Focus on the

Learner

The Distance Delta

© International House London and the British Council

[Type text]
©International House London and the British Council
 The Distance Delta

Focus on the Learner

Summary
In this input we will spend time considering some of the characteristics of learners that may
affect their success in language learning. Some of these features are related to their cultural
background or to the context in which they are learning. Others relate very much to the
individual him or herself. We will consider learner beliefs, motivation, and learning styles,
which are all very important factors affecting learning. We will then look at learning
strategies, things that learners can be trained to do to help themselves learn. We then look
briefly at intelligence, personality and aptitude, and finally consider if it is possible to
describe the characteristics of a good language learner.

Objectives
By the end of this input you will be able to:

 Demonstrate some knowledge of the different attitudes and aspirations with which
speakers of other languages approach the learning of English.

 Notice and describe differences between adult learners in terms of their belief systems,
motivation, learning styles and preferences, and so on.

 Find ways of enhancing the motivation and learning opportunities for your learners
taking account of their cognitive and affective needs.

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Contents
1. Introduction

2. Learner Belief Systems

3. Motivation

4. Learning Styles

5. Learning Strategies

6. Personality

7. Intelligence

8. Aptitude

9. The Good Language Learner

10. Conclusion

Reading

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1. Introduction
There are a large number of potential factors which might affect an individual’s success in
learning a language. Some of these might relate to the individual learner, some to the
learning context (including institutional, methodological and affective factors) and some to
the language being learnt.

If we consider the language being learnt, factors come into play such as:

 Similarity to /difference to L1 (form, lexis, pronunciation, script etc.)

 Opportunities for and types of exposure

 Relationships/attitudes among speakers of L1 and L2 towards each other

 Learners’ beliefs about the language e.g. ‘the grammar is difficult’

If we consider the learning context, we raise issues such as:

 The role of the target language and culture in the learner’s own culture

 Whether the learner is learning the language as a second language i.e. to use in that
country or as a foreign language

 Number of years of study, method of study, amount and type of exposure to the
language

 Teaching methods and how they match with individuals’ learning styles

 Affective factors such as attitudes and relationships to teachers, peers and speakers of
the target language, self-esteem, perceived relevance of what is learnt, etc.

Lightbown and Spada (How Languages are Learned 2013) mention intelligence, aptitude,
personality, motivation and attitudes, learner preferences, learner beliefs and age.

In this section we will explore some of these factors in a little more in depth:

2. Learner Belief Systems

Lightbown and Spada restrict their discussion of learner beliefs to beliefs about teaching
methods. However, it can include more than that:

Learners’ beliefs are influenced by the social context of learning and can influence both
their attitudes towards the language itself as well as towards language learning in
general (Tumposky 1991). Learners’ belief systems cover a wide range of issues and
can influence learners’ motivation to learn, their expectations about language
learning, their perceptions about what is easy or difficult about a language as well as
the kind of learning strategies they favour.

Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C. J. 1994 Reflective Teaching in Second Language

Classrooms Cambridge University Press p52

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3. Motivation
Motivation is generally identified as a crucial factor in the learning process and most studies
report a high correlation between motivation and achievement. Whether motivation leads
to success or success leads to motivation is less clear but it seems the two are closely linked.

Defining motivation is a complex issue:

It is important to emphasise that motivation involves more than simply arousing

interest; it also involves making a decision to act, sustaining the interest, and deciding
how much effort to put in.

Williams, M. 1999 Motivation in Language Learning ETP Issue 13

Traditionally a distinction has been made between integrative and instrumental motivation
(Gardner and Lambert).

If a learner is instrumentally motivated, it means that they have a practical goal in their
language learning, in terms of their study or work. Perhaps they have to take an exam in the
foreign language or they need to use it in their job. If, on the other hand, a learner is
integratively motivated it means that they want to learn for reasons of personal growth or
cultural enrichment. Perhaps they are lovers of that language and culture, they like to visit
the country where it is spoken and/or they have friends there.

Research suggests that integratively motivated learners tend to do better than those who
are instrumentally motivated. This may well depend on the context, however. Learners who
are living in the target language culture may do better if they are integratively motivated,
but in other situations where the target language is being learnt as a foreign language,
instrumental motivation may be more important.

Another distinction, perhaps more useful, is made by cognitive psychologists between

extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation leads you to do something because of
some external pressure such as a reward or punishment of some kind, whereas if you are
intrinsically motivated you carry out the task for its own sake. Research seems to indicate
that while extrinsic motivation may be useful as well, it is intrinsic motivation that leads
better to long-term learning.

Motivation, however, is really much more complex than either of these dichotomies suggest.
It is most certainly influenced by a range of factors, both internal and external to the learner,
and it is also not a static thing as the instrumental/integrative labelling might suggest.
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation could work together rather than be seen as opposite ends
of a continuum.

Williams and Burden also point out the importance of the perceived value of the activity as a
crucial factor affecting motivation:

The greater the value that individuals attach to the accomplishment of or involvement
in an activity, the more highly motivated they will be both to engage in it initially, and
later to put sustained effort into succeeding in the activity. This would appear to be
true whether they are influenced by intrinsic or extrinsic reasons.

Williams, M. & Burden, R. L. 1997 Psychology for Language Teachers

Cambridge University Press p125

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Motivation in the Classroom

What do you think are the different factors that may affect a learner’s motivation in the
classroom? Consider such things as their relationship with their classmates and the level of
material, that is, if the learner thinks it is too easy or too difficult or just right.

Below is a list of the factors.

1. Reasons for learning need for the language

2. Progress made, feedback gained, achievement

3. Attitudes towards the target language and culture

4. Attitude towards/relationship with the teacher

5. Attitudes towards/relationship with peers

6. Attitudes towards the learning materials and tasks, perceived relevance

7. Perception of self as a language learner

8. Enjoyment of the learning process

9. Events in their lives, feelings, tiredness, etc.

Some of these relate to long-term states or attitudes, others may be transitory, related to a
particular class or learning activity.

How the Teacher Can Help

In relation to the list above is an outline of how it is possible for a teacher to influence these
things:

1. Encourage students to set goals in their learning, preferably related to the real world or
at least to the course syllabus, create a need for the language in the classroom, choose
materials that will interest the students, be aware of their needs and interests, provide
opportunities for individualisation.

2. Try to make the work you do success oriented – ensure your learners experience success
e.g. procedures to help ‘weaker learners’, ensure students get feedback on their
learning, through counselling, marking; give praise where it is due; remember the value
of positive feedback as well as constructive criticism.

3. Some of these things may be deep-rooted and difficult to affect. The teacher can try to
dispel any negative stereotypes, and s/he should be aware of her/his role as a ‘real
example’ of someone from that culture. Find out what the learners’ view on the
language is, what they perceive to be easy/difficult.

4. Find out about students’ expectations, some students may have quite different ideas
from yours about what the teacher’s role is, what constitutes good teaching, they may
also be very reluctant to criticise the teacher in any way. In some cases it may be good to
be friendly with your students but be careful you do not step over any cultural
boundaries. Bear in mind that:

Learners from different cultures may have different beliefs about what constitutes good
teaching.

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Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C. Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms op cit

p55

5. Try to create a good relationship between students: getting to know each other’s
names, something about each other, working with different people but ultimately
respecting their preferences. The teacher can also try to ensure a good relationship
among learners by personalising, by encouraging students to use each other’s names, by
getting students to work with each other etc.

6. Find out about the students’ needs; let them have a say in the work you cover; find out
about their learning preferences; cater for everyone not just the most vociferous
members of the group; get feedback from them on what they’ve liked, found useful, not
liked, not found useful and so on.

7. This is also something deep rooted, people may have decided a long time ago that they
were no good at languages, for example. Positive feedback from you (where deserved),
catering for different types of learner, or rather, mixed ability may help increase self-
esteem. You may also have the opposite problem of people who think they are better
than they are. Raise awareness of different types of intelligence (see Puchta,H.
Rinvolucri, M. 2007 Multiple Intelligences in EFL Cambridge University).

8. A lot of adult learners spend their free time and a lot of money studying in language
classes. If it can become a pleasure rather than a chore, that’s good! What constitutes a
pleasure? Humour, (but not all the time), variety, interesting content and (authentic?)
materials, the right amount of challenge, the sense that spending the time there was
really worthwhile and something was learned, the sense of involvement and progress.
Find out what your learners want, like and need.

9. Taking a (tactful) interest in students as people, i.e. the maxim ‘A problem shared is a ...’,
providing a variety of activities, including short activities when learners are tired, getting
them to move around (mingles, standing up role-plays), being flexible enough to
respond to their ‘mood’.

4. Learning Styles
Another important if contentious aspect of individual differences is in learning style. A lot
has been written about this over the years. Terms such as VAK, VAKOG or multiple
intelligences for example will be familiar to many of you.

Learners have clear preferences for how they go about learning new material. The
term ‘learning style’ has been used to describe an individual’s natural, habitual and
preferred way of absorbing processing and retaining new information and skills (Reid
1995).

Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. op cit p58

However certain it is that learners have clear preferences, how to categorise these
preferences is open to debate. Any categorisation is theoretical and cannot be reliably
proven; and just as each theory will have its advocates it will also have its detractors. But
since there is so much literature about learning styles and they form a part of learner
assessment in many educational contexts, it is important to be aware of the theories that
exist.

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The original seven ‘intelligences’ listed by Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The
Theory of Multiple Intelligence were Linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-
kinaesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. ‘Naturalistic’ intelligence was later added to
these.

In terms of how each one of the original seven are traditionally valued and tested in school
learning situations, here are some suggestions:

 Linguistic: written exercises, word games, reading, writing etc.

 Logical-mathematical: grammar by guided discovery, problem solving activities

 Spatial: video, project work

 Bodily-kinaesthetic: roleplay, drama, mime

 Musical: listening to and singing songs, beating the stress

 Interpersonal: brainstorming in groups, discussions in groups

 Intrapersonal: visualisation activities, selecting own learning activities

Some ELT practitioners influenced by Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) have talked about
different sensory styles (VAK refers to visual, auditory, kinaesthetic and –OG to olfactory and
gustatory).

The systems we use to experience the world are called our primary representational
systems. Depending to some extent on context, most people naturally tend to use one
system more than the other two, or one system before the others, either when noticing
things around them or when learning something new.

Revell, J. & Norman, S. 1997 In Your Hands Saffire Press p31

Below is a quiz about sensory styles along with the key. Whilst VAKOG may be appealing in
theory and has attractively practical relevance for the teacher, it is important not to make
rash judgements about your learners on limited evidence. For example, if a learner says she
likes using pictures in class, it may be tempting to label her as a visual learner. However, it
would be difficult to find learners who do not find pictures helpful.

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From Revell, J. & Norman, S. 1997 In Your Hands Saffire Press

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From Revell, J. & Norman, S. 1997 In Your Hands Saffire Press

Elsewhere, based on Knowles’ categories and referred to in books by Willing, Richards and
Lockhart, and Skehan, other distinctions have been made in terms of learning style, or
cognitive style, and the following types identified:

 Concrete learning style

 Analytical learning style

 Communicative learning style

 Authority-oriented learning style

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Learners with a concrete learning style use active and direct means of taking in
and processing information. They are interested in information that has
immediate value. They are curious, spontaneous and willing to take risks. They
like variety and a constant change of pace. They dislike routine learning and
written work, and prefer verbal or visual experiences. They like to be
entertained and like to be physically involved in learning.

Learners with an analytical style are independent, like to solve problems and
enjoy tracking down ideas and developing principles on their own. Such learners
prefer a logical, systematic presentation of new learning material with
opportunities for learners to follow up on their own. Analytical learners are
serious, push themselves hard, and are vulnerable to failure.

Learners with a communicative learning style prefer a social approach to

learning. They need personal feedback and interaction, and learn well from
discussion and group activities. They thrive in a democratically run class.

Learners with an authority-oriented style are said to be responsible and

dependable. They like and need structure and sequential progression. They
relate well to a traditional classroom. They prefer the teacher as an authority
figure. They like to have clear instructions and to know exactly what they are
doing; they are not comfortable with consensus-building discussion.

Richards, J. C & Lockhart, C. Reflective Teaching in Second Language

Classrooms chapter 3 p60

From reading the descriptions above it is clear that learning style will affect a learner’s
preferences for particular activities or approaches in the classroom. For example, authority-
oriented style learners will probably like teacher-led activities and lots of teacher
explanation. Analytical learners on the other hand may like working things out for
themselves e.g. working out grammar rules from examples.

Another distinction that has often been referred to when talking about learning style is that
of field dependence and field independence.

This refers to whether an individual tends to separate details from the general
background or to see things more holistically.

Lightbown P. & Spada, N. 1999 How Languages are Learned OUP p58

However, this is a rather more difficult factor to analyse with any degree of certainty.
Williams and Burden in Psychology for Language Teachers point out many of the problems
of designing tests to measure factors such as this.

It is important to remember that all these different learning styles are labels that have been
‘invented’ to apply to the ‘reality’ of how different people learn, or prefer to learn. They
cannot therefore be absolutely clearly defined categories. We should avoid accepting them
as black and white distinctions between types of learners; rather they may represent
tendencies. For you as a language teacher, it is interesting to notice, and find out about,
such tendencies in your learners since it may help you see why learners respond as they do
to certain types of activities. It should also help you in consciously extending your repertoire
of teaching techniques and approaches to try and ensure you cater for all types of learner.
There can be a tendency for us to teach in the way that we favour ourselves as learners.

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On this topic Willing writes:

There is not much doubt that teachers’ styles of teaching are greatly influenced by
their own individual learning styles. For one thing there is always the temptation to
do in class those sorts of activities which one personally enjoys (and indeed why
not?). So the analytical teacher is naturally more interested in structure; formal
correctness, getting at rules by deduction or discovery and in pointedly organised
class procedures. The concrete teacher is more sensitive to social interaction, and
tends to favour activities in which learners are given plenty of exposure to the
language in communicative contexts (e.g. in roleplays, group projects, practice and
discussion).

Willing, K. Teaching How to Learn (A Teachers Guide) National Centre for English
Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie University, Sydney 1989

5. Learning Strategies
Strategies can be defined as procedures that learners use in relation to the task of learning a
foreign language. They are things that can be learnt or changed unlike learning style which is
normally considered a relatively stable characteristic.

They include:

 Memory strategies, which help students to store and retrieve information.

 Cognitive strategies, which enable learners to understand and produce new language.

 Compensation strategies, which allow learners to communicate despite deficiencies in

their language knowledge.

 Metacognitive strategies, which allow learners to control their own learning through
organising, planning and evaluating.

 Affective strategies, which help learners gain control over their emotions, attitudes,
motivations and values.

 Social strategies, which help learners interact with other people.

[Based on Oxford, R. 1990 Language Learning Strategies: What every teacher should know
New York: Newbury House, quoted in Richards and Lockhart Reflective Teaching in Second
Language Classrooms, p63 - 65]. Note that other writers use different categories: once
again, these are labels applied to ‘reality’ and so interpretations can vary.

However, here are some examples of learning strategies, classified according to the six types
of learning strategies above.

Memory

 Labelling things in your room with post-its so that every time you go in, you can read the
labels.

 Looking at notes taken in class and rewriting them.

Cognitive

 Reading signs and notices in public places and trying to work out what they mean.

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 Making notes before carrying out a writing task.

Compensation

 Paraphrasing when you don’t know the word you want when speaking.

 Ignoring unknown lexical items when you are reading.

Metacognitive

 Filling in a learning checklist, saying how confident you feel in each area.

 Setting goals and time aside for language learning.

Affective

 Relaxing by listening to songs in the target language.

 Getting to know your classmates.

Social

 Seeking out native speakers of the language to talk to.

 Co-operating with classmates in groupwork tasks.

Learners who have not been in a learning situation for some time or who were not ‘good’
learners at school may in particular benefit from some work on learning strategies. This
means raising awareness of different ways of learning and suggesting useful strategies.
People learn in different ways and therefore you really should not be too authoritarian
about how they should go about it. If learners have a range of strategies available, though,
they can choose what suits them. Some learners may already have very clear ideas about
what learning a language entails and the kind of activities that should be done in the
process. For example a lot of students want to be corrected more than a lot of native
speaker teachers actually do, or they want to write everything down (or not write anything
down) even if you have a different idea about the nature of the activity. You may therefore
find it useful to discuss the rationale behind certain procedures and activities that you use
and bear you learners’ feedback in mind.

If you are interested in the topic and wish to read further, see Richards & Lockhart Reflective
Teaching in Second Language Classrooms, p63 to 65 (available in eLibrary).

Turning now to how we can help learners, look at the four excerpts of materials below, what
kind of learning strategies do they aim to promote?

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Excerpt 1

‘I like it when’ from Hadfield, J. 1992 Classroom Dynamics Oxford University Press chapter
10 p 87

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Excerpt 2

From Porter-Ladousse, G. 1993 Language Issues Longman Unit 7 p54 Learning Grammar ex 1

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Excerpt 3

‘How to Learn Vocabulary’ from Soars, J and L 1991 Headway Pre-intermediate Oxford
University Press Unit 5, page 37

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Excerpt 4

‘Have I got what I wanted?’ from Hadfield, J. 1992 Classroom Dynamics Oxford University
Press Chapter 16 ex 5

Commentary
Excerpt 1

This activity encourages learners to share their positive impressions of the target language
or learning the language.

Hadfield writes:

A positive attitude towards oneself as a learner, towards the learning process, and
towards the language and culture being studied are obviously essential if any progress
is to be made. If you have little faith in your own ability to learn, little enjoyment of or
feeling for the language, and feel alienated by and resentful of the culture you will not
be highly motivated to learn.

Hadfield, J. 1992 Classroom Dynamics Oxford University Press p86

This activity concerns affective strategies.

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Excerpt 2

The aim here is that students learn grammar rules by looking at correct and incorrect
examples of the language, discussing them with a partner and reading about the rule. The
activity therefore focuses on developing appropriate cognitive strategies.

Excerpt 3

This activity encourages learners to think about the strategies they can adopt to help
themselves learn and remember lexis. It therefore concerns developing appropriate memory
strategies.

Excerpt 4

This activity encourages learners to reflect on their learning in terms of their learning goals
and whether they have achieved them. It therefore concerns metacognitive strategies.

6. Personality
Various attempts have been made to link certain personality types with success (or lack of it)
in language learning. For example, it has been claimed that extroverts and risk takers are
better language learners. However, there are difficulties in measuring these factors and it
also would seem to depend on what aspect of language learning is being focussed on. Even
intuitively there does not seem to be any reason why being an extrovert would help you
learn grammar rules or write an essay although it may mean you are more willing to practise
speaking in front of others. It may therefore not be a very useful factor to consider for most
teachers, beyond making sensitive judgements about personality and learning preferences
e.g. you know that Susana is shy so you do not ask her to stand up in front of the class and
be the first student to act out a roleplay activity.

7. Intelligence
Measuring intelligence raises problems since it is unclear what exactly it is we are
measuring. IQ tests measure one type of intelligence but, although there may be some link
between this and success in language learning in traditional classrooms e.g. with the
learning of grammar rules, reading, vocabulary it may not be linked to the development of
communication and interaction skills, such as speaking.

As Lightbown and Spada point out:

It is important to keep in mind that intelligence is complex and that individuals have
many kinds of abilities and strengths, not all of which are measured by traditional IQ
tests. In our experience, many students whose academic performance has been weak
have experienced considerable success in language learning.

Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. 1999 How Languages are learned Oxford University
Press p53

It may be more useful to think in terms of multiple intelligences, which you read about in the
Wingate article and in Puchta,H. Rinvolucri, M. Multiple Intelligences in EFL (see Task 3
above).

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8. Aptitude
Some people seem to have a ‘gift’ for languages. This means that they have exceptional
aptitude for language learning. You may have met people like this who at least appear to
learn pretty effortlessly and manage to reach a very high level of proficiency - including
excellent pronunciation, perfect grammar and a wide range of entirely appropriate lexis - in
a relatively short time.

Psychologists have devised language aptitude tests. These can be used to find out the
language learning abilities of an individual or group of individuals, usually to see to what
extent they would benefit from a language course. This may be particularly useful where
potential students have no previous foreign language learning experience, or where a
company for instance wishes to send the employees who will benefit most from an intensive
course.

The best known of these tests are the Modern Language Aptitude Test and the Pimsleur
Language Aptitude Battery, developed in the 1950s.

Both tests are based on the view that aptitude is composed of different types of
abilities:

 The ability to identify and memorise new sounds.

 The ability to understand the function of particular words in sentences.

 The ability to figure out grammatical rules from language samples; and

 Memory for new words.

Lightbown, P. and Spada, N. op cit p53

Early research showed that there was a link between these factors and success in language
learning, at least when learners were instructed via a grammar translation or audio-lingual
method. Whether these same factors would lead to success under other circumstances, e.g.
in informal settings (not in classrooms) or in communicative, task based classrooms, it is less
clear. You might like to think about this.

9. The Good Language Learner

Other researchers have tried to draw up a profile of a ‘Good Language Learner’ which
includes a wider range of factors, some relating to aptitude, some to personality and some
to learning strategies. For example:

 Good language learners are willing and accurate guessers.

 Good language learners have a strong drive to communicate, or to learn from

communication. They are willing to do many things to get their message across.

 Good language learners are often not inhibited. They are willing to make mistakes in
order to learn and to communicate. They are willing to live with a certain amount of
vagueness.

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 In addition to focussing on communication, good language learners are prepared to

attend to form. Good language learners are constantly looking for patterns in the
language.

 Good language learners practise.

 Good language learners monitor their own and the speech of others. That is they are
constantly paying attention to how well their speech is being received and whether their
performance meets the standards they have learnt.

 Good language learners attend to meaning. They know that in order to understand the
message, it is not sufficient to pay attention to the grammar of the language or to the
surface form of the speech.

(Adapted from Rubin 1975)

From Willing, K. Teaching How to Learn (A Teachers Guide) op cit p11.

10. Conclusion
Every student who comes to your language classes is different and experience will have
shown you that different learners learn different things, at different rates and in different
ways. It is worth taking the time to find out about learners as individuals and thinking about
how you can cater for them best as individuals, because it is likely then that the whole group
learning situation will also be enhanced.

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Reading:
Although not essential to your Module 1 preparation, if you would like to explore this area
further we suggest the following:

Suggested Reading
Lightbown, P. and Spada, N. 2013 How Languages are Learned Oxford University Press

Nunan, D. & Lamb, C. 1996 The Self Directed Teacher Cambridge University Press chapter 7

Puchta,H. Rinvolucri, M. 2007 Multiple Intelligences in EFL Cambridge University Press

Introduction

Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C. 1994 Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms

Cambridge University Press chapter 3

Williams, M. October 1999 Motivation in Language Learning ETP Issue 13

Wingate, J. October 1996 Multiple Intelligences ETP Issue 1

Additional Reading
Ellis, G. & Sinclair, B. 1989 Learning to Learn English Cambridge University Press

Hadfield, J. 1992 Classroom Dynamics Oxford University Press

Porter-Ladousse, G. 1993 Language Issues Longman

Revell, J. & Norman, S. 1997 In Your Hands Saffire Press

Revell, J. & Norman, S. 1999 Handing Over Saffire Press

Soars, J. & L. 1996 Headway Advanced Oxford University Press

Vouillemin, D. 1994 VAK Again PET

Williams, M. & Burden, R. 1997 Psychology for Language Teachers Cambridge University
Press

Willing, K. 1989 Teaching How to Learn (A Teachers Guide) National Centre for English
Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie University, Sydney

Wingate, J. January 1997 Multiple Intelligences and Lesson Planning ETP Issue 2

Wingate, J. 2000 Learning Preferences. ETP Issue 17

Zhu, Huimin. 2006. Teaching Quieter Students ETP Issue 42

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