Proceedings of the Physical Society (1958-1967)

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 269

A Scalar Representation of Electromagnetic Fields : IIt

BY E. W O L F f
Department of Theoretical Physics, University of Manchester

Communicated by B. H . Flowers; M S . received 9th January 1959, in final form

19th March 1959

Abstract. It is shown that the scalar representation of electromagnetic fields

introduced in an earlier paper leads to a new model for energy transport. T h e
energy may be considered to be carried by two mutually incoherent scalar waves,
each of which arises from contributions of circularly polarized components of the
same helicity. I n a monochromatic field the energy density and the energy
flow of each of these two partial waves are time-independent and the energy flow
is at every point of the field in the direction of the normal to the surface of constant
phase of the wave. Mathematically, the two partial waves are represented by
' analytic signals ' (containing spectral components of only positive or negative
frequencies) into which the complex potential of the field may be decomposed.
As an immediate consequence of these results, a new representation of an
unpolarized quasi-monochromatic electromagnetic field is obtained and it is
shown that, under usual conditions, the ' complex disturbance ' of the classical
scalar diffraction theory of optics may be identified with the complex potential
of this representation.

5 1. INTRODUCTION

I
N an earlier paper (Green and Wolf 1953, to be referred to as I ) a new repre-
sentation of electromagnetic fields in a vacuum was introduced. T h e field
was represented by a (generally complex) scalar potential, in terms of
which the energy density and the energy flow were defined by expressions similar
to the quantum mechanical expressions for the probability density and the pro-
bability current. Such a representation was obtained by utilizing,in an appropriate
manner, the subsidiary (Lorentz) condition of electromagnetic theory. T h e
analysis was extended to regions which include charges and currents by Roman
(1955), and the method was used by him and also by Nagy (1955) in quantum
mechanical investigations. Focke (1957) employed the theory in the analysis
of an optical diffraction problem for which the usual optical scalar theory is
inadequate. Recently Roman (1959) has investigated the transformation
properties of the complex potential and derived the associate energy-momentum
tensor.
In the present paper some further aspects of this new representation are
discussed. I n particular it is shown that the representation leads to an interesting
new model for energy transport : T h e energy may be considered to be carried
by two mutually incoherent scalar waves, each of which contains contributions
t The research described in this paper was sponsored by the Air Force Cambridge
Research Center of the Air Research and Development Command, United States Air Force,
through its European Office, under Contract No. AF 61(052)-169.
$ Now at the Institute of Optics, University of Rochester, N.Y., U.S.A.
270 E. Wolf
from circularly polarized plane wave components of definite helicity (right- or
left-handed). Mathematically these two waves are represented by two ‘analytic
signals ’ (containing spectral components of only positive or negative frequencies)
into which the complex potential of the field may be decomposed. I n a mono-
chromatic field, the energy density and the energy flow vector of each of the two
waves are time-independent and the energy flow of each is along the normal to its
surface of constant phase.
As an immediate consequence of these results a new representation of an
unpolarized quasi-monochromatic electromagnetic field is obtained, and it is
shown, that under usual conditions the (usually undefined) ‘ complex disturb-
ance ’ of the classical scalar diffraction theory of optics may be identified with
the complex potential of this representation. This analysis places the optical
scalar theory on a rigorous foundation and the theory is found to have a much
wider range of validity than is usually believed to be the case.
$2. TRANSITION TO THE SCALAR THEORY
It will be useful to begin by briefly summarizing the main results obtained
in I. At the same time some of the formulae will be recast into forms which are
somewhat more convenient for the purpose of the present discussion.
As is well known an electromagnetic field in vacuum is completely specified
by a real vector potential A ( x , t ) , which satisfies the subsidiary condition
divA=O. ......(2.1)
We assume that A may be represented in the form of a Fourier integral
A(x,t)=$
K+
{a(k,t)cos(k.x)+b(k,t)sin(k.x)}dk, ......(2.2)
where, since A is real, the integration is taken over half of k-space. We chose
the half-space (denoted by K+) for which the z-component k, of k, with respect
to some h e d system of Cartesian rectangular axes is non-negative.
The condition (2.1) implies that for each k (except perhaps for a set of measure
zero which is of no physical interest)
.
k . a(k, t ) = k b(k, t ) = 0. ......
(2.3)
To utilize fully these conditions we associate with each k two real, mutually
orthogonal unit vectors l,(k) and lz(k), both at right angles to k :
nhk k A 1,
l,(k) = - l,(k)= - ......
(2.4)
In. kl’ IkAlll’
where n is a (real) arbitrary but fixed vector. According to (2.3) the vectors
a and b lie in the plane of 1, and 1, and hence may be expressed in the form
a(k, t )= all, + U&= ( a . 11)11+ ( a . &)&,
I-
b(k, t ) =b,l, + b z l z ~( b . 11)11+ ( b . 12)lz.
Next we form the complex combinations
......
(2.5)

R(k, t ) = U, + i ~ , ,
1
/3(k, t ) = b , + i b , ,
......
(2.6)

and regard U and /3 as Fourier coefficients of a new function V , called the complex
potential of the field :
a

V ( x ,t ) =J- {u(k, t ) cos (k. x) +/3(k, t ) sin (k.x)} dk.

E+
......(2.7)
 A Scalar Representation of Electromagnetic Fields: 11 271
Once the constant vector n which enters the expressions (2.4) for the base
vectors has been chosen, the complex potential V is uniquely specified by the
Fourier components a and b of the vector potential A and hence by A itself;
conversely it is easily seen by using the Fourier inversion formula that the vector
potential A is uniquely specified by the complex potential V.
We shall now express the relation between A and V in a more compact form.
For this purpose it is convenient to begin from a Fourier representation of A
which involves the exponential rather than trigonometric functions, i.e we write

.
t) exp (ik x ) dk, ......(2.8)
where the integration is now taken over the whole k-space (denoted by K).
In place of (2.3) one now has, as a consequence of (2.1)
k . c(k, t) =0, (2.9) ......
for every k. Moreover, since A is real,
~(-k,t)=c*(k,t), (2.10) ......
where the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate.
Next we introduce a set of complex base vectors L, defined in terms of 1,
and 1, of equation (2.4) by
L(k)=l,(k) +i&(k) (k,>O), (2.11a) ......
L(-k)= L(k), (2.116) ......
and define the quantities
y(k, t) = L(k). c(k, t). ......(2.12)
Then the complex potential V is given b y t
. ......(2.13)
a

V(x,t) = J- y(k, t ) exp (ik x ) dk.

K
Now from (2.12), using the Fourier inverse of (2.13),
A(x’,t)exp(-ik’.x‘)dx‘, ......(2.14)
the integration being taken over the whole x’-space. Substitution from (2.14)
into (2.13) 1eads:finally to the formula

where
V(x,t)=
s A(x’, t).M(x’-x)dX’, ......(2.15)
M(x)= -
i l

(2:)s J K
l

L(k)exp(-ik.x)dk. .......(2.16)
t Between the quantities a, b and c, and between a, and y the following relations
hold :
ck( t ) = (t[&[a(-k,t)+ib(-k,t)l,
a (k, t)-ib(k, t)]k,>O,
k,<O,
k,>O,
$[a(-k, t)+iB(-k, t ) ] . k,<O.
These relations, as well as the equivalence of the formulae (2.13) and (2.7) are easily
established by direct comparison, expressing the right-hand sides of (2.8) and (2.13) as sums
of two integrals, each over one half of the k-space and on using the fact that A is real.
272 E. Wolf

T h e formula (2.15) expresses the complex potential V as a linear transform of

the real vector potential A, the kernel M of this transformation being the Fourier
transform of the set of the complex base vectors L(k).
The inverse transition from the complex potential V to the vector potential A
may also be expressed as a linear transform. One finds from (2.12), with the
help of (2.11) and (2.10) that
c(k,t)=$[y(k,t)L*(k)+y*(-k,t)L(k)]. ......
(2.17)
On substituting on the right of (2.17) from the Fourier inverse of (2.13) it follows
that
c(k, t )= 12 (243 [L*(k)S V(x', t ) exp ( - i k .x') dx' + L(k)
xexp(-ik.x')dx'].
s......
(2.18)
V*(x', t )

On substituting from (2.18) into (2.8), and using the relation M(-x)=M(x)
which follows from (2.16) and (2.11 b), we obtain the required formula:

W denoting the real part.

s
A(x, t ) = W V(X', t)M*(x' - X)dx', ......(2.19)
It was shown in I, that because A satisfies the vector wave equation
1 ..
V2A= -A,
c2
.....
(2.20)
the complex potential V satisfies the scalar wave equation
1 -*
v2v= - v,
C2
......(2.21)
a result which may also readily be verified with the help of (2.15).
For the purpose of later discussion, the following results are also needed:
I n terms of V , the energy density w of the field may be expressed in the form
L(1 ~ P * + v v . v v *
w = 8n- c2 ...... (2.22)
and the energy flow vector S is given by
s=- -
8n-
(P*VV+ VVV*). ......(2.23)
These expressions, which satisfy the usual conservation law
dw
-
dt
t-divS-0, ......
(2.24)
are formally identical with the quantum mechanical expressions for the probability
density and the probability current. A justification of the expressions (2.22) and
(2.23) was given in I. A more complete discussion of this point will be found
in a paper by Roman (1959).

0 3. A NEWMODELFOR ENERGYTRANSPORT
Let us represent the complex potential V as a Fourier integral with respect
to the time variable t :
V(X, OJ)>XP( - i d ) du. ..I.'.'. . (3.1)
I I I I .
 A Scalar Representation of Electromagnetic Fields: 11 273

We divide the range of integration into two parts corresponding to negative and
positive frequencies and write
+
V ( x ,t ) = V+(x,t ) V - ( x , t ) , ......(3.2)
where
V+(x, t ) = 1
0

--m
a ( x , w ) exp (-;ut) dw = a(x, - U ) exp (iwt)dw,
(3.3)
a ( x , w ) exp ( - i d ) dw.

Since Vis in general complex, V+and V- are not, in general, complex conjugates
of each other. Because V satisfies the wave equation each Fourier component
o ( x , w ) of V , and hence also each Fourier component of V+ and V- satisfies
the Helmholtz equation. This implies that V+and V- satisfy the wave equation,
i.e.
vw+=21 V+,-*
VZV-= -
1 ..
v-.
(3.4) ......
C2

We shall refer to V , and V - as partial waves.

Consider the energy density w of the field. If we substitute (3.2) into (2.22)
we obtain
w = w + + w - + w', ......(3.5)
where

......(3.6)
W- =

are the energy densities of the two partial waves and

w' = 2-
8T [
1(P+V-* + v+*P-)+ (VV, .vv-* + VV+* . VV-)
c2

......(3.7)
1
is the contribution to the total energy density arising from the interference of
the two partial waves.
Similarly, according to (3.2) and (2.23), the energy flow vector S of the field
may be expressed in the form
s = s++ s- + S', (3.8) ......
where
1
- (P,*VV++
s+= - 87r U+VV,*),

s-= - -1
87r
(P_*VV-+ V-VV-*) ......(3.9)
are the energy flow vectors of the two partial waves and
1
S'= - -((V+*VV-+P+VV-*+V-*VV++P-VV+*)
8%.
...... (3.10)
is the contribution to the total flow vector arising from the interference of the
two partial waves.
274 E. Wolf
We shall now evaluate the time averages of w and S. For this purpose
consider a typical term on the right of (3.7). Using (3.3) it may be expressed
in terms of the spectrum v of V as follows:

V+U-* = - Irsm 0
ww'z'(x, - w ) v * ( x , U ' ) exp [i(w+ w')t] dw dw'.
Hence the time average (denoted by angular brackets) of this quantity is

I n the same way the time average of each of the other three terms in (3.7) may be
shown to vanish, so that
(w')=O. ......(3.12)
I n a similar manner it follows that
(S')=O. ...... (3.13)
Thus on the time average, the two partial waves do not give rise to interference
effects, the time averaged energy density and the time averaged energy flow vector
of the field being equal to the sum of the time averaged energy densities and the
time averaged energy flow vectors respectively, of the two partial waves :
.....(3.14)
We may say that the two partial waves are mutually incoherent.
Since according to (3.3) each of the partial waves has spectral components
which belong to one half of the frequency range only, the wave functions V+
and V - each represent what in communication theory is known as an analytic
signal?. This name derives from the fact that under fairly general conditions
such a function, when considered as function of complex t is analytic in
one half of the complex plane, V+being analytic in the lower, and V- in the upper
half of this plane. T h e real and imaginary parts of such a function are related
by Hilbert's reciprocity relations. Thus if superscripts r and i refer to real and
imaginary parts, i.e. if we write
V+= V+m+ iV+('), V- = V-(r) + i V-(i), (3.15) ......
where V+(r),V+(i),V-@) and V-@are all real, then

and
V$)(X, t ) = - -
?T s +

V+(r'(x, t ' ) dt', V+(r)(X,t ) = -

t'-t

P
V-(i)(X, t ) = -
71 s V-(')(x,t') dt,,
t'-t'
p
V-(')(x,t ) = - -
7r s +- V-@)(x,
t'-t
t')
&',
......(3.16)
and P denotes Cauchy's principal value at t' = t.
t The concept of an analytic signal is due to Gabor (1946). The properties of such
' signals ' have been extensively studied (cf. Ville 1948, 1950, Oswald 1956). Analytic
signals also play an important role in some branches of optics (cf. Born and Wolf 1959,
chap. X).
 A Scalar Representation of Electromagnetic Fields: 11 275
Before discussing the physical significance of the two partial waves it will
be shown that the decomposition into these waves has some interesting conse-
quences for a monochromatic field, i.e. when A is of the form
A(x,t ) = F(x)exp (- i w t ) + F*(x)exp (iwt), ......(3.17)
where F is a (generally complex) vector function of position. If we apply to
(3.17) the transformation (2.15), we obtain
V ( X , t )= V-(x, t ) + V+(x,t ) , ......(3.18)
where
V-(x,t)= U-(x)exp(-iwt), V + ( x , t ) = U + ( x )exp(iwt), ...... (3.19)
and
U-(x)=/F(x’).M(x’-x)dx’,

1
U+@)= F*(x’) .M ( x ’ - x ) dx’.
\ ......(3.20)
J
On substituting from (3.19) into (3.6) and (3.9) the following expressions are
obtained for the energy densities and energy flow vectors of the two partial waves :

...... (3.21)

s-= - aw ( U -“VU-- U-VU-*>,

iw
...... (3.22)
s+= -
8rr
(U+*VU,- U+VU+*).

The formulae (3.21) and (3.22) show that the energy density and the energypow
vector of each of the two partial waves associated with a monochromatic field are
time-independent.
Let a- and a+ be the amplitudes, and +-
and ++
the phases of U- and U+
respectively, i.e. let
U- =a- exp (i+-), U , = a+exp (++I, (3.23)......
where the a’s and the +’s are real. On substituting from (3.23) into (3.22) it
follows that
S- = -w
4n
aZ_V+-, S+= - w a,V++, ......(3.24)
i.e. the energy $ow of each of the two partial waves associated with a monochromatic
field is at every point in the direction of the normal to the surface of constant phase
of the wave.
In the usual representation the orthogonality between the energy flow and
the surface of constant phase is, in general, valid only in the limit of the geometrical
optics approximation, i.e. in the high frequency limit U+ 03 (cf. Born and Wolf
1959, pp. 112-113). I n the present representation this orthogonality is seen
to hold rigorously for each of the two partial waves of a monochromatic field,
irrespective of the frequency.
276 E. wolf

Q 4. THEPHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TWO PARTIAL WAVES

I n order to appreciate the physical significance of the two partial waves it
will be sufficient, as will be seen shortly, to consider a monochromatic field.
Thus we consider a vector potential of the form (3.17) :
A(x, t )= F(x) exp ( - i d ) F*(x) exp (iwt). +
(4.1) ......
We represent F in the form of an angular spectrum of plane waves, i.e. in the
formj
~ ( x=) I+ J+
--m -m
OD exp {i(k,x + ~ , y ) ) [ p ( ~ k, , ) exp ( i k p )+ Q(K,, K,) exp (-ik3)1
x dk, dk,, ......(4.2)
wheret
k,= + [(;)2 -K,2-k,2] 1/2 . ......(4.3)
On substituting from (4.2) into (3.20) and using the inverse of (2.16) one finds
that
I+m
U - ( X ) = ~ + ~ {L(k(+)).P(k,,k,) exp (ik(+).x)
--m --m 1I
+ L(k(-)). Q(k,, k,) exp (ikc-). x)} dk,dk,,

+ L(k(-)). Q*(k,,k,)exp (-ik(-).x)}dk,dk,.

where ...... (4.4)
k ( + k A,, k,, + [(9) 2
- kZ2- k,’] 112 , kc-)= k,,k,, - [(:) 2 -k,2-kyB]1’zn
......(4.5)
It is seen that for each pair of values k,, k,, there are two monochromatic
plane scalar waves which contribute to V- viz.

1
V - ( + ) ( x , t )= %-(+)(x) exp ( - i w t )
.
= L(k(+)) P(k,, k , ) exp [i( kt+).x - u t ) ] ,
(4.6) ......
V-(-)(x, t ) = %-f-)(x) exp ( - i d )
= L(k(-)). Q ( k , , k , ) e x p [ i ( k ( - ) . x - w t ) ] .
These wave functions represent waves propagated in the direction specified by
the vectors k(+)and k(-) respectively.
There are two similar contributions to the other partial wave V+,namely
-tr+(+)(x,t )= %+(+)(x)exp ( i d )
.
= L(kc+)) P* (k,, k,) exp [ - i( kc+).x - u t ) ]
-tr+(-)(x, t ) = %+(-)(x) exp (iwt)
11 ...... (4.7)

= L(k(-)). a*(&, k,) exp [ -i(kL-). x - u t ) ] . J

t That such a representation is possible is shown in the Appendix, If, as is often the
case in practice, the field obeys Sommerfeld’s radiation condition in the half-space Z > 0,
then Q(K,, K,,) = 0.
2 , is complex and equal to ~ [ K , * + K , * - ( ~ / c ) * ] ~ ’ ~ . The
$ When k , a + K , a > ~ 2 / ~ K,
corresponding terms in (4.2) then represent evanescent (damped) waves.
 A Scalar Representation of Electromagnetic Fields : 11 277
To find what kind of vector potential corresponds to these waves we apply
the transformation (2.19). Let a(+)denote the vector potential corresponding
to V(+), g(-)the vector potential corresponding to V(-)etc. Then, if the inverse
of (2.16) and the relation (2.11 b ) are also used one finds that
g-(+)(x,t)=g[L(k(+)). P(k,, ky)]L*(k(+))exp[i(k(+).x-wt)], . .. .. . (4.8)
......
a . ( + ) ( x , t ) = 9 [ L ( k ( + ) ) . P k ( K , ,k,)]L*(k(+))exp [-i(k(+).x-wt)]. (4.9)
The vector potential a-(-)may be formally obtained from (4.8) by replacing
P by Q and k(+) by kc-), and the vector potential a+(-)by making the same
substitution in (4.9). Next we set

1
L(k(+)).P(K,, k,) =g exp (i#),
. .....
L(kc+)).P*(k,, k,) = h exp ( i x ) ,
where g , h, # and x are real. Remembering that L*=ll-i12, (4.8) and (4.9)
(4.10)

become
P-(+)=g{l,C+) + +
cos [# kc+).x - ut] 1$+)sin[# + kc+).x - ut]}, . ..... (4.1 1)
El+(+)=h{l$+)cos[~+kc+).x-wtl-l1$+)sin [ ~ + k ' + ) . x - u t ] } , ...... (4.12)
where lb+) is written in short for l,(k(+)) etc. Since 1, and 1, are mutually
orthogonal unit vectors at right angles to the propagation vector, it follows that
El-(+) and a+(+) each represents a circularly polarized plane monochromatic
wave, one of these waves being left-handed, the other right-handed. There is
a similar interpretation for El-(-) and a+(-).The following theorem is now
evident :
If the vector potential of an electromagnetic field is decomposed into mono-
chromatic plane waves of all possible frequencies and directions of propagation, and
I$further, each plane wave is decomposed into two circularly polarized components,
one left-handed the other right-handed, then the partial wave V- is the complex
potential formed by all the circularly polarized components of one kind, and the
partial wave V+ is formed by all the circularly polarized components of the other
kind.t
Now each circularly polarized monochromatic plane vector wave may be
specified by: (1) its propagation vector k, (2) the radius a of it polarization circle,
(3) a phase angle 8 and (4)the sense in which the polarization circle is described
(helicity). The corresponding contribution of such a wave to the appropriate
partial wave of our scalar theory is a exp { i [ e (k .x - u t ) ] }the choice of the sign
in the exponent depending on the helicity.
$ 5 . A REPRESENTATION
OF AN UNPOLARIZED
QUASI-MONOCHROMATIC
FIELD
It will now be shown that the preceding analysis leads to a very simple repre-
sentation of an unpolarized, quasi-monochromatic field.
Let us consider such a field and let the associated complex potential be
decomposed into the two partial waves,
+
V(x, t ) = V-(X, t ) V+(x, t ) . . .. ..
. (5.1)
t The superposition of circularly polarized plane waves of the same frequency but of
different directions of propagation does not, in general, give rise to a wave which itself
is circularly polarized. Hence the suggestion made in the last sentence of the footnote on
P. 1134 of I, relating to the signlficance of a partial wave is incorrect.
278 E. Wolf
On physical grounds it is obvious that on the time average the two partial waves
(5.1) have now the same energy density and also the same energy flow; for
if this were not so, there would be an asymmetry in the physical situation which
is inconsistent with our conception of an unpolarized field. Hence

and from (3.14) one sees that

( w ) =2 ( w - ) =2 ( w + ) ,
(S) = 2 ( S - ) = 2(S+). 1 ......(5.2)
It follows that the (time averaged) energy density and energy flow vector of an
unpolarized field may be derived from a single complex scalar wave function which
is an analytic signal, i.e. which contains only negative, or only positive, frequency
components.
Consider now a stationary quasi-monochromatic field, which for simplicity
is assumed to exist only for a finite but long time intervalt - T < t < T . Then it
follows by a straight forward calculation similar to that made in connection with
(3.11), that

the approximation arising from the replacement of the integral

T

1 -T
exp { - i(w - w')t} dt

by S(w - w'), 6 being the Dirac delta function. I n (5.3) w , is the energy density
and S, the energy flow vector associated with a typical monochromatic (Fourier)
component v ( x , T w ) exp ( k i d ) , of the complex wave functionf. If a,(x)
denotes the amplitude and +,(x) the phase of v , i.e. if one writes
, w ) = a&)
~ ( xf exp {i+ (x)), ......(5.4)
where a, and 4, are real, then
-
W O = 1 {e)"..* + VV .vv *
4lr }
1
= 4??{ ......(5.5)
[ ( ~ ) z + ( ~ ~ U ] z ~ ~ ~ + ( ~ a , ) 2 } ,

s,= * 4-iw57 {v*vv-vvv* 1 ......(5.6)

According to (5.3) the time averaged energy density ( w ) of the field is propor-
tional to the integral of the energy densities w, associated with all the spectral
t By ' long ' we mean here that T g l I A w , where Aw is the effective spectral range.
The restrichon to a finite tnne interval is imposed here to avoid a lengthy mathematical
refinement which, whilst necessary in rigorous treatment of stationary random processes,
adds little to the physical significance of our results.
1 The upper or lower signs are taken here and also on the right hand side of (5.6)
according to whether V+ or V- is chosen to represent the unpolarized wave.
 A Scalar Representation of Electromagnetic Fields : 11 279
components (incoherent superposition) ; and the time averaged energy flow
vector S of the field is proportional to the integral of the flow vectors S,. If the
spectral range is sufficiently smallt and centered on a mean frequency Q, one can
take the energy density wa and the energy flow S, which correspond to this mean
frequency as being representative of the spectral distribution of (w) and (S)
themselves.
These results have an interesting bearing on the question of validity of the
scalar diffraction theory used frequently in optics, in the study of diffraction
effectsof apertures and in the analysis of optical images. I n such investigations
a single monochromatic scalar wave function is usually used to represent the
complex disturbance ' (or the ' light disturbance ') ; and the intensity I ( x ) of
the light is determined from the time independent part v ( x )= a ( x ) exp { i + ( x ) )of
this wave function by means of the formula
I ( x )= cvv*, ......
(5.7)
where C is a constant. As is well known, this procedure, which, from the
theoretical point of view is usually regarded as a crude approximation, is in
excellent agreement with experiment. However, the meaning of the ' complex
disturbance ' is obscure.
It is tempting to try to identify the complex disturbance with the complex
potential of our theory. If the optical intensity is interpreted as the absolute
value of the time averaged flow vector S, such an identification is, according to
(5.6), justified as long as in the region under consideration the absolute value of
the gradient of the phase function varies slowly from point to point in comparison
with the variation of the squared amplitude a2= vv*. This later requirement
is usually satisfied. I n the limiting case of very high frequency (the geometrical
optics limit), one may in fact assume that I V+I=w/c=constant$. But even
under conditions where the geometrical optics approximation is not valid, the
identification may be justified. Consider, for example, the region of focus.
Here the diffraction effects are very prominent, but it was shown recently (Linfoot
and Wolf 1956, Farnell 1957, 1958) that in the immediate neighbourhood of
focus the surfaces of constant phase are effectively plane and uniformly spaced,
so that the gradient of the phase function is nearly constant. I n this case, one
again has, by (5.6)) a proportionality between I(S)l and vv*.
If the optical intensity is identified with the time averaged electric energy
density the situation is somewhat less clear. However, if the first term on
the right of the first relation in (5.5) is assumed to represent the electric energy
density and the second term the magnetic energy density as seems plausible
from the discussion given in I, then the intensity is strictly proportional to
vv*.
In any case we may conclude that our present representation is completely
adequate to answer all questions relating to the time averaged energy density
and the time averaged energy flow in an unpolarized quasi-monochromatic field.
+ A n estimate of the permissible spectral range must be made separately in every
particular case (cf. Theimer, Wassermann and Wolf (1952), p. 435).
$ This result follows in the usual way by setting 4 = w&'(x)/c, then substituting
e, = a exp {iw& (x)/c}
mto the Helmholtz' equation and retaining the terms of highest power m w only; one then
obtains the eikonal equation (V&')2= 1 and this is equivalent to the relation I V41 = w / c .
280 E. wolf
APPENDIX
I n this Appendix the formula (4.2) will be established. According to this
formula the time independent part F(x) of a monochromatic wave function may
be represented in the form

~(x) =Jm --m

Jm
-m
exp{i(k,x + k,y)}[p(k,, A), exp ( i k g )
+ Q(k,, k V )exp (- i k s ) ]dk, dk,, ......
(A 1)
where k, = + [ ( W / C ) -
~ k Z 2- ky2]1/2.

I t will be assumed that F(x)= F(x,y,s)has a Fourier integral representation

with respect to the variables x and y , i.e. that F may be represented in the form
F(x)=Im
-CO
Jm
--OD
f(k,,k,,z)exp{i(k,+k,y)}dk,dk,. ......(A2)
Since F satisfies Helmholtz’ equation, one has from (A2)) on using the Fourier
inversion formula,
......(A3)
where
pZ= (s) - kZ2- k,2. ...... (A4)
T h e general solution of (A3) is
f(k,,k,,z)=P(k,,k,)exp (ips)+Q(k,,k,)exp (-ipz), ....(AS)
where P and Q are arbitrary functions of k , and k,. On substituting from
(A5) into (A2) and writing k , in place of that value of p which is given by the
positive square root on the right-hand side of (A 4)) the formulae (A 1) follows.
REFERENCES
BORN,M., and WOLF,E., 1959, Prznciples of Optics (London: Pergamon Press).
FARNELL, G. W., 1957, Canad. J. Phys., 35, 777.
- 1958, Ibid., 36, 935.
FOCKE,J., 1957, Opticu Acta, 4, 124.
GABOR, D., 1946, J. Instn Elect. Engrs, 93, 429.
GREEN, H. S., and WOLF,E., 1953, Proc. Phys. Soc. A, 66, 1129.
LINFOOT, E.H., and WOLF,E., 1956, Proc. Phys. Soc. B, 69, 823.
NAGY,K., 1955, Acta Phys. Hung., 4, 327.
OSWALD, J. R. V., 1956, Instn Rudio Engrs Truns., CT-3, 244.
ROMAN,P., 1955, Acta Phys. Hung., 4, 209.
- 1959, Proc. Phys. Soc., 74, 281.
THEIMER, O., WASSERMANN, G. D., and WOLF,E., 1952, Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 212,426.
VILLE,J., 1948, Cdbles et Transm., 2, 61.
- 1950, Ibid., 4, 9.