An Existing System in the Aircraft Industry.

The British Aircraft Corporation Numerical

Master Geometry System
Author(s): M. A. Sabin
Source: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, Vol. 321, No. 1545, A Discussion on Computer Aids in Mechanical Engineering Design
and Manufacture (Feb. 9, 1971), pp. 197-205
Published by: The Royal Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/77845 .
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Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. A. 321, 197-205 (1971)
Printed in Great Britain

An existing system in the aircraft industry.

The British Aircraft CorporationNumerical Master
Geometry system
BY M. A. SABIN
British Aircraft CorporationLimited, Weybridge

BACKGROUND
In May 1965 the author started experimental work on numerical geometry, his
terms of reference being to devise a system whereby the external shape of an air-
craft could be represented numerically in a form allowing the necessary information
for design and manufacture to be produced quickly, using a digital computer.
The technique in use at British Aircraft Corporation, Weybridge Division, at
that time was that of 'lofting', an extension of the graphical system, descriptive
geometry (Robertson I966).
Lofting used nests of parallel plane sections, drawn out full size on metal plates,
to define the shape of the aeroplane. (The term derives from shipbuilding practice
where the loft of the shipyard was the only place large enough to draw-out a
complete ship full size.)
The other Divisions of the British Aircraft Corporation were using 'conic lofting',
whereby the plane sections were fitted by piecewise second degree curves (Shelley
about I947). This enabled the graphical constructions to be replaced by desk
calculations, with some advantages in speed, accuracy and repeatability. The
Vickers Valiant bomber had been defined in terms of conic lofting at Weybridge,
but this had not been followed up.
During the summnerof 1965, therefore, a prototype conic lofting system was
written, consisting of some 20 Pegasus Autocode programs. It had one unusual
feature, in that it used spline curves longitudinally and conics transversely,
whereas standard practice was to use conics both ways. While these programs
would not have been usable as they stood, because of the long computer times and
because all data was held on paper tape (a medium almost as bulky as punched
cards), they functioned, and did all that we asked of them.
Meanwhile, however, we had been considering other possible representations.t
Two papers in particular, were the subject of much study. These were the Coons
(I964) paper and a Boeing paper (Ferguson I964).
When, after some months, these papers were fully understood, there was no
choice left to be made. For reasons described below, the only justifiable decision
t This paper describes work at Weybridge Division. The other Divisions of the British
Aircraft Corporation were, of course, equally active. There was, and still is, a great deal of cross
fertilization.
[ 197 ]

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 198 M. A. Sabin (Discussion Meeting)
was to use parametric surface mathematics. By the end of 1965 we had solved the
problem of the intersection of two general surfaces, anid shortly afterwards that of
offset surfaces.
The speed of the Pegasus Autocode severely hindered development. (The
intersection of two surfaces algorithnm calculated 30 points per hour.) The next,
pre-production, system was implemented in Algol on the English Electric KDF 9
at the Filton Division of the British Aircraft Corporation.
This system used rectangular arrays of parametric bicubic patches with slope and
twist vectors calculated by spline interpolation. This aspect has not been changed in
subsequent versions and is described more fully below.
The experience gained was built into a suite of Fortran programs to run on the
ICL 1905 computer, commissioned at Weybridge in July 1966. The same experi-
ence justified the ordering of a large Gerber 675 draughting machine which was
installed in December 1966.
The Gerber was installed in the Mould Loft, the department previously responi-
sibls for the outside lines, and a small group of loftsmen (initially 2, now 12) was
formed to put it to use. This draughting machine, and essentially the same suit-
of programs have been used on production work ever since, both having been
maintained and enhanced considerably.
A major advance was when the link with the numerically controlled (n.c.)
nachining of wind tunnel models was made. The author was involved in the setting
up of an in-house system for production of n.c. tapes which involved the imple-
mentation of the Profiledata suite of programs on the ICL 1905 computer. He had
also run the PMT2 surface machining program (ICT i966) on Pegasus, which
program had already been used with some success by the wind tunnel. It was quite
clear that, once a complete numerical definition of the aircraft was available, using
such an interpolation system would not be sensible. It was also clear that the
algorithms being written for the numerical master geometry (N.M.G.) lofting
system would also calculate tool centre paths for surface machining.
The programme linking N.M.G. with the Profiledata post processors was written
by its prospective user in the wind tunnel and the first test piece was cut in April
1968. One immediate advantage of this system over others (Flutter i969) was the
facility for driving a square cornered cutter horizontally round the contours of the
surface being shaped. This cut the machining time for rough cutting considerably.
Cutting along the intersection of two surfaces was also directly available, and we
have since added the capability of using any N.M.G. surfaces as boundaries of the
area to be machined.

SURFACE DEFINITION
The N.M.G. system uses the parametric form:
P = F(u, v)
to represent surfaces, where P is a generic point of the surface, F is a vector function

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 An existing system in the aircraft industry 199
and u and v are the two parameters, which give the two degrees of freedom within
the surface.
If we vary u, say, the point sweeps out a curve. If we also vary v the curve
sweeps out a surface.
The interrogation facilities of the N.M.G. are capable of operating on any surface
for which an algorithm can be written to evaluate P anid its derivatives from u and
v. It would be unreasonable to expect loftsmen to write such algorithms, and so a
specific form is incorporated, based on splines and bicubics, which allows surfaces
to be set up easily.
The data supplied to the N.M.G. to define a surface is a topologically rectangular
array of points, each point being represented by its coordinates (figure 1).

0 3

FIGURE
Ai1 v

calculteforsa each pieeofnth surfaceand store ad. te

tangen h ws etr

It is illuminating to regard the system as setting up longitudinal spline curves

(figure2), and thenlsliding a transverse spline along them, so that it sweeps out a
surface (figure 3).

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200 M. A. Sabin (Discussion Meeting)

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 3

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 An existing system in the aircraft industry 201
The surface so generated is precisely the same as that swept out by a longi-
tudinal spline sliding along a set of transverse splines, and also as that set up by
the numerical process actually used.
Because the spline fits piecewise cubics, with a different equation in each interval,
the total process give a piecewise surface with a different surface equation in each
piece. The 12-point surface illustrated has six pieces. The term patch is often used
to refer to one such piece. We use the term tiles for patches in a rectangular array,
keeping patch to refer to isolated surfaces, or for the pieces of surfaces made up more
like patchwork quilts (Armit I968).
Within each tile mretreat the parameters as each lying in the interval between
0 and 1. Within the surface as a whole it is convenielnt to add the tile positions to
these fractional parts, so that the point (u 2.3, v- 1.6) can be obtained by sub-
stituting u = 0.3, v = 0.6 into the equations for the tile which is second in the
u direction and first in the v (figure 4).
u=3

FIGURE 4

The switching from one tile to another is then very easily performed automaJti-
cally by the program whenever it evaluates aJpoint. The piecewise nature of the
surface is thus dealt with at a low level. All the higher level algorithms, and the
human user, can think of the surface as a single, unstructured, entity.

US AGE
Although the concepts of longitudinal guidelines and a transverse sliding curve
are similar to conic lofting ideas, the use of the surface, once set up, is quite different.

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202 M. A. Sabin (Discussion Meeting)

FIGURE 5

FIGURE 6

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 An existing system in the aircraft industry 203
In conic lofting any problem is dealt with by considering a series of two-
dimensionalproblems. Suppose a surfaceA is defined by the curves C in the planes
B (figure5). Then the intersection with a skew plane D (figure 6) is solved by
finding the intersections of the curves C with the lines E in which D intersects B
(figure 7).

FIGURE 7

Because second-degree curves are used for C this reduces to the solution of
quadratic equations.
The parametric surface approach is more abstract and more general. At any point
(u, v) we can evaluate not only:
P = YEAijuivv,
but also ap u= EiAiAui-'v1
and aPav= SE2jAi uivi-1
and any higher derivatives required.
aP/Du and aP/av are tangential to the surface at P and their cross-product is,
therefore, perpendicular to the surface.
The point and the surface normal define the tangent plane and the tangent
to an intersection line is given by the cross-product of the two surface normals.
Stepping in the surface in the direction of the tangent thus calculated generates as
many points as are required. The initial point is usually found by scan.ning round
the boundary.

ADVANTAGES OF PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION

The implementor finds great advantages in this representation. The first is that
the vector/tensor notation appropriate can express geometrical relationships very
tersely, and that the vector manipulation operations have direct geometrical
parallels. This is associated with the fact that geometric properties set up in vector
terms are usually independent of the coordinate axes used and are thus invariant
under rotation and other affine transformations. The most immediate results of
this are that a single technique covers fuselages, wings, nacelles, ducts, and all
minor surface types, and that a single interrogation algorithm applies, for example,
to all orientations of plane section.

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 204 M. A. Sabin (Discussion Meeting)
Axis-dependent conic lofting really requires three, one for planes parallel to the
definition planes, one for planes nearly parallel, and one for planes far from
parallel.
A good example of the terseness mentioned above is the handling of offset sur-
faces. Parametrically, offsets for skin thickness or machining cutter compensation
can be handled exactly by interposing:

P(u, v): = P(u, v) +sN(u, v)

between the evaluation of a point and its use (where N is the unit surface normal
at P and 8 is the amount of offset). This takes place at almost as low a level as the
choice of tile, and the interrogation algorithms themselves require no modification
whatever.
The facility for driving a cutter along a path so that the cutter just touched two
general surfaces therefore cost us nothing. This was not foreseen when the decision
to choose parametric surfaces was made.
It has also emerged unforeseen that additional algorithms can often be generated
by altering a few lines of program in existing ones. A facility for intersecting
general surfaces with cylinders was produced by altering some 40 statements in the
plane section routine and worked first time.
Tile systems appear to be easier to use than either conics or patch systems, in
the sense that surfaces can be set up solely in terms of points. The loftsmen are not
highly qualified academically, H.N.C. being the exception rather than the rule, but
they can handle points and they have successfully defined many N.M.G. surfaces.
The only occasion when mathematical help is required is when surfaces have
singularities which need to be represented by null tangent vectors, and when
control of the twist vectors is therefore necessary. This is an important advantage
because loftsmen have the essential skill in handling shapes which mathematicians
do not necessarily have.
Experience has shown that tile systems are particularly appropriate when
derived surfaces have to be set up. Distortion of shapes to allow for loading can be
performed automatically by a straightforward algorithm, and the development of
surface panels into the flat works similarly.
The setting up of surfaces automatically from initial requirements has been
tried recently. McCallum has suggested the use of standard topologies for ships
(McCallum 1970); in the aircraft case standard topologies can be associated with
algorithms for generation of the numerical data. Wings are routinely passed from
programs run by the Aerodynamics Department direct to the N.M.G. These
typically need a little modification, but the bulk of the work of definition has been
saved. Forward fuselages, probably the loftsman's most difficult task because of
the problem of fairing in the flat pilots glazing panels, are currently the subject of
automatic design experiments. It is clear that these surfaces will need even more
modification than wings, but the potential savings are very large.

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 An existing system in the aircraft industry 205

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
Four directions of advance are foreseen in this field of external geometry
manipulation:
(1) Further automatic design processes.
(2) Improved modification facilities. It may well be possible to correct an
initial design without any knowledge of the mathematical representation.
(3) Improved computer efficiency. Re-implementation of the now proven
algorithms should reduce computer cost per job by a factor of three.
(4) Improved input language. The amount of writing involved in extracting
information from the N.M.G. will be curtailed by a factor of between two and ten.
This is being achieved by tailoring the system to suit the interrogations actually
made.
These last two directions will, in fact, reduce the generality of the N.M.G., but
by doing so will improve its cost-effectiveness still further.

The author gratefully acknowledges the help that he has received from colleagues
in the preparation of this paper and in the work described. He would also like to
thank the management of the British Aircraft Corporation for permission to pre-
sent this paper.

REFERENCES (Sabin)
Armit, A. P. I968 Multipatch users guide. Cambridge University: C.A.D. Gp.
Coons, S. A. I964 Surfacesfor computeraided design of space figures. Mech. Eng. Dept., M.I.T.
Ferguson, J. C. I964 Multivariable curve interpolation. Jnl ACM. 11, 221-228.
Flutter, A. G. I969 N.C. machine tool programs with surface fitting capabilities. Cambridge
University: C.A.D. Gp. Doc. 22.
ICT Report I966 Surface milling using PMT2 Tech. Publ. 5072-CS455. Computer Services
Division.
McCallum, K. J. 1970 The use of interactive graphics for the preliminary design of a ship's
hull. Int. Symp. Computer Graphics 70. Brunel University.
Robertson, R. G. I966 Descriptive geometry. London: Pitman and Son.
Shelley, J. H. (not dated) about 1947 The development of curved surfaces for aero design.
Gloster Aircraft Co. Ltd., Hucclecote, Glos.

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