Glossary of Social Policy

A
Abolitionism used as shorthand to describe the scrapping of, for example, hanging, prison, or corporal
punishment. It is allied also to attempts to substantially limit the use of prison or, more loosely, to move
away from the punitive fixation of the criminal justice system towards restorative/restitutive forms of
justice.
Activation policies government programmes that intervene in the labour market to help the unemployed
find work.
Anti-social behaviour technically defined in the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 as behaviour which has
‘caused or was likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to one or more persons not of the same
household’. However, it has come to be understood as a catch-all category for nuisance behaviour, which
may or may not be criminal, and which is most commonly associated with youth.
Anti-social Behaviour Orders a hybrid legal instrument in that it spans both civil and criminal law.
Orders are granted in a civil court (rather like an injunction) and impose a number of prohibitive
conditions on an individual in order to prevent them from engaging in ‘anti-social behaviour’. Breach of
these conditions, however, is a criminal offence which is punishable with a maximum of five years
imprisonment.
Applied philosophy seeks to apply philosophical ideas and approaches to real problems and issues.
B
‘Back to basics’ a campaign launched by John Major at the Conservative Party conference in 1993,
aimed at raising moral standards, it became focused particularly on lone parenthood.
Brownfield sites a term loosely used to describe land which has previously been developed, as opposed
to greenfield sites which have not.
C
Children’s Commissioner following the Children Act 2004, the post of Children’s Commissioner for
England was appointed to act as an independent voice for children and young people. Scotland, Wales
and Northern Ireland each have their own Commissioner.
Children’s Fund focused on developing services that support multi-agency working, the Fund was
targeted at 5-13 year-olds and was a key part of the Labour government’s strategy to tackle disadvantages
and inequalities which derive from child poverty and social exclusion. However, from 2008 these were
absorbed into local authority mainstream provision.
Commodity a good or service regarded as having no intrinsic merit. Its value is its exchange price as
determined by the interaction between supply and demand.
Community care a term that can be understood in many different ways, but is generally applicable to a
range of policies applied to looking after people with particular needs in the community, including the
movement of people from long-stay institutions to living in the community.
Comprehensive education a system of state secondary schools designed to ensure that all children
receive similar education, thus increasing equality of opportunity.
Comprehensive Spending Review introduced by Gordon Brown this involves government departments
justifying their expenditure plans to the Treasury for a three-year period, rather than the previous annual
spending allocations. It also gave the Treasury a greater role in coordinating and controlling government
expenditure.
Corporate crime crime committed in some form of organisational context. This highlights the problem
of attributing individual human agency to the ‘author’ of the crime, and thus the problem of exacting
appropriate punishment. Recent attempts to upgrade the law on ‘corporate killing’ testify to some of the
problems here. Sutherland uses this interchangeably with white collar crime as a rhetorical challenge to
Criminology. See too ‘zemiology’.
Criminalisation refers to a range of social and criminal justice processes (including policing,
prosecution, punishment, penalisation, stigmatisation and blame) through which an individual or group is
accorded the ‘label’ of criminal.
Cycle of deprivation thesis Conservative Minister Keith Joseph, in a speech to the Pre-School Playgroup
Association, propounded the view that deprivation was transmitted through the family.
D
Dark figure of crime refers to the truism that ‘recorded crime’ is but a fraction of the potential total of
activity that could be processed as crime. The British Crime Survey, which is a victim survey, goes some
way to fleshing this out.
Demand-side stimulation of demand for goods and services.
Dependency culture often used to describe a situation where people are seen to have become passive
recipients of welfare, dependent upon benefits.
Dependency ratio dependency rates or ratios focus on the relative sizes of the economically active part
of the population and those who are designated as dependent (primarily children and older people).
Generally, a lower dependency ratio implies relatively more workers and fewer requirements to support
dependent populations, while a higher dependency ratio suggests that a higher proportion of a population
is dependent and a smaller proportion economically active.
Deregulation the process by which governments have sought to reduce and remove regulations on
businesses in order to improve the theoretical efficiency of markets. The theory is that deregulation will
lead to greater competitiveness and efficiency.
Deviance is used to refer to ‘rule breaking behaviour’ and, more controversially, to deviations from the
normal, that is, pathological states.
Due process a set of procedural rules that should be followed in order to approximate formal justice.
E
Earth Summit an attempt to bring together participants, including heads of state and government,
national delegates, non-governmental organisations, businesses and other major groups, to focus upon
improving people’s lives and conserving natural resources.
Economic inactivity refers to people not looking for, or not available for, work.
Ethical theory ideas that seek to provide a framework for consideration of what is ethical.
Ethnicity the identification of individuals as members of a particular group on the basis of their origin in
a community, which may be mythical or real, with a historical, territorial, cultural and/or racial basis.
Eugenics can be interpreted as the view that society can be improved through the manipulation of genetic
inheritance through reproduction.
Exchange Rate Mechanism the European Exchange Rate Mechanism is a system which sought to
reduce variability between currencies, with currencies fixed but fluctuating within set margins.
Externality a side effect of an activity that affects other parties without being reflected in the price of the
good or service involved.
F
Further education education often provided by further education colleges, sometimes available to
children aged 16 to 19, but also aimed at adults. Although often linked to qualifications or careers, it can
also be used solely to enhance knowledge and skills.
G
Genetically modified crops these (GM) crops are from plants that have had their genes modified, for
example, to make them more tolerant of particular conditions or resistant to certain herbicides.
Grant maintained schools schools which opt out of local education authority control, are self-governing
and receive their funding directly from central government.
Gross domestic product the total value of goods and services produced by a nation. The GDP includes
consumer and government purchases, private domestic investments and net exports of goods and services.
It therefore measures national output.
H
Higher education more specialist provision through universities and colleges of higher education,
including undergraduate degrees (BA (Bachelor of Arts), BSc (Bachelor of Sciences), LLB (Bachelor of
Laws), etc.), taught postgraduate awards (such as MA and MSc) and research degrees (frequently a PhD,
or Doctor of Philosophy).
Housing associations non-profit making bodies that specialise in housing and plough any surplus into
maintaining existing homes and helping to finance new ones. They provide homes to rent and also run
low-cost home ownership schemes.
Human development index the HDI provides a composite measure of three dimensions of human
development: living a long and healthy life (measured by life expectancy), being educated (measured by
adult literacy and enrolment at the primary, secondary and tertiary level) and having a decent standard of
living (measured by purchasing power parity, PPP, income). Based on this composite measure the
countries of the world are ranked in terms of their relative development.
I
Informal economy those economic activities conducted mostly outside of the legal and administrative
institutions of the formal economy.
Institutional racism processes within an organisation which leads to differentially adverse outcomes for
minority ethnic users, going beyond prejudicial behaviour of individuals within the organisation.
Intergovernmental organisations organisations that are generally created by treaties or agreements
between states, such as the World Bank; these have a legal status and often have mechanisms for
resolving disputes between members.
Internal markets the Conservative governments of 1979–1997 sought to improve the efficiency and
responsiveness of services such as health and social care through the introduction of internal markets,
based on the separation of the functions of purchasing and providing of services.
Integration, integrationism the notion that members of minority ethnic groups should feel and be seen
to be participant in the culture, economy and politics of society as a whole, while having their own
particular ethnic identity.
K
Kyoto Protocol signed in Kyoto in 1997 this committed the industrialised nations to reducing worldwide
emissions of greenhouse gases by an average of 5.2 per cent below 1990 levels over the next decade.
L
Labeling theory convenient shorthand for the social reaction perspective based on the premise that a
situation, if defined as real, will be real in its consequences. The area is contested, but ranges from a focus
upon the interaction between the potential deviant and those who so label him/her, through to the idea that
if you call someone deviant/criminal this will confirm and reproduce their problem behaviour and thus
make things worse. For example, the idea that the criminal justice system is part of the problem of crime
in that it makes things worse, and is not necessarily the best solution.
Labour intensification refers to how some people are working harder.
Labour market segmentation a situation in which there are so-called ‘insiders’, the workers with a
protected job requiring high skills, and ‘outsiders’, who are low-skilled people that are either unemployed
or employed with fixed-term, part-time or temporary with little chance to climb the career ladder.
Laissez-faire the economic doctrine that urges abstention by governments from interfering in the
workings of the free market.
Lease Lend a programme that allowed the United States to provide the United Kingdom (and other
allies) with material for the Second World War in return for military bases.
Liberal feminists seek the same rights and opportunities for women as for men and focus largely on
inequalities caused by prejudice and stereotyping, calling for legislation which outlaws discrimination.
Local Strategic Partnership a single non-statutory, non executive body, aligned with local authority
boundaries, that brings together at a local level the different parts of the public sector as well as the
private, business, community and voluntary sectors so that different initiatives and services support each
other and work together; they are intended to operate at a level which enables strategic decisions to be
taken and is close enough to individual neighbourhoods to allow actions to be determined at community
level.
M
Male breadwinner a model of the family where the husband works (the breadwinner) and earns the
family income whilst the wife provides care for the family.
Managerialism an approach to criminal justice which emphasises the management of the system as a
whole, with a focus on effective service delivery, efficiency and value for money. It also reflects a
concern with identifying and managing ‘risk’ through the collection of aggregate data on offending and
calculation of statistical probabilities.
Means-testing the testing of a claimant’s means in order to assess their entitlement to benefits. Only
those whose resources fall below the eligibility level receive the benefits.
Multiculturalism the notion that a multi-ethnic society should respect, protect the rights of and even
foster distinct minority ethnic cultures.
N
Nationalisation taking into public (state) ownership, as happened with major industries such as coal, gas,
electricity and iron and steel in the post-war years.
Neo-liberalism a political ideology promoting economic liberalism, partly as a means to political liberty.
New public management a phrase used to describe a set of ideas widely implemented by governments,
particularly in English-speaking countries, from the 1980s, which emphasised marketisation and drew on
private sector practices.
New Right the ideas of a group of right wing thinkers, often associated with the Thatcher governments.
Neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism are were important elements of this political position.
Non Governmental Organisations organisations established by individuals or associations of
individuals and non possessing governmental powers; NGOs vary widely in size and influence.
Nursery education pre-school education for children below the age of formal compulsory education.
O
Occupational pension a company pension to which both the employer and the employee make
contributions.
P
Performance measurement the use of measures of performance for organisations, such as schools,
hospitals or even local authorities, sometimes linked with the use of ‘league tables’.
Pluralism a view that believes that power is or should be shared amongst the diverse groups and interests
in society, and that political decision-making should reflect bargains and compromises between these
groups.
Policy transfer the practice of governments learning from approaches in other states and implementing
them in their own jurisdiction.
Positivism often used interchangeably to refer to the ‘positive’ Italian school of criminology associated
with Lombroso, and a particular method based upon observation and the search for the causes of crime.
Essentially it is a ‘method’ characterised by the organising question, why did s/he do it and what can be
done to stop them?
Post-Fordist used to describe a perceived contrast with fordist methods of production, with an emphasis
on flexible systems of production and a flexible workforce.
predictive genetic testing the ability to test or screen using genetic tests which may suggest that
individuals are likely to develop one or more particular condition, such as Huntington’s disease.
Primary education education from the age of 5 to 11, designed to provide children with basic skills.
Private Finance Initiative the Private Finance Initiative is a method of injecting private capital into the
provision of public services. It can take the form of an agreement between a public body and a private
company for the supply of buildings or services over a period of time, often thirty years. The public body
sets the standards and pays a fee to the private company for the services provided, such as a hospital or
school building, or the repair and improvement of local authority dwellings. Borrowing by the private
company does not count as part of the Public Sector Borrowing Requirement.
Public health the health of the population as a whole, initially concerned with issues such as sanitation,
but more recently focused on areas around the prevention of illness, such as immunisation.
Public schools independent schools which charge fees, they do not have to teach the National
Curriculum.
Public Sector Borrowing Requirement (PSBR) the difference between Government spending and its
income. It is regarded as an important indicator of the Chancellor of the Exchequer’s prudence in
managing the economy.
Public service agreements established between the Treasury and central government departments, public
service agreements set out what the department aims to achieve with a given level of resources.
Q
Quangos although not entirely accurate, the term quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisations
(quango) is widely used to describe organisations that are not directly accountable to elected bodies, such
as parliament or local government.
R
Race the identification of individuals as members of a particular group on the basis of some physical
difference of ‘skin, hair and bone’.
Racialisation a descriptive process in which race and/or ethnicity is used to categorize people in groups.
Radical feminists see women as a group as oppressed by men as a group, including through male
dominance of the state, and tend to call for a radical transformation of all spheres of life, with some
calling for political, and in some cases personal, separation from men.
Replacement ratio the ratio of the amount a person could receive in social security benefits out of work
relative to the amount they could receive if they were earning.
Rent control state determination of the rents charged by private landlords. The Conservatives attempted
to phase out rent control in the 1930s and 1950s. By the 1970s, the major form of rent control was the
determination of ‘fair’ rents by rent officers.
S Security of tenure refers to the legal presumption that a tenant should remain in a dwelling unless the
landlord can convince a court that there are very good reasons to evict the tenant.
Social democracy this position has historically encompassed both socialism and democracy as essential
components. Social democrats see capitalism as capable of transformation and reform through democratic
action including the welfare state. However, from the 1980s some social democratic parties have adjusted
their positions in response to critiques from the New Right and others.
Social exclusion often used to describe the wider processes and outcomes that prevent people from
participating in society and from accessing services.
Social inclusion a situation where people do not suffer the problems associated with social exclusion.
Social mobility the degree to which an individual’s, family’s, or group’s social status can change
throughout the course of their life.
Socialist feminists socialist feminists aspire to an economically just society, with both women and men
having the opportunity to fulfill their potential.
Stealth taxes taxes where the population are supposedly unaware (or at least are only partially aware) of
their existence and function.
Subsistence the minimum required to maintain life, but often used to refer to the lowest level at which
benefits should be set.
Sure Start a programme introduced by the Labour government designed to address the social and health
needs of children and families, including the availability of childcare.
T
Tax credits are used to reduce the amount of taxation paid by subtracting a sum from an individual’s tax
bill, but where people are not paying tax can lead to a cash payment.
U
Underclass often used to denote a class of people dependent on welfare, and in particular state assistance,
for survival. It has been associated, by thinkers on the right, with dependency, whilst some on the left
have made a link with social exclusion.
V
Victimless crime crime in which there is no ‘obvious’ direct victim of the criminal act, but instead the
victim may be public morality/decency, or the criminal him/herself, for example, in relation to personal
drug use.
W
Welfare dependency relying on social security benefits for financial support (see also dependency
culture).
Welfare state where the state takes responsibility for providing at least minimal levels of economic and
social security through the provision of public services (such as education, health, housing and income
maintenance).
Welfare to work policies intended to move those reliant on the state for financial support (welfare) into a
position of relative financial independence through paid work.
White-collar crime may be defined as those offences committed by people of relatively high status in the
course of their occupation and so could include (for example) fraud, embezzlement, tax evasion and
corporate crimes involving health and safety violations and pollution.
Workers’ Education Association a voluntary movement, founded in the early twentieth century, to
support the educational needs of working people.
Workfare the requirement to work, or engage in other work-related activity, in return for welfare.
Z
Zemiology the study of all harmful activity, not just that which is criminalised.
COMMENTING

If you would like to make a comment or insert a remark in an ongoing conversation, it is polite to

acknowledge what someone has just said before stating your own ideas. 

Some phrases 

That's interesting. I think that...

Interesting point. I would add...

Hmmm. I hadn't thought of that before.

Questions can also be a useful way of bringing new ideas into a conversation:

What do you think about . . .

Have you considered . . .

What about . . .

Sometimes a more direct approach is appropriate:

Can I add something here?

(Do you) mind if I interject something here?

EXPLAINING

Can you explain . . .

Can you tell me why . . .

What happened . . .

Let me explain.

Let me tell you why . . .

Here's what happened:

There's a (good) reason for this:

The reason is . . .

I'm sorry. I can't tell you that (right now).

Can I get back to you on that?

I'll explain (a little) later./We'll come to that later.

We'll get to that in a few minutes.

Can we save that until later?

BEGINNING A CONVERSATION

It is common to greet the audience and introduce yourself when giving presentations:

Good morning,/afternoon/evening

I'm _________, the new Finance Manager.

My name is ________ and I represent _______

Let me take a minute to introduce myself.

Let me start by telling you a little about our company.

I've already met some of you, but for those I haven't , I'm ______

Introducing the topic

I'm here to talk about . . .

Today, I'd like to say a few words about . . .

I'm going to give you an overview of . . .

The main reason I'm here today is . . .

The focus of my remarks is . . .

I'd like to introduce . . .

Time consciousness

Thank you for your time

Thank you for taking the time to be here

I will probably take about . . . minutes

This should last only a few minutes

I hope to be finished by . . .

Showing organization

I've divided my topic into three sections/parts. They are . . .

This presentation can be divided into the following subtopics:

First, First of all The first point is . . .

Second Secondly The next point is . . .

Third Thirdly Next, we come to . . .

Finally Last The final point is . . .

Sequencing

Let's move on to . . ./ That brings us to . . .

Giving Reasons

This is why . . .

The main reason is . . .

Therefore,

Generalizing

Generally,/Usually,

As a rule,

Most of the time,/In most cases,

HIGHLIGHTING

Actually,/In fact,

As a matter of fact,

In particular,/Particularly,

Especially

Giving Examples

For example,/For instance,/Such as

Summarizing

To sum up/To summarize/In brief

Concluding

To conclude,/In conclusion,

Follow-up

Are/Were there any questions?

We have just a few minutes for questions

PARAPHRASING

Paraphrasing involves restating someone else's ideas in your own words.

There are several phrases that can be used to introduce paraphrasing:

So . . . (rephrase the other person's ideas)

In other words . . . (paraphrase)

I understand. (You're saying that . . .)

Oh. I see. (You want to say that . . . )

I get it. (You mean . . .)

So, what you mean is . . .

Let me see if I understand you correctly. . .

What I think you're saying is . . .

If I'm hearing you correctly . .

Conceding to Make a Point

That may be true, but . . .

I may be wrong, but . . .

You might be right, but . . .

You have a good point, but . . .

You could say that, but . . .

Correct me if I'm wrong, but . . .

I don't mean to be rude, but . . .

I hate to bring this up, but . . .

I don't mean to be negative, but . . .

This may sound strange, but . . .

Interrupting politely

Excuse me,

Pardon me,

Sorry to interrupt,
May I interrupt (for a minute)?

Can I add something here?

I don't mean to intrude, but . . .

Could I inject something here?

Do you mind if I jump in here?

Asking for Elaboration

Could you elaborate (on that)?

Could you tell me a little more about it?

Could you give (me) some details?

Could you fill me in on that?

Could you expound on that?

What else can you tell us (about that)?

Is there anything else you can tell us?

Is there more to it?

Focusing on the main problem/issue

What is the main problem?

What is the real issue (here)?

(I think) the major problem is . . .

Our primary concern is . . .

The crux of the matter is . . .

(As I see it), the most important thing is . . .

The main problem we need to solve is . . .

We really need to take care of . . .

It all comes down to this:

Clarifying your own ideas

In other words,

What I mean is . . .

What I'm trying to say is . . .

What I wanted to say was . . .

To clarify,

Asking for Clarification

What do you mean (by that)?

What are you trying to say?

What was that again?

Could you clarify that?

Clarifying another's ideas

You mean . . .

What you mean is . . .

What you're saying is . . .

(I think) what she means is . . .

What he's trying to say is . . .

If I understand you, (you're saying that . . . )

If I'm hearing you correctly,

So, you think (that) . . .

So, your idea is . . .

Opening a discussion

To begin with,

We need to discuss . . ./determine…/find out

Let's start by (V ing)

We'll start by (V ing)

The problem here is . . ./issue…/question

The important thing (here) is . . .

The main thing we need to discuss is . . .

Let's look at . . .

It looks like . . .
It appears that . . .

Asking for input

What do you think?

How about you?

How do you feel about that?

Any ideas on that?

Responding

That sounds like a) good idea.

Sounds good.

The problem with that is . . .

That raises the issue of . . .

brings up

CONTRASTING

On the other hand,

However,/Yes, but . . .

You may be right, but . . .

I may be wrong, but . . .

Correct me if I'm wrong, but . . .

On the contrary,
SIMPLE PRESENTATION
Introduction

(Good morning, afternoon, evening)

I'm happy to be here.

I'm glad to have this opportunity to . . .

Today, I'd like to talk (to you) about . . .

My topic today is . . .

The focus of my remarks is . . .

I'd like to share some thoughts on (topic)

Main points

Let me start by . . .

First, let me tell you about . . .

I've divided my topic into (three) parts: (They are . . .)

Giving examples

For instance,

Let me illustrate,

To illustrate,

Conclusion

In conclusion,

To conclude,

To summarize,

To sum up,

Giving your opinion

I think that . . .

I don't think that . . .

In my opinion . . .

Asking for support or details

Why do you think that?

Could you elaborate?

Could you give (me) an example?

Can you illustrate that?

What evidence do you have?

Could you explain it in more detail?

Could you provide some details?

Supporting your opinions

Let me illustrate,

For example,

For instance,

To give you an example,

Let me give you an example,

To elaborate,

First, (second), etc.

Formal INTRODUCTION

I'd like to introduce you to my dear friend, Mrs. Pleasant.

Allow me to introduce myself/my colleague, Ms. Winters

Let me introduce you to my colleague, Dean Richards.

Mr. Richards, this is David Porter from Aerospace Inc.

How do you do?

How do you do?

It's a pleasure meeting you.

Expressing Appreciation

Thank you for your kindness.

I appreciate your hospitality.

I appreciate your lending me the chain saw.

Pre-closing

It's been nice talking to you.

It's been great talking with you.

I really enjoyed meeting you.

It was nice meeting you, Mr. Brown.

I'm sorry, but I have to go now.

I'm afraid I have to leave now.

Thanks for the information/ the tour/ your time.

Thanks for taking the time to talk with us.

Follow up

I'll give you a call.

I'll send you an e-mail.

We'll send out that information right away.

I'll have my secretary schedule an appointment.

Could you send me a brochure/some more information?

Could I contact you by e-mail/at your office?

How do I get in touch with you?

How can I reach/contact you?

Closing

I look forward to seeing you again.

We'll see you on Friday.

See you next week.

Let me give you my business card.

Here's my e-mail/office number.

Let's keep in touch by e-mail./We'll be in touch.

Call me if you have any questions.