CHEMISTRY

Laboratory Safety Rules and Guidelines

1. Dress appropriately in the laboratory.
2. Wear protective goggles or glasses at all times in
the
laboratory.
3. Keep your working areas organized and clean as
you work.
4. Keep all chemical reagents (solids and liquids) in
the
assigned dispensing area.
5. Keep the balance and weighing area clean.
6. Check the name on the chemical reagent bottles
before using them.
7. Avoid contaminating chemical reagents.
8. Dispose waste properly.
9. Avoid all direct contact with chemicals.
10. Handle glasses with precautions.
11. Learn the location and proper use of safety
equipment
(fire extinguisher, eye wash, safety shower and first aid
kits).
12. Be aware of Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
13. Never work alone in the laboratory area.
14. Report all accidents to your instructor no matter
how
small it may seem.
15. Do not perform unauthorized experiments.
16. Do not enter the laboratory room without your
instructor.
Common Laboratory Glassware and
Materials
 CHEMISTRY
Measurement- quantitative observation
Two parts: a number and a scale (called a unit).
Two Major Systems: English System & Metric System Random Error- (also called an indeterminate error)
International System (le Syste me International in French), means that a measurement has an equal probability of
or the SI system- based on the metric system and units being high or low.
derived from the metric system. Systematic Error- (or determinate error). This type of
Basic Types of Quantity: error occurs in the same direction each time; it is either
a. Fundamental Quantities- Basic Quantities always high or always low.
which are Unit Factor Method/Dimensional Analysis-convert a
measured by the direct method. given result from one system of units to another.
b. Derived Quantities- Quantities that emanate or a
result Chemistry- the study of matter and the changes it
of the combination of fundamental quantities after a undergoes.
set of operations. Matter- is anything that occupies space and has mass.
Rules for Counting Significant Figures Substance- form of matter that has a definite (constant)
1. Non-zero integers always count as significant composition and distinct properties. (solid, liquid, gas)
figures. Mixtures- either homogeneous or heterogeneous.
2. There are three classes of zeros: Element- a substance that cannot be separated into
a. Leading zeros are zeros that precede all the non- simpler substances by chemical means.
zero Compound- composed of atoms of two or more
digits and do not count as significant figures. elements chemically united in fixed proportions.
b. Captive zeros are zeros between non-zero digits; Physical Property- can be measured and observed
these always count as significant figures. without changing the composition or identity of a
c. Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the substance.
number. They are significant only if the number Chemical Property- characteristic of a substance that is
contains a decimal point. observed during a reaction in which the chemical
3. Exact numbers. composition or identity of the substance is changed.
Exponential notation- e.g. 1.00 x 102 Extensive Property- depends on the amount of matter.
Scientific notation- form of shorthand used to write an Intensive Property- does not depend on how much
extremely large and exceedingly small numbers. matter is being considered.
Reliability of Measurements Chemical reaction- a process in which a substance (or
a. Accuracy- refers to the agreement of a particular substances) is changed into one or more new substances.
value with the true value. Chemical Equation- uses chemical symbols to show
b. Precision- refers to the degree of agreement what happens during a chemical reaction.
among several measurements of the same quantity. Reactants- the starting materials in a chemical reaction
 Product- the substance formed as a result of a chemical C2H4 + O2 (limited) CO + H2O

CHEMISTRY
reaction. C2H4 + O2 (excess) CO2 + H2O

Stoichiometry- term used to describe quantitative

Types of Chemical Reactions relationships in chemistry.
1. Combination Reactions- two or more substances Molar masses- calculated by summing the atomic
combine to form one product. masses of all the elements appearing in a chemical
General Form: A + B AB formula
2. Decomposition Reaction– a compound Energy- defined as the capacity to do work.
decomposed to form two or more substances. Work- directed energy change resulting from a process.
General Form: AB Δ A+B Law of Conservation of Energy: the total quantity of
3. Displacement Reaction– more active metal can energy in the universe is assumed constant; Energy can
displace a less active metal, while a less active one can’t neither be created nor destroyed.
displace the more active. Heat- the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies
General Form: AY + B BY + A that are at different temperatures.
4. Metathesis (Double Displacement Reaction) – Thermochemistry- the study of heat change in chemical
the positive ions exchange partners with the negative reactions.
ions to form two new compounds. System- the specific part of the universe that is of
General Form: AX + BY AY + BX interest to us.
5. Neutralization Reaction Surroundings- the rest of the universe outside the
Types of neutralization reaction: system.
a. Acid + base salt + water Three Types of System:
Ex: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(I) 1. Open System- can exchange mass and energy,
usually in the form of heat with its surroundings.
b. Metal oxide + acid salt + water 2. Closed System- allows the transfer of energy
Ex: CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(I) (heat) but not mass.
3. Isolated System- does not allow the transfer of
c. Nonmetal oxide + base salt +water either mass or energy.
Ex: SO2(g) + 2NaOH Na2SO3 + H2O Exothermic Process- heat released from the combustion
process is transferred from the system to its
d. Ammonia + Acid ammonium salt surroundings.
Ex: NH3 + HCl NH4Cl Endothermic Process- in which heat has to be supplied
6. Combustion Reaction – reaction of elements to the system by the surroundings.
and compounds with oxygen. Calorimeter-a closed container designed specifically to
Example: measure heat changes.
C(s) + O2 (limited) CO Calorimetry-the measurement of heat changes.
C(s) + O2 (excess) CO2
Specific Heat (s)- the amount of heat required to raise

degree Celsius. CHEMISTRY

the temperature of one gram of the substance by one Gibbs† free energy (G)- free energy; is the free-energy
change for a reaction when it occurs under standard-
Heat Capacity (C)- the amount of heat required to raise state conditions.
the temperature of a given quantity of the substance by Third Law of thermodynamics- states that entropy of a
one degree Celsius.
perfect crystalline substance is zero at the absolute zero
Heat of combustion- usually measured by placing a
of temperature.
known mass of a compound in a steel container called a
Electrochemistry- area of chemistry that deals with the
constant-volume bomb calorimeter.
interconversion of electrical energy and chemical
Constant-Pressure Calorimeter- simpler device that
energy
the constant-volume calorimeter; used to determine the
Electrochemical processes- are redox (oxidation-
heat changes for non-combustion reactions.
reduction) reactions in which the energy released by a
Thermochemical Equations- shows the enthalpy change
spontaneous reaction is converted to electricity or in
as well as the mass relationships.
which electricity is used to drive a nonspontaneous
Thermodynamics- deals with the interconversion of
chemical reaction.
heat and other forms of energy.
Galvanic Cell- Voltaic Cell apparatus for producing
Spontaneous Reaction- A reaction that does occur
electricity through the use of a spontaneous reaction
under the given set of conditions
Anode- electrode at which oxidation occurs
Non-spontaneous- reaction does not occur under
Cathode- the electrode at which reduction occurs.
specified conditions
Salt Bridge- to keep the solutions electrically neutral
Entropy (S)- described as a measure of how spread out
and allow the free flow of ions from one cell to another
or dispersed the energy of a system is among the
different possible ways that system can contain energy.
Cell Voltage- voltage across the electrodes of a galvanic
Standard entropy- the absolute entropy of a substance
cell
at 1 atm and 25°C.
Electromotive Force or emf (E)- common term for cell
voltage
Laws of Thermodynamics
Cell Diagram- conventional notation for representing
First Law of Thermodynamics- states that energy can
galvanic cells
be converted from one form to another, but it cannot
Standard-Reduction Potential- the voltage associated
be created or destroyed.
with a reduction reaction at an electrode when
Second Law of Thermodynamics- defined as the
all solutes are 1 M and all gases are at 1 atm.
entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous
process and remains unchanged in an equilibrium
process.