REFLECTION PAPER

 STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
 CONFLICT THEORY
 SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY – CHARLES HORTON COOLEY
 FUNCTIONALISM – TALCOTT PARSONS
 SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY – GEORGE HERBERT MEAD
 STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM – TALCOTT PARSONS
and the STRUCTURE – AGENCY DEBATE

Submitted by:
Shiela Marie Nazaret
DTS 1 – student

Submitted to:
Mr. Solomon C. Alcober, Ph.D.
 STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a framework for building

theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability. Education is a social institution through which a society’s children
are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms. Every nation in
the world is equipped with some of education system, though those systems vary greatly.
The major factors affecting education systems are the resources and money that are
utilized to support those systems in different nations. In this topic, it concerns about
schooling and society - the theories of evolution; education and equality; and
school reform. Educational distribution is a major issue in many nations, including in the
United States, wherein it states that during the 1900’s, education was established by law
in all states except for a few Southern states, where Black Americans were denied for
formal education. Regarded by many as second-class citizens, blacks were separated
from whites by law and by private action not only in terms of education but also in public
accommodations, transportation, recreational facilities, and in schools in both Northern
and Southern states. In the theories of education, we can see the difference of education
in society, schools and in social change through functionalism, conflict theory and
symbolic reaction. In functionalism, it focuses on how education serves the needs of
society through development of skills, encouraging social cohesion and sorting of
students. It also inculcates values needed by society, fulfills certain needs for socialization
and schools take on functions to other institutions, (the family) originally fulfilled. In the
conflict theory, this reflects conflict and other inequities in society, and threatens to put
some groups at disadvantage in the quality of education. In symbolic interaction, the
viewing society as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop
views about the world, and communicate with one another. In education, there is also
inequality, some of the causes of educational inequality include poor infrastructure and
quality of teachers in rural and remote schools, lack of opportunity for students with weak
academic performance, and lack of educational opportunities for children from poor
families. However, good education has considerable power to increase equality between
man and women. High and rising inequality is one of the most pressing economic and
societal issues in education. In order to reduce inequality, invest more resources for
support in low-income, underfunded schools such as, increased special education
specialists and counselors. Another topic here was about school reform, the purpose of
this is to transform school structures with the aim of raising the quality of education in a
country. Educational reforms deserve a holistic examination of their reasons, objectives,
application, and results generated, by those within the school systems where they are
implemented. It states that Back-to-basics movement stresses a return to the three R’s
and stricter discipline, stiffer grading standards, and combating grade inflation and
Multiculturalism movement seeks to reform the curriculum by adding courses in African
American and Black Studies, Hispanic or Latino Studies, Native American Studies,
Women’s Studies, and Gay and Lesbian Studies.
 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

The sociology of education is the study of how public institutions and

individual experiences influence education and its outcomes. It is most concerned with
the public schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the growth of
higher, further, adult, and continuing education. Sociology is therefore a scientific study
of human behavior in groups, having for its aim the discovery of regularities and order in
such behavior and expressing these discoveries as theoretical propositions or
generalizations that describe a wide variety of patterns of behavior. Members of a group
interact with one another at the individual level. The patterns of behavior are the sum of
the activities of one member on another in the group. Thus, sociology is also seen as
the study of the formation and transformation of groups and the relationship of groups
and group members with one another, noting that where there are groups there are
tendencies for participation, cohesion, and conflict. The main elements of the sociology
of education are to know about the Theories about the relation between school and
society, whether schooling makes a major difference in individuals’ lives, how schools
influence social inequalities and how school processes affect the lives of children,
teachers, and other adults. Functionalists assume that consensus is the normal state in
society and conflict represents a breakdown of shared values. Educational reform is to
create structures, programs and curricula that are technically advanced, rational, and
encourage social unity. Conflict theory in sociology founded by Karl Marx states that it
sees social life as a competition, and focuses on the distribution of resources, power,
and inequality. Unlike functionalist theory, conflict theory is better at explaining social
change, and weaker at explaining social stability; the “achievement ideology” of schools
disguise the real power struggles which correspond to the power struggles of the larger
society. In Weberian Conflict Theory, this theory looks at society as a competition for
limited resources. German sociologist Max Weber agreed with Marx but also believed
that, in addition to economic inequalities, inequalities of political power and social
structure cause conflict. In interactional theories, it states about the primarily critiques
and extensions of functional and conflict perspectives, and speech patterns reflect
social class backgrounds and schools are middle-class organizations, disadvantaging
working-class children.

In Basil’s theory of Pedagogic Practice, it provides for the possibility of a synthesis

of theoretical orientations, Marx, Weber, and Durkheim; develop code theory that
examined interrelationships between social class, family, and school; work on
pedagogic discourse is concerned with the production, distribution, and reproduction of
official knowledge and how this knowledge is related to structurally determined power
relations; and changes in the division of labor create different meaning systems and
code incorporates a conflict model of unequal power relations. In labeling theory, it is
interested in why people are labeled and who it is that does the labeling; the labeling
approach allows for an explanation of what, in fact, is happening within schools; Race
and ethnicity are powerful factors in generating teacher expectations; High expectations
in elementary grades are stronger for girls than boys; Expectations teachers hold for
students can be generated as early as the first few days of school and then remain
stable from then on; The higher one’s social status, the less the willingness to diagnose
the same behavioral traits as indicative of serious illness in comparison to the diagnosis
given to low status persons; and teacher expectations are not automatically self-fulfilling
. In the politics of Culture, the term cultural politics refers to the way that culture—
including people's attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and perspectives, as well as the media
and arts—shapes society and political opinion, and gives rise to social, economic, and
legal realities. In virtually all racially mixed secondary schools, tracking resegregates
students with mostly White and Asian students in the high academic tracks and mostly
African American and Latino students in the low tracks. Elite parents argue that their
children will not be well served in detracted classes. Students are frequently rewarded
for their taste, and for the cultural knowledge that informs it. “Objective” criteria of
intelligence and achievement is extremely biased toward the subjective experience and
ways of knowing of elite students; the arbitrary placement system is more sensitive to
cultural capital than academic “ability.” Thus, political culture helps build community and
facilitate communication because people share an understanding of how and why
political events, actions, and experiences occur in their country.
 CONFLICT THEORY

Conflict theories  are perspectives in sociology and social psychology that

emphasize a materialist interpretation of history, dialectical method of analysis, a critical
stance toward existing social arrangements, and political program of revolution or, at
least, reform. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class
conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro-
level analysis of society.

Karl Marx is regarded as the father of social conflict theory, which is a

component of the four major paradigms of sociology. Certain conflict theories set out to
highlight the ideological aspects inherent in traditional thought. While many of these
perspectives hold parallels, conflict theory does not refer to a unified school of thought,
and should not be confused with, for instance, peace and conflict studies, or any other
specific theory of social conflict. On the other hand, Max Weber agreed in the importance
of wealth, but agreed that power and status were of equal importance. Both of them saw
different groups in conflict over social scarcities. Ralph Dahrendorf’s conception of
social differentiation poses some interesting theoretical problems inasmuch as it, owing
to its putative associations with Marx’s framework, is regarded as a class theory, but in
fact also displays some salient characteristics of stratification approaches, while lacking
some core characteristics of class theory. He believes functionalists are utopian and
society with the absence of power struggles or conflict. He also tried to show how
relations of authority become productive of clashes of role interest which under certain
condition leads to the formation of organized antagonistic groups within limited social
organizations and societies. Talcott Parsons viewed society as a system. He argued
that any social system has four basic functional prerequisites: adaptation, goal
attainment, integration, and pattern maintenance. Parsons is not aware of the rationalist’s
conception of society. He also includes no power struggles in society and envisions a
utopian society of consensus and agreement. There are two (2) basic premises, namely
– power and authority. Power is the probability that one actor within a social
relationship will be in a position to carry out his/her will despite the resistance of others,
regardless of the base of power.

While authority is the probability that a command with a given specific content will be
obeyed by a given group of people. The difference between power and authority is that
the power is essentially tied to the personality of the individual, but authority is always
associated with social positions (status). Conflict analysis - is an initial stage of conflict
resolution in which parties seek to gain a deeper understanding of the dynamics in their
relationship. This investigates the generation of conflict groups created by authority
relations in imperatively coordinated associations and the unit of analysis is the specific
association. It also states that Super ordinate/Subordinate dichotomy in all forms of
associations; Everyone takes part in a large number of different ICA’s; Sometimes we are
super ordinate and ssometimes we are sub ordinate. Elites in society - are those who
have vastly disproportionate access to or control over a social resource. This control over
or access to transferable social resources provides elites with disproportionate social
power and advantages; their decisions and actions influence and affect vast numbers of
people. They are the ones who represent the super ordinate group in ICA and generally
subordinates out number the super ordinate. Masses and suppressed were also viewed
as wherein the MASSES are typically viewed as ignorant, powerless and apathetic. In
Dahrendorf’s view is states that masses are intelligent, empowered an interested.
Generalizations about masses are – it is not necessarily the major of an association; they
are not necessarily connected by like culture; and is existence is related to particular
association.
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY – CHARLES HORTON COOLEY

Charles Horton Cooley was born in Ann Arbor, MI (1864-1929) and took
up engineering at University of Michigan for 7 years. Cooley, the son of Michigan
Supreme Court judge Thomas McIntyre Cooley, earned his Ph.D. at the University of
Michigan in 1894. He had started teaching at the university in 1892, became a full
professor of sociology in 1907, and remained there until the end of his life. He was
concerned with many social problems and issues of the day, but clearly preoccupation
with the self--his own self--remained paramount to him. Cooley theorized that the sense
of self is formed in two ways: by one’s actual experiences and by what one imagines
others’ ideas of oneself to be—a phenomenon Cooley called the “looking glass self.”
This dual conception contributed to Cooley’s fundamental theory that the mind is social,
and that society is a mental construct. He perceived that the mind as the center of the
human universe, as the definite maker of our being. In social organization, Cooley does
not completely accept Rosseau’s idea of social contract, and he views that society is a
process, continuing to form and reform via individuals, groups, patterns, and institutions.
Thus, in making the self, society is born. He argued that individuals do not make
societies nor do societies make individuals. “They are distributive and collective aspects
of the same thing.” He also argued that a person’s self grows out of a person’s
commerce with others. The social origin of his life comes by the pathway of intercourse
with other persons (Cooley 1964:5). In his attempt to illustrate the reflected character of
the self, Cooley compared it to a looking glass: Each to each a looking glass,
Reflects the other that doth pass. The looking-glass self is a social psychological
concept created by Charles Horton Cooley in 1902. It states that a person’s self grows
out of society’s interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others. The term refers
to people shaping their identity based on the perception of others, which leads the
people to reinforce other people’s perspectives on themselves. People shape
themselves based on what other people perceive and confirm other people’s opinion of
themselves. The three main components of the looking-glass self: An individual in a
social situation imagines how they appear to others; That individual imagines
others’ judgment of that appearance; The individual develops feelings about
and responds to those perceived judgments. I n hypothesizing the framework for
the looking glass self, Cooley said, “the mind is mental” because “the human mind is
social.” In other words, the mind’s mental ability is a direct result of human social
interaction. Beginning as children, humans begin to define themselves within the
context of their socializations. The child learns that the symbol of his/her crying will elicit
a response from his/her parents, not only when they need necessities, such as food, but
also as a symbol to receive their attention. In Cooley’s view society consists of a
network of communication between component actors and subgroups;
therefore, the process of communication, more particularly its embodiment in
public opinions, cements social bonds and insures consensus. Cooley saw
 public opinion as “an organic process,” and not merely as a state of agreement
about some question of the day.

FUNCTIONALISM – TALCOTT PARSONS

Talcott Parsons  (13 December 1902 – 8 May 1979) was an

American sociologist of the classical tradition, best known for his social action
theory and structural functionalism. Parsons is considered one of the most influential
figures in sociology in the 20th century. After earning a PhD in economics, he served on
the faculty at Harvard University from 1927 to 1929. In 1930, he was among the first
professors in its new sociology department. Later, he was instrumental in the
establishment of the Department of Social Relations at Harvard. Based on empirical data,
Parsons' social action theory was the first broad, systematic, and generalizable theory
of social systems developed in the United States and Europe. Some of Parsons' largest
contributions to sociology in the English-speaking world were his translations of Max
Weber's work and his analyses of works by Weber, Émile Durkheim, and Vilfredo Pareto.
Their work heavily influenced Parsons' view and was the foundation for his social action
theory. Parsons viewed voluntaristic action through the lens of the cultural values and
social structures that constrain choices and ultimately determine all social actions, as
opposed to actions that are determined based on internal psychological processes. Some
of Parson’s work are: The Structure of Social Action (1937); The Social System and
Toward a General Theory of Action (1951); Essay in Sociological Theory (1949, 1954);
Working Papers in the Theory of Acton (1953); and the Structure and Process in Modern
Society (1960).
In 1950s and 1960 Functionalism reigned as the dominant theoretical
perspective in sociology. Is often referred to as structural functionalism because of its dual
focus on the structural forces that shape human behavior and the attention given to
system needs. Two leading structural functionalists were Talcott Parsons (grand theory)
and Robert Merton (middle range theory and the most significant intellectual forerunners of
functionalism were Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, And Max Weber.
Intellectual influences of functionalism is based largely on the work of Max Weber, Herbert
Spencer, Emile Durkheim and Auguste Comte. According to functionalism, society is a
system of interconnected parts that work together in harmony to maintain a state of
balance and social equilibrium for the whole. Functionalism views society as having
interrelated parts that contribute to the functioning of the whole system. The Macro
sociological theory focuses on large-scale social patterns and social systems. It explains
social change because of such variables as population growth and increased technology.
In Social Action Theory of Parson’s, it had four steps: Actors are motivated to action
(education); Actor must find the means to attain goal ($); Actor must deal with hindering
 conditions (crisis); Actor must work within the social system (rules). Parson’s described a
system as a “complex unit of some kind with boundaries, within which parts are connected,
and within which something takes place. Parsons’ hypothesis that processes in any social
system is subject to four

independent functional imperatives or problems which must be met adequately if

equilibrium or existence of the system is to be maintained. The social system is a
differentiated system in terms of roles and the distribution process.
Parson’s classifications of internal differentiation of social systems:
– Relational Institutions
– Regulative Institutions
– Cultural Institutions
– Relational and Regulative Institutions

Principle Types of Social Structure:

– Universalistic- Achievement Patterns
– Universalistic- Ascription Patterns
– Participation- Achievement Patterns
– Particularistic- Ascriptive Patterns

Organizations - Parsons defines the term as a broad type of collectivity which has
assumed a particular important place in modern society. The types of organizations are
oriented towards economic production, oriented toward political goals, integrative
organizations, and pattern-maintenance organizations. Parson had different views in terms
of race, class, and gender. RACE- he suggested that the survival of the system was
dependent on a new level of institutionalization of values of equality. CLASS- saw class
inequality as failure of a social system to properly integrate all members. Class struggle
creates motivation. GENDER – he predicted that the greater number of women seeking
careers outside the family would alter the structure of the family.
–

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY – GEORGE HERBERT MEAD

George Herbert Mead (1863–1931), American philosopher and social theorist, is

often classed with William James, Charles Sanders Peirce, and John Dewey as one of the
most significant figures in classical American pragmatism. Dewey referred to Mead as “a
seminal mind of the very first order” (Dewey, 1932, xl). Yet by the middle of the twentieth-
century, Mead's prestige was greatest outside of professional philosophical circles. He is
considered by many to be the father of the school of Symbolic Interactionism in sociology and
social psychology, although he did not use this nomenclature. Social psychology for Mead is
the discipline that: “studies the activity or behavior of the individual as it lies within the
social process. “The behavior of the individual can be understood only in terms of the
behavior of the whole social group of which he is a member, since his individual acts are
involved in larger, social acts which go beyond himself, and which implicate the other
members of the group.” To social psychology, Mead’s main contribution was his attempt to
show how the human self-arises in the process of social interaction. He thought that spoken
language played a central role in this development. Through language the child can take the
role of other persons and guide his behavior in terms of the effect his contemplated behavior
will have upon others. Thus, Mead’s psychological approach was behavioristic. In Mind, Self
and Society (1934), Mead describes how the individual mind and self-arises out of the social
process. The “development of the individual's self, and of his self- consciousness within the
field of his experience” is preeminently social. The 1 st component in Mead’s trilogy is the
“mind.” Hence, the mind is formed through interactions with others and self-conversation.
Symbols, considered significant only when shared with others, dominate the process. For
human beings, the most vital and distinctive symbolic communication is language bound. Or
in Mead's words, "out of language emerges the field of mind.” The 2 nd component is termed
“self.” The self also "arises in social experience," can be thought of as "an object to itself,"
and possesses a "social structure". So conceived, the self can be the recipient of both
definition and emotion. The essence of the self, according to Mead, is its reflexivity. The
individual self is individual only because of its relation to others. The 3 rd component is
“society”. For Mead, the institution of society consists of "common responses" rooted in such
attitudes by which "the modern civilized human individual is and feels himself to be a member
not only of a certain local community or state or nation, but also of an entire given race or
even civilization as a "whole."

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM – TALCOTT PARSONS

and the STRUCTURE – AGENCY DEBATE

Talcott Parsons (13 December 1902 – 8 May 1979) was an American sociologist of

the classical tradition, best known for his social action theory and structural functionalism.
Parsons is considered one of the most influential figures in sociology in the 20th century.
Parsons has a notion of individual agency, but this is NOT reducible to biological or
psychological factors but involves. Parsons argued that the crucial feature of societies is
homeostasis (maintaining a stable state) ("The Social System" 1951). He believed in the
interconnectedness of different elements of society. His great achievement was to construct
a system or general theory of social action to include all its aspects, drawing on several
disciplines and reinterpreting previous theories. There are four (4) levels at which the
individual is socialized into society, these are: Physiological, Personality System, Social
System, and Cultural System. Physiological System – the basic organic level of social
interaction, wherein the body is a precondition for the development of individual psychology.
Personality System – individual’s biographical blueprint of the attitudes and beliefs from
early socialization. Social System – shows how social interactions are shaped by, and in
turn, shape, social structures. Parsons on social systems “Social systems emerge from
interactions which are repeated over time, and which produce durable expectations about the
behaviour of those involved. Cultural System – contains the core values and beliefs of a
given society and enables these values to be passed down. Schools are examples of the
meritocratic principles of society. This means that everyone is treated in the same way and
that everyone has the same chances to succeed.
As also discussed, stratification is the class status of an individual is that rank in the
system of stratification which can be ascribed to him (sic) by virtue of those of his (sic)
kinship ties which bind him to a unit in the class structure. Contradiction’s women not allowed
to compete on an equal footing for the jobs of men otherwise, this would threaten the stability
of the family, and hence of society. In parsonianism, it assumes normative values that no
sense of resistance to 'mainstream' values, or of difference or dissent, or of the
marginalisation or suppression, propagates the superiority of capitalism and western liberal
democracy.