Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

ENCHEM 1 – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Period: 1st Sem. AY .2021-2022

Subject Instructor: Engr. Noli M. Esperas Jr. Course and Year: BSEE 1
Module No. & Title: 2.3 Fuels Time Allotment: Week 5 (3hrs)
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2.3 Fuels
Outline of Topics
1. Fuel
2. Solid Fuels
3. Liquid Fuels
4. Gaseous Fuels

Specific Intended Learning Outcome/s (SILOs)

At the end of this topic, the student should be able to:
1. Understand the definition of fuel.
2. Classify the different types of fuel and characteristics of a good fuel.
3. Determine the proximate and ultimate analysis of a coal.
4. Identify the classification of fuel according to its state of occurrence and its application.

In this present age of rapid industrial development, the power requirement is increasing day-by-day. Heat
energy is the main source of power. Burning of carbon, an exothermic reaction produces heat energy.
Hence, the carbon compounds have been used as the main source of heat energy.

1. Fuel
Fuel is a combustible substance containing carbon, which on combustion produces a large amount of heat,
which can be used for various domestic and industrial purposes. The main sources of fuels are coals and
petroleum oils available in earth’s crust, the amount of which are decreasing day-by-day. These are stored
fuels called fossil fuels. Fossil Fuels are non-renewable energy resources which are stored up millions of
years ago by photosynthesis.

Any chemical process accompanied by the evolution of light and heat is called combustion. It is simply the
reaction of substances with oxygen and converts chemical energy into heat and light. The process of
combustion involves oxidation of carbon, hydrogen, etc. of the fuels to CO 2, H2O, and the difference in the
energy reactants and the products are liberated as large amount of heat energy which is utilized

𝑭𝒖𝒆𝒍 + 𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 → 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 + 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

Calorific Value

Calorific value of a fuel is the total quantity of heat liberated when a unit mass or volume of the fuel is
completely burnt. Heat energy is measured in terms of calorie or kilocalorie (1kcal =1000cal). Calorie is the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 1oC.

There are different expressions for calorific values:

a. Higher or Gross Calorific Value (HCV/GCV) – is the total amount of heat produced when
unit mass/volume of the fuel has been burnt completely and the products of combustion
have been cooled to room temperature.

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GCV = Heat of reaction + Latent heat of steam produced + Sensible heat obtained by
cooling the combustion products to room temperature

b. Lower or Net Calorific Value (LCV/NCV) – is the actual amount of heat available when
unit mass of the fuel is completely burnt and combustion products are permitted to escape.
NCV = GCV – Latent heat of water vapor formed

Since, one gram of hydrogen gives 9g of water, then:

NCV = GCV – Mass of Hydrogen x 9 x latent heat of steam

The unit of calorific value is expressed in either calorie/gm (cal/g) or kilocalorie/kilogram (kcal/kg)
or British thermal unit/pound (BTU/lb) in case of a solid and a liquid fuel. For gaseous fuels, the
units are kcal/m3 or BTU/ft3.

Classification of Fuel

Classification of fuels is based on two factors:

1. Occurrence (and preparation)
2. The physical state of aggregation

According to their occurrence, fuels are classified as:

1. Natural or Primary Fuel – which are found in nature as such it is used. Examples are wood, coal,
petroleum, natural gas, and etc.
2. Artificial or Secondary Fuels – are those which are derived from primary fuel. Examples are
charcoal, coke, kerosine, diesel, petrol, producer gas.

The classification is based upon their state of aggregation:

State of Fuel Natural or Primary Fuel Artificial or Secondary Fuel

Solid Fuel Wood, peat, lignite, dung, Charcoal, coke, Petroleum coke,
bituminous coal, and anthracite Coal briquette, etc.
coal
Liquid Fuel Crude oil (Petroleum) Petrol, kerosene, diesel, alcohol,
and various other fractions of
petroleum
Gaseous Fuel Natural gas Coal gas, oil gas, biogas, water
gas, producer gas, LPG, etc.

Characteristics of Good Fuel

1. A fuel should have high calorific value

2. It should ignite easily. Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature at which the fuel in an air-
liquid mixture ignites spontaneously and continues to burn without any external heating. Ignition
temperature should not be either very high or very low. It should be moderate. Low ignition
temperature is dangerous for storage and transport of fuel. High ignition temperature causes
difficulty in igniting the fuel but the fuel is safe during storage, handling, and trans port. Hence, ideal
fuel should have moderate ignition temperature.
3. Fuel should have low content of non-combustible (ash) matter and low moisture content. Dry fuel
increases its calorific value

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4. Fuel should be readily available in bulk a cheap rate.

5. The combustion speed of a good fuel should be moderate. It should not burn spontaneously to
avoid fire hazards. The combustion of a good fuel should not be explosive
6. Its handling should be easy and should not give poisonous gases after combustion.

Characteristic/Properties of Fuel According to State of Aggregation:

Characteristics/
Solid Fuel Liquid Fuel Gaseous Fuel
Property
Sample Coal Crude Oil Coal Gas
Cost Cheap Costlier than solid Costly
fuels
storage Easy to store Closed containers Storage space
should be used for required is huge and
storing should be leak proof
Risk towards fire less more Very high since
hazards these fuels are
highly inflammable
Combustion rate It is a slow process Fast process Very rapid and
efficient
Combustion control Cannot be controlled Cannot be controlled Controlled by
or stopped when regulating the supply
necessary of air
Handling cost High since labor is Low, since the fuel Low, like liquid fuels,
required in their can be transported these can be
storage and through pipes transported through
transport pipes
Ash Ash is produced and No problems of ash No problems of ash
its disposal also
possess problems
smoke Produce smoke Clean, but liquids Smoke is not
invariably associated with high produced
carbon and aromatic
fuels produce smoke
Calorific value least high highest
Heat efficiency least high Highest efficiency

2. Solid Fuels
The main solid fuels are wood, peat, lignite, coal, and charcoal.

Wood is derived from trunks and branches of trees. It contains about 15% moisture after airdrying. Wood
contains lignocellulose-wood pulp mainly consist of α cellulose and a very small amount of β cellulose,
resins, and proteins. The average composition of wood on moisture-free basis is C=55%, H=6%, O=43%,
and ash=1%. Wood is largely used as domestic fuel, its use as engineering fuel is restricted. Calorific value
varies from 3500-4500 kcal/kg.

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Coal

Coal is the most important solid fuel and derived from prehistoric plants. It is a highly carbonaceous matter
composed of C, H, N, and O and non-combustible inorganic matter. That, it has been found because of
alternation of plants under certain favorable conditions.

Coal is a natural fuel formed by the slow carbonization of vegetable matter buried under the earth some
thousands of years ago. Vegetable matter is first transformed into peat, then to lignite then into bituminous
coal and finally to anthracite. The transformation period extends over millions of years through a continuous
process. The continuity can be proved graphically by plotting oxygen and C percentages of coal at different
stages of formation.

It is classified into four kinds based on the carbon content and the calorific value:

Wood → Peat → Lignite → Bituminous coal → Anthracite

1. Peat is regarded as the first stage of formation of coal from wood. It is brown, fibrous jelly-like mass.
It contains 80-90% moisture that it considered as uneconomical fuel. The composition of peat is
C=57%, H2=6%, O2=35%, and ash=2.5%. The calorific value of peat is 5400 kcal/kg. It is a low-
grade fuel due to high water content. It is used as domestic fuel, in steam boilers, power stations
and gas producers. It is also used as fertilizer. Low temperature carbonization of peat is used for
getting peat coke and byproducts. Peat is easy to ignite and burns freely to give a long, pleasant
flame.

2. Lignite or brown coals are soft, brown colored coal. It is immature form of coal. It contains 20-60%
moisture. Air-dried lignite contains C=60-70% and O2=20%. Its calorific value is 6500-7000 kcal/kg.
It burns with a smoky flame. It is powdered, dried, and pressed into briquettes and used for
domestic purpose for boilers and for production of producer gas.

3. Bituminous coal are black and usually banded with alternate very bright and dull layers. Based on
carbon content, it is classifying as:
a. Sub-bituminous coals. It contents C=70-78%, H2=4-5% and O2=20%. The airdried
material has moisture content of 10-20%. Calorific value is 6800-7600 kcal/kg. It ignites
easily and if low in S content, used for gaseous fuel production.
b. Bituminous coal. It contents C=78-90%, calorific value is from 8000 to 8500 kcal/kg. Its
chief use is for combustion in household, industrial furnaces, and oilers, railway
locomotives and thermal power stations. By carbonization and gasification, it is
converted to coke, gaseous fuels like producer gas, water gas, coal gas, liquid fuels like
coal tar fuels.
c. Semi-anthracite. Is intermediate between bituminous coals and anthracite. It ignites more
easily than anthracite. When air-dried moisture content is 1-2%, volatile matter=10-15%.
Calorific value is 8500-8800 kcal/kg.

4. Anthracite is the highest rank coal having highest percentage of C=92-98%, O2=3%, H2=3%, and
N2=0.7%. It has a lowest volatile mater and moisture. Calorific value is 8400-8600 kcal/kg. It burns
without smoke but ignites with difficulty, possess no coking power. Its chief uses are in boilers,
domestic ovens and metallurgical furnaces.

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Analysis of Coal

To assess the quality of coal, two types of analysis are made (i) proximate analysis and (ii) ultimate
analysis

A. Proximate Analysis. It involves the determination of the following:

1. Moisture content: 1g of finely powdered airdried sample taken in a crucible and heated after
desiccation till constant weight.
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

2. Volatile matter contents: The dried sample left in the crucible along with the lid is heated in a
muffle furnace at a 250OC ± 20oC for 7 minutes and then cooled, weighed after desiccation till
constant weight.
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

3. Ash content: The residual sample after the two above experiments in the crucible is heated in
the furnace at 700oC ± 50oC for 1 or 2 hours without the lid. Then it is cooled left in the
desiccator and weighed till constant weight.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠ℎ = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

4. Fixed carbon: The percentage of fixed carbon can be obtained by subtracting the total
percentage of moisture contents, volatile matter contents and ash contents from 100.
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 = 100 − %(𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑎𝑠ℎ)

Significance: By taking away the latent heat of evaporated moisture content lowers the calorific
value of coal. Hence, lower the moisture content, better the quality of coal. Similar is the effect of
volatile matter content, which escapes unburnt so volatile matter content lowers with better
quality of coal. Low volatile matter also reduces coking property of coal. Ash being non -
combustible, reduces the calorific value of coal. Ash deposition also causes problems in the
furnace walls and the ultimate disposal of ash is also a problem.

Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, higher is the calorific value and better is the quality of
coal.

B. Ultimate Analysis. It involves the determination of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and
ash content.
1. Carbon and Hydrogen: Accurately weigh 1-2gm of the coal sample and burn in a current of O2 in
combustion apparatus whereby CO2 and H2O are formed. CO2 and H2O are absorbed by
previously weighed tubes containing KOH and anhydrous CaCl 2. The increase in weight gives
the C and H content as follows:

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐾𝑂𝐻 × 12

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 × 44

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𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 × 2

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 × 18

2. Nitrogen: About 1g of accurately weighed coal sample taken in a Kjeldahl’s flask along with
conc. H2SO4, K2SO4 and heated. Then it is treated with excess of KOH and the liberated NH 3 is
absorbed in known excess of standard acid solution. The excess acid is back titrated with
standard NaOH solution. From the volume of acid consumed N content is calculated as follows:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 × 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 1.4
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

3. Sulfur: While determining the calorific value of a coal sample in a bomb calorimeter, the S in the
coal is converted to sulfate Finally, the washing containing sulfate is treated with dil. HCl and
BaCl2 solution, which precipitates BaSO4 which is filtered in a sintered glass crucible, washed
with water and heated to a constant weight.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4 × 32
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑚𝑏 × 233

4. Ash content: is determines like proximate analysis.

5. Oxygen content:
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = 100 − %(𝐶 + 𝐻 + 𝑁 + 𝑆 + 𝑎𝑠ℎ)

Significance: Higher percentage of C and H increases the calorific value of coal and hence
better is the coal. Higher the percentage of O, lower is the calorific value and lower is
unavailable. S, although contributes to calorific value, is undesirable due to its polluting
properties as it forms SO2 on combustion.

Coke

Coke is the solid, lustrous and porous mass left in the distilling pot after destructive distillation of coal. The
process of converting coal into coke is called carbonization. In this process, coal Is heated in absence of
air, to a sufficiently high temperature, under which volatile are driven off leaving a solid, lustrous, dense,
porous mass known as coke. Based on temperature, carbonization is of two types:

1. Low Temperature Carbonization (LTC) which carried out at temperature between 500-700oC. The
yield of coke is about 75-80%. The various products of LTC are semicokes, low temperature tar,
spirit and gas. This semicoke which is almost smokeless and soft, has calorific value 6500 -9000
kcal/m3.

2. High Temperature Carbonization (HTC) which is generally carried out at 900-1200oC in absence
of air. It if used to produce hard, strong, and porous metallurgical coke. The by-product obtained by
this process are coal gas, coke, coal-tar, and liquor ammonia.

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By-product of carbonization of coal:

3. Liquid Fuels
Petroleum

Petroleum or Crude oil is a naturally available liquid fuel made from the remains of plants and animals
buried millions of years ago. It is a dark greenish-brown viscous oil found deep in earth’s crust. It is
composed mainly of hydrocarbons, paraffins, naphthene and aromatics in varying proportions. The average
ultimate analysis shows C=83-87%, H=11-14%, S=0.5-3%, N=0.1%, and O=2-3%. Practically all metals are
found in petroleum, the most common are Si, Fe, Al, Ca, Mg, and Ni.

There are three main classifications of petroleum according to chemical nature:

1. Paraffin-base crude – composed of saturated hydrocarbons up to C 35H72 which are semi-solids,
called waxes.
2. Asphalt-based crude – contains mainly naphthene and cycloparaffins with smaller amounts of
paraffins and aromatics.
3. Mixed-based crude – contains the above type of compounds but rich in waxes. About 90% crude
produced at present fall in this last category.

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Refining of Petroleum

After removal of dirt, water, and natural gas, the crude oil is separated into various fractions by fractional
distillation. The resultant fractions are then finally subjected to purification into desired useful products. The
total process is called refining of petroleum and the plant where these are done is called refinery. The
process involves the following steps:

1. Removal of water or Coltrell’s process – crude oil is intimately mixed with water forming an
emulsion. The water is separated from the oil by passing the emulsion through Coltrell’s
electrostatic precipitator. Water removed by allowing the crude petroleum to flow between very
highly charges electrodes. The colloidal water droplets coalesce to form large size drops and get
separated from oil.

2. Removal of objectionable compounds – sulfur compounds have objectionable properties of

pollution, so they are removed prior to distillation as copper sulfide by treatment with copper oxide.

3. Fractional distillation – the crude petroleum is heated in an iron retort at about 400 oC. All volatile
impurities are removed, and the hot vapor is allowed to pass through a fractionating column made
up of stainless steel. When vapor goes up, it gradually cools down and fractional condensation
occurs at different heights of the column. Higher boiling fraction condenses first flowed by lowered
boiling fraction.

Petroleum Distillation

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The most important fractions are obtained from the fractionating column by distillation of crude petroleum
are:

Cracking

Cracking is a process by which the hydrocarbons of high molecular mass are decomposed into
hydrocarbons of low molecular mass by heating in the presence or absence of a catalyst. Example:

Cracking is mainly two types:

a. Thermal Cracking – if the cracking takes place at high temperature. It may take place by two ways:
(i) liquid-phase and (ii) vapor-phase thermal cracking.
b. Catalytic Cracking – if the cracking takes place due to the presence of catalyst. It may be (i) fixed
bed type or (ii) moving bed type.

Knocking

In an internal combustion engine, when the rate of oxidation becomes so high that the last portion of the
fuel-air mixture gets ignited instantaneously, producing an explosive violence known as knocking. With
knocking, the initial ignition of the mixture is initiated by the spark plug. Caused by the combustion pressure
and induced heat, a spontaneous combustion of the mixture occurs. A second, almost parallel combustion
inside the cylinder is the result. When both flame fronts hit, intense high-frequency pressure waves are
produced. These pressure waves create the characteristic metallic ping sound, and cylinder pressure
increases dramatically. Knocking combustion can lead to pre-ignition because of high combustion
temperature.

A good gasoline should resist knocking. The knocking order of different hydrocarbons are influence vary
according to the series:

Straight chain paraffins → branched chain paraffins → olefins → cycloparaffins → aromatics

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• Octane number

The resistance offered by gasoline to knocking cannot be defined in absolute terms. It has
been found that n-heptane knocks very badly and hence its anti-knock value has been
given zero. On the other hand, iso-octane gives very little knocking so its anti-knock value is
given as 100.

Octane number of a gasoline is equal to the percentage by volume of iso-octane in a

mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane having same knocking characteristics as the sample
being tested, under the same set conditions. Greater the octane number, greater is the anti-
knock property of the fuel.

Octane number 80 means the fuel has the same knocking characteristics as the mixture of
80:20 iso-octane and n-heptane.

• Anti-knock agents

The octane number can be increased by adding certain additives like tetra ethyl lead (TEL)
Pb(Et)4 known as anti-knock agents. Under combustion, TEL produces Pb and PbO. These
particles act as free radical chain inhibitor as they arrest the propagation of the explosive
chain reaction responsible for knocking. But it causes atmospheric pollution as well as
reduces engine deficiency. So instead of using TEL nowadays unleaded petrol where:

(i) methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) which supplies oxygen from the ether group for
combustion of petrol thus reducing the formation of peroxy compounds, is used,

(ii) secondly, reforming i.e., increasing the contents of molecules having branched chain
hydrocarbon like iso-pentane and aromatic hydrocarbons (ethyl benzene, isopropyl
benzene)

• Cetane number

Cetane number of a diesel oil may be defined as the percentage of cetane (n-hexadecane)
in a mixture of cetane and α-methyl naphthalene, which will have the identical ignition
characteristics as the fuel under test, under the same set of conditions. It measures the
case with which the fuel (diesel fuel) will ignite under compression. So higher cetane
number is as follows:

n-alkanes → naphthalene → alkenes → branched alkanes → aromatics

The combustion of fuel in a diesel engine is not instantaneous but there is come lag. The
interval between the start of fuel injection and its ignition is called ignition delay or
induction lag. Cetane has very short ignition delay compared to any diesel fuel whereas α-
methyl naphthalene has a longer ignition delay.

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4. Gaseous Fuels
The gaseous fuels are most preferred because of their ease of storage, transport, handling, and
ignition. These are classified either primary or secondary.

a. Fuel gas from nature: natural gas and methane from coal mines.
b. Fuel gas from solid fuels: producer gas, water gas, coal gas, blast furnace gas.
c. Fuel gas from petroleum: refinery gases, LPG, gases from oil gasification
d. Fuel gas made by fermentation of organic wastes.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is formed under the earth by the decomposition of vegetables matter lying under
water. It is obtained from well dug in the oil-bearing regions and coal fields. It is mainly composed
of methane, ethane, propane, butane, and trace number of other hydrocarbons along with
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and monoxide. Natural gas with lower hydrocarbons like CH 4 and C2 H6
also called marsh gas as the major constituent is methane. It is mainly used as domestic and
industrial fuel raw materials for methanol and formaldehyde preparation. Compressed natural
gas (CNG) is a natural gas under pressure which remains clear, odorless, and non-corrosive.

Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)

LPG are derived from the refinery process, crude oil and natural gas processing plants. The main
constituents are lower hydrocarbons up to C4, like butane and isobutanes, isobutylene, and
propane, etc. LPG is highly inflammable. It can exist as a gas under atmospheric pressure but can
be readily liquified under pressure and is done so for easy transportation and storage. It is cheap,
high knock resistance and burns clearly without leaving any residue and so mostly used as
domestic and industrial fuel. It’s calorific value 28000 kcal/kg. It is colorless and odorless. A
strong-smelling substance called ethyl mercaptan (C2H5SH) or CH3SH is added to LPG cylinder to
help the detection of gas leakage.

Producer Gas

It is a mixture of CO and N2. The calorific value is about 900-1300 kcal/m3. The average
composition of producer gas is CO (20-30%), H2 (8-12%), N2 (50-55%), and CO2 (2-3%). It is
prepared by passing air mixed with small volume of steam over red-hot coke at 1100oC in
specially designed reactor call gas producer.

Water Gas

Water gas is a synthetic gas containing Co (41) and hydrogen (51) along with small amount N2
(4%) and CO2 (4%). It is also known as blue gas as it burns with a blue flame when ignited. Its
calorific value is about 2800 kcal/m3. It is prepared by passing alternatively steam and little air
through a bed of hot coal or coke, maintained at about 900-1000oC in a reactor. To enhance the
calorific value of water gas, it is carbureted by adding gaseous hydrocarbons. This mixture of
water gas and gaseous hydrocarbons is called carbureted water gas. Its composition is H2

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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(35%), CO (25%). Hydrocarbon (35%), N2 and CO2 (5%). This co-called carbureted water gas has
calorific value about 4500 kcal/m3. It is mainly used for heating and illumination purpose.

Semi-water Gas

A mixture of water gas and producer gas is known as semi water gas. It’s calorific value 1700
kcal/m3.

Aviation Fuel

Aviation fuel is a special type of petroleum-based fuel with high octane number. It is used in
aircrafts and in racing cars. It is prepared by mixing alkylated branched paraffins with cracked
gasoline containing unsaturated open chain hydrocarbons.

Biodiesel

The alternative fuel for diesel engines which are made from vegetable oil or animal fat is known s
biodiesel. Chemically, bio-diesel molecules are monoalkyl esters produced usually form
triglyceride esters. It is prepared through trans-esterification reaction between monohydroxy
alcohol (methanol, ethanol) and triglyceride in presence of catalyst (KOH, NaOH), etc.)

Biogas

It is methane rich flammable gas that results from the controlled or uncontrolled anaerobic
decomposition of organic waste material.

Power Alcohol

The blend of anhydrous alcohol and petrol is called power alcohol or gasohol. It reduces CO
emission and cause less pollution compared to petrol.

References:
Engineering Chemistry by Jain and Jain
Engineering Chemistry by Mohan, et.al.,
Lecture Notes on Engineering Chemistry by Praveen

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

ENCHEM 1 – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Period: ___________________

Name of Student: ____________________________________________Course and Year: __________
Schedule (Time and Day): _____________________________________Final Rating: ______________
=================================================================================
2.3 Fuels
Assessment Task:
1. A sample of coal was analyzed as follows:

Exactly 2.5g was weighed in a silica crucible, after heating for 1hr at 110 oC the residue was weighed to
be 2.415g. Next the crucible was covered with a rented lid and strongly heated for exactly 7 mins at
1000oC. The residue was weighed to be 1.528g. Then the crucible was heated without cover until a
constant weight to 0.245g was obtained.

From the above data, calculate the proximate analysis of coal.

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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

2. A gaseous fuel has the following composition of volume:

H2 = 24%; CH4 = 30%; C2H6 = 11%; C2H4 = 4.5%; C4H8 = 2.5%; CO = 6%; CO2 = 8%; O2 = 2%; and N2
= 12%

Calculate (a) air to fuel ratio and (b) volume of dry products of combustion using 40% excess air.

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 Republic of the Philippines
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

3. Calculate the volume of air required for complete combustion of 1m3 of a gaseous fuel having the
composition:
CO = 46%; CH4 = 10%; H2 = 40%; C2H2 = 2%; N2 = 1% and the remaining being CO2.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

4. Think of how household waste can be utilized to produce gaseous fuel.

Student’s Corner
Write your feedback and learning in this lesson.

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