software (Solidworks Flow Simulation), and
experimental measurements were performed in a pilot plant, on a small scale, to assess the ideal safety cap opening conditions, as a
consequence of a rapid displacement of the insulating oil, caused by an internal failure in the transformer.

2. Numerical modeling

2.1. Computational domain

The computational model is based on a transformer immersed in oil. The prototype was built in a transparent material (acrylic) and
PVC, composed of an upper 50L tank (expansion tank), a lower 50L tank (transformer tank), gas relay, centrifugal pump, flow meter,
pressure sensors before and after the safety system consisting of a perforated plate, and a flap inside the relay (Fig. 1).
Three perforated plates with different holes were manufactured to evaluate the security system (cross-section), plate A (125.69
mm2); B (189.12 mm2); and C (256.2 mm2). The plates were made of brass with masses of 400.50 g, 398.53 g, and 396.46 g,
respectively, and their dimensions are shown in Fig. 2. The same flap was used in the experiments with a mass of 112.71 g, represented
in Fig. 3.

2.2. Mesh

The computational domain of the PRPU was subdivided based on meshes of different dimensions and types of refinement. Previous
studies for this application showed independence of numerical mesh from 320,000 elements, where the increase of the concentration
does not significantly affect the quality of the results; however, they increase the processing time.
In the PRPU, the meshes were generated with local refinement (Fig. 4), given the ease of adaptation over complex geometries. The
data generated were obtained with the same quality as a structured mesh since the concentration of elements was directed to the
regions of interest (fluid inlet and outlet region, flap, and orifices). Consequently, the time to run the simulations was reduced
considerably.

2.3. Governing equations

The physical properties of a fluid in motion can be represented by fundamental equations, written in differential form, also called

Fig. 1. Protection Relay Pilot Unit (PRPU): (a) computational sketch; (b) Full-scale prototype. Equipment: (1) Centrifugal pump, (2) flow meter, (3)
pressure meters, (4) ball valves, (5) oil tanks.

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I.X. Lins et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 128 (2021) 105599

Fig. 2. Dimensions of the perforated plates.

Fig. 3. Flap dimensions.

governing equations. In regions of fluids, Solidworks Flow Simulation allows solving the Navier-Stokes equations, which are formu­
lations of the mass conservation, moment conservation, and energy conservation equations [16,19]. These equations are represented
below according to Eq. (1), Eq. (2), and Eq. (3), respectively:
∂ρ
+ ∇∙(ρ→
u)=0 (1)
∂t

∂ρ→u
+ ∇∙(ρ→
u→ τ ) + ρ→
u ) = − ∇p + ∇(→ g (2)
∂t

∂ρH
+ ∇∙(ρ→
u H) = ∇∙(k∇T) (3)
∂t

where t is the time, →

u is the speed vector; τ is the stress tensor; ρ is the density; p is static pressure, →
g is the gravitational acceleration
vector; k is thermal conductivity; and T is temperature. The sum of the sensible enthalpy and latent heat ΔH can be represented by H,
represented by Eq. (4):

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I.X. Lins et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 128 (2021) 105599

Fig. 4. Mesh refinement system schematic diagram.

H = h + ΔH (4)
Sensitive enthalpy can be written according to Eq. (5), where href and Tref represent the enthalpy and reference temperature,
respectively.
∫T
h = href + cp dT (5)
Tref

The laminar or turbulent outflow can be determined by the Reynolds number (Re), according to Eq. (6):
ρud
Re = (6)
μ

where u is the average speed, μ is the dynamic viscosity, and d is the hydraulic diameter of the conductor (tube).
In this study, a model of two semi-empirical equations was used to accurately simulate the turbulent outflow. The standard k-
turbulence modelε introduces two new variables, the kinetic energy generated by the turbulence (k) and its dissipation rate (ε) [20,21].
The model considers that the turbulent viscosity, Eq. (6), is associated with kinetic energy and turbulent dissipation, given by the
relationship:

k2
μt = Cμ μ (7)
ε
The k and ε values are determined by the equations Eq. (8) and Eq. (9):
[( ) ]
∂(ρk) μ
+ ∇∙(ρuk) = ∇∙ μ + t ∇k + Pk − ρε (8)
∂t σk
[( ) ]
∂(ρε) μt ε
+ ∇∙(ρuε) = ∇∙ μ+ ∇ε + (Cε1 Pk − Cε2 ρε) (9)
∂t σε k

where Pk is the generation of turbulence due to viscous and buoyancy forces. In CFD simulations, Solidworks Flow Simulation con­
siders the constants Cε1 = 1.44,Cε2 = 1.92,σk = 1.0,σ ε = 1.3 and Cμ = 0.09. These values are available in Launder and Sharma (1974)
[20].
The Volume of Fluid (VOF) was used to represent the flow of two immiscible fluids (gas and insulating oil), with a free surface,
which solves a set of moment equations and tracks the volumetric fraction of each of the fluids in the whole domain [22–24].
The physical meaning of the volumetric fraction(αq ) is shown below, Eq. (10):

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I.X. Lins et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 128 (2021) 105599

⎧ ⎫
⎨ 0 The cell is empty of phase q fluid ⎬
αq = 1 The cell is filled with phase q fluid (10)
⎩ ⎭
0 − 1 The cell contains the interface surface

Tracking the gas–liquid interface can be obtained by solving the continuity equation for the volumetric fraction, Eq. (11).
∂(αq ρq )
+ ∇∙(αq ρ→
u)=0 (11)
∂t

3. Material and methods

3.1. Insulating oil physical properties

The fluids’ physicochemical properties are important to accurately assess internal flow. Verifying that the insulating oil is not part
of the Solidworks Flow Simulation database, its properties were determined as a function of temperature, using equations, for an
ambient temperature of 20.05 ◦ C. For the gas phase (air) a density of 1.204 kg/m3 was used for the same temperature.
The thermo-physical properties of the insulating mineral oil were also determined. The density was obtained by using a 250 mL
pycnometer with a thermometer attached. The viscosity was determined using a Brookfield viscometer. All determinations were made
in triplicate. In addition, specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity were measured by the TEMPOS instrument in conformity with
ASTM 5334 and IEEE 442 made by METER Group. The correlations obtained based on the measured data, are presented in Table 1.

3.2. Configuration of CFD simulations

In the present study, 24 stationary simulations were performed in three-dimensional geometry, with 8 simulations on each
perforated plate (A, B, and C). In this arrangement, the insulating oil was considered as a continuous phase and the air as a free surface
in the outlet regions. The initial and boundary conditions for the fluid inlet and outlet are shown in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4. The
other physical properties were calculated according to the equations presented in Table 1, under a constant ambient temperature of
20.05 ◦ C.

4. Results and discussion

Inside the Protection Relay, the safety flap is activated in severe electrical failures, where there is a significant volumetric expansion
of the insulating oil, caused by high temperatures or combustion inside the transformer. During flawless operation, the flap must
remain closed, directing the oil flow-through the through-hole. Different passage orifices (A, B, and C) were evaluated according to
different parameters, insulating oil flow, angular flap opening, difference in static pressure, and Reynolds number.
Experiments were performed in the PRPU to evaluate the protection relay’s behavior to detect failures caused by the volumetric
expansion of the oil. A relationship was observed between the angular flap opening (between 0◦ and 14◦ ) and the oil flow in the system.
In Fig. 5, we can see the comparison between the three perforated plates, where plate A has the highest flow for a common opening
angle, while plate C is the one with the lowest sensitivity.
The angular displacement of the flap due to the increased insulating oil flow can be seen in Fig. 6, represented by the flow-through
of the perforated plate A. The same behavior is also evident for plates B and C, where higher flows are determined for the same
inclination angle. Therefore, the flow detection range can be adjusted by replacing the flap with a different one to improve the ac­
curacy in detecting serious failures arising from the volumetric expansion of oil inside the transformer.
A series of experimental data were used in this article to compare and validate the results of the numerical simulation to verify the
reliability of the CFD technology in the oil flow hydrodynamic study (Figs. 7, 8, and 9).
Fig. 10 shows the oil speed profile under different operating conditions. Different speed gradients are observed depending on the
geometry of the perforated plates. When the flap is closed, the oil flow is directed exclusively to the orifice, which is the region with the
highest speed, and the maximum flow rate that each flap can support in the 0◦ position, i.e., fully closed, respectively: 1.82 L/min, 3.4
L/min, 4.07 L/min (see Fig. 11).
Intermediate openings were also used to compare the simulations with the experimental data. It is verified that the flap of the
perforated plate A reaches the same opening angle, equivalent to an inclination of 6◦ with speeds lower than B and C. In plate A it

Table 1
Thermophysical properties.
Properties Oil Oil (20.05◦ C)

1
Thermal conductivity (W m− K− 1 ) k = 0.149 − 0.0001∙Toil 0.147
1
Specific heat capacity (J kg− K− 1) cp = 1785 + 4.24∙Toil 1870
Density (kg m− 3) ρ = 898 − 0.61∙Toil 885.77
Viscosity (Pa s) μ = 0.02 + 3.646∙0.927Toil 0.818

Source: Author.

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Table 2
Boundary conditions for perforated plate A.
CFD simulations Fluid inlet (L/min) Flap opening angle (◦ ) Fluid outlet (mm H 2O)

01 1.82 0 1033.27
02 9.14 2
03 16.45 4
04 24.55 6
05 32.40 8
06 40.02 10
07 48.05 12
08 54.31 14

Table 3
Boundary conditions for perforated plate B.
CFD simulations Fluid inlet (L/min) Flap opening angle (◦ ) Fluid outlet (mm H2O)

01 3.4 0 1033.27
02 14.01 2
03 23.07 4
04 32.31 6
05 37.52 8
06 44.39 10
07 51.71 12
08 57.33 14

Table 4
Boundary conditions for perforated plate C.
CFD simulations Fluid inlet (L/min) Flap opening angle (◦ ) Fluid outlet (mm H2O)

01 4.07 0 1033.27
02 17.06 2
03 26.26 4
04 36.28 6
05 41.76 8
06 48.7 10
07 54.1 12
08 59.4 14

Fig. 5. Flap opening using different perforated plates “A,” “B,” and “C.”

reached the 6◦ opening with lower speeds than the others.

At high flow rates, the inclination of the flaps increases considerably, restricting the passage of oil through the holes, as shown in
Fig. 12. Therefore, the sensitivity in the detection of failures by volumetric expansion does not suffer significant interference from the
holes’ geometry.
The system’s oil flow hydrodynamic behavior was evaluated as a function of the Reynolds number and the difference in static

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I.X. Lins et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 128 (2021) 105599

Fig. 6. Valve A angular opening.

pressure before and after the perforated plates. Under different operating conditions, a similar behavior was observed for the perfo­
rated plates, where low flow rates result in a small pressure difference when the flap is closed. At the same time, the increase in oil flow,
capable of opening the flap, generates a peak in the static pressure difference, considering that the sum of the fluid flow areas is
minimal. In the experimental data presented in Figs. 13, 14, and 15, each flap opening angle corresponds to an oil flow in the system.

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I.X. Lins et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 128 (2021) 105599

Fig. 7. Valve A angle opening.

The smallest Reynolds number is equivalent to the oil flow in the system where the flap remains closed. It was possible to observe that
the results obtained experimentally agree with the simulations performed in the computational model. Pointing out that in small
opening angles, the regime tends to be more turbulent, and as the angle and flow increase, the Reynolds number tends to decrease,
showing a more laminar regime.

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I.X. Lins et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 128 (2021) 105599

Fig. 8. Valve B angle opening.

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Fig. 9. Valve C angle opening.

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Fig. 10. Oil flow-through holes “A,” “B,” and “C” simulation and comparison, in the opening angle, (flap totally closed).

Fig. 11. Oil flow-through holes “A,” “B,” and “C” simulation and comparison, in the opening angle, (6◦ ).

5. Conclusion

In this work, the flow of insulating oil numerical simulations inside a protection relay was performed using the Solidworks Flow
Simulation package. The simulations’ results were validated with experimental data of speed and static pressure obtained at the PRPU.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the current study:

1- When evaluating the protection relay’s behavior to detect failures caused by the oil volumetric expansion, it was found that the
opening of the safety flap had occurred at different flows according to the selected perforated plate. It allows finer adjustments in
precision and detection of serious failures arising from the volumetric expansion of oil inside the transformer.
2- The orifice is no longer the preferred oil path with high opening angles, decreasing the flow control’s sensitivity. Therefore, at high
flow rates, the sensitivity in detecting failures by volumetric expansion does not suffer significant interference from the orifice
geometry.
3- Using the CFD tool, it was possible to better understand the insulating oil behavior inside the relay and with different perforated
plates, allowing a faster and more practical way to analyze the through-hole interference in the calibration of the safety flap in cases
of faults with oil expansion.

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I.X. Lins et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 128 (2021) 105599

Fig. 12. Oil flow-through holes “A,” “B,” and “C” simulation and comparison, in the opening angle, (14◦ ).

Fig. 13. Pressure difference variation as a function of Reynolds number, Case A.

Fig. 14. Pressure difference variation as a function of Reynolds number, Case B.

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Fig. 15. Pressure difference variation as a function of Reynolds number, Case C.

6. Recognition

This work was developed within the scope of the Project “Relé de Proteção com Monitoramento Ativo de Óleo e Gases e um Sistema
Inteligente para Diagnóstico e Monitoramento de Transformadores e Reatores de Potência de Alta Tensão” (PD-07130-0060/2019),
financed by the Research and Development Program of the Brazilian Electric Energy Sector regulated by ANEEL.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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