TERM PAPER

ON

LASER WELDING

Utkarsh Pratap
Roll No- 001911702003
Session (2019-21)

Guided By
Prof. Arunanshu Shekhar Kuar

DEPARTMENT OF PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY, KOLKATA

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Prof. Arunanshu Shekhar Kuar for his valuable guidance and
constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding
this paper. I would like to express my gratitude towards other faculty members
and seniors of Production engineering department for their kind co-operation
and encouragement.
Thank you all.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPICS Page No.

➢ ABSTRACT 4
Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 History and Evolution 6
Chapter 2
2.1 Laser Beam Welding 8
2.2 Types of Laser Beam 9
2.2.1 Nd: YAG Laser System 9
2.2.2 CO2 Laser System 11
Chapter 3 Laser Welding Types
3.1 Deep Source 14
3.2 Conduction laser welding 15
• Parameter affecting Laser welding quality 16
• Advantage of laser welding 16
• Problems with laser welding 17
• Applications of laser welding 17
Chapter 4 Literature review 19
Chapter 5 Conclusion and Future Work 22
Reference 23

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 ABSTRACT

One of the most important things to do in the engineering industry today is to

keep up with modern technologies being developed. So, laser machines are the
future of many procedures in the engineering world. Therefore, study them and
learning how to use them gives the company a good edge. Using the laser
machines generally increase production rate, quality and reduce production
costs. The laser machine can be used for welding, cutting, hardening, surface
cleaning and for 3D printing, just changing one or two of its devices. This results
in the reduction of number of machines required for multiple operations. This
paper presents the basic and advancement in laser welding machine.

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Chapter 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Welding is the most widespread and accurate method of joining, applicable in
almost all industrial sectors. The welding processes involve the following three
steps: melting the metal to form a weld pool at the site of the future joint,
allowing the weld pool to grow to the desired size and maintaining the stability
of the weld pool until it solidifies. The welding processes can be performed using
different energy sources: from the gas flame and the electron arc to the electron
or laser beam and ultrasound. In the power sources mentioned, the laser beam
is distinguished by having the highest power density currently available in the
industry (up to 109 W / cm2) which can be focused on a small point (down to
0.1 mm). This is why "laser welding" is called an advanced process of joining
materials with a laser beam of high power and energy density.

Today, lasers are more and more accepted in manufacturing as

the cost of lasers has gone down and capacity has increased. Lasers are used in
many applications due to their inherent properties, such as high
monochromaticity, coherence, direction and intensity. The laser source provides
intense heat source with high density, which enables deep and narrow welding
wire with high welding speed. The process is often used in high volume
manufacturing industries, such as the automotive industry. The laser beam is an
efficient technique for joining different metals. This can bond metals at the
surface and at depth and produce a very strong weld. It can be combined with
conventional welding processes to provide the required weld quality. The
quality of the weld is high and can be used for welding. Materials with high
thermal conductivity and high melting point, such as aluminum, can be welded
with a laser source of considerable power.

Laser welding offers many characteristics that make it an attractive alternative

to conventional processes. The laser source is characterized by a coherent and
collimated light source. Thus, the power supply can be properly regulated,
monitored and maintained during laser welding. Laser welding has high power
density, large production rate and high degree of automation which makes it
extremely advantageous in industrial applications. Joints between dissimilar
metals are used in many industrial applications which are particularly common
in components used in the automotive, power generation, chemical,
petrochemical, nuclear and electronics industries.

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 Figure: laser welding basics.

1.2 HISTORY & EVOLUTION

Einstein first postulated the basis of quantum mechanics for lasers in the early
20th century.
1960: The first laser called a ruby laser was first implemented in 1960.
1970: The first high-performance lasers were developed in the 1970s with the
development of CO2 lasers. Since then, the applications of laser sources have
been developed.
1980s: Laser welding is becoming a popular way to connect conductors to
electronic components through holes in circuit boards.
1987: Development of the laser powder smelting process

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2002: From Linde Gas in Germany, a diode laser is used that uses process gases
and "active gas components" to improve "keychain" effects for laser welding.
The process gas, argon-CO2, increases the welding speed and, in the case of a
diode laser, will promote the transition from thermal conductivity to deep
welding, i.e. "keyhole". The addition of active gas changes the direction of the
metal flow in a welding basin and provides a denser welding of higher quality.

Figure 1. Keyhole welding process and balance of forces of a non-fully penetrating keyhole

Keyholing provides for extremely deep penetration. This provides for a high
depth-to-width ratio. Keyholing also minimizes the problem of beam reflection
from the shiny molten metal surface since the keyhole behaves like a black body
and absorbs the majority of the energy. In some applications, inert gas is used
to shield the molten metal from the atmosphere.

CO2 lasers are used to weld polymers. By using silicon carbides embedded in the
surfaces of the polymer, the laser is able to melt the material leaving an almost
invisible bond line. The laser can be compared to a solar light beam for welding.
It can be used in air. The laser beam can be focused and directed with mirrors
and special optical lenses. It is possible to work at a considerable distance from
the room. When using the laser beam for welding, the electromagnetic radiation
hits the surface of the base metal with a concentration of energy such that the
temperature of the surface melts the vapor and melts the underlying metal.
One of the initial questions regarding the use of lasers was
the possibility of reflectivity of the metal so that the beam reflects instead of
heating the base metal. However, it has been found that once the metal is
brought to its melting temperature, the surface conditions have little or no
effect. In laser welding, the molten metal has a radial configuration similar to
convection arc welding. However, when the power density exceeds a certain
threshold level, blockages occur, as in plasma arc welding.

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Chapter 2

2.1 LASER BEAM WELDING

Laser beam welding is a method of melting two pieces of metal using a high
temperature laser. This technique uses one of two types of welding equipment:
a solid-state welding machine or a gas laser welding machine. Both machines
create a precise joint by emitting a dense beam of photons that can work with
thin and thick metal parts. This type of welding is popular in the manufacture of
aircraft, automobiles and spacecraft, but has some drawbacks that prevent it
from working in any industry.
Laser welding works because of a dense beam of photons that
each type of machine produces. This beam of light quickly heats the metals so
that the two pieces are fused into a single unit. The light beam is very small and
concentrated, so the metal weld also cools down very quickly. Laser beam
welders can emit a continuous beam for working with thicker metals or bursts
of short pulses to join thinner materials. Laser beam welding works well with
metals such as steel, aluminum and titanium. Therefore, industries that use
these metals generally include laser welders. Automotive, aviation and
aerospace manufacturing plants are well known as the major users of laser
welding technology. The laser beam welding industry has used lasers for speed,
accuracy and power, but there are also a few reasons why some don't use this
technology. There is a problem of damage to the retina when using laser welding
machines, especially semiconductor machines. To counter this, operators are
advised to wear protective eyewear. Another problem is cracking. Metals, such
as high-carbon steels, often crack due to the rapid cooling rate of a laser weld.

Figure. laser beam welding

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2.2 TYPES OF LASER BEAM
• CO2 laser,
• Solid state (Nd: YAG) lasers,
• Ion laser,
• Semiconductor diode lasers,
• Fibre lasers,
• Excimer laser
However, for welding and cutting, CO2 lasers and solid state (Nd: YAG)
lasers are used.

2.2.1 Nd: YAG LASER SYSTEM

White light pulses in a laser are directed to the YAG crystal. YAG stand for
Yttrium aluminum gamete). Neodymium (Nd) is used as an element stored in
Nd: YAG lasers. YAG crystal absorbs energy and converts it to a single
wavelength infrared beam of several mm diameter. YAG laser output is limited
because it can't work high average powers. In commercial equipment used
today, the average power is limited to 400W, resulting in 1mm weld
penetration. More efficient Welding requires continuous operation at higher
power levels (up to 15 kW).

PRINCIPLE:
The active medium Nd: YAG rod is optically pumped by Krypton flash tubes. The
Neodymium ions (Nd3+) are raised to excited levels. During the transition from
meta stable state to ground state, a laser beam of wavelength 1.064μm is
emitted.

Figure: Nd: YAG laser system

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 Figure: shows the energy level diagram for Nd: YAG laser.

These energy levels shown in the above figure are those of Neodymium (Nd 3+)
ions.
1. When the krypton flash lamp is switched on, by the absorption of
light radiation of wavelength 0.73μm and 0.8μm, the Neodymium
(Nd3+) atoms are raised from ground level E0 to upper levels E3and
E4 (Pump bands).

2. The Neodymium ions atoms make a transition from these energy

levels E2 by non-radiative transition. E2 is a metastable state.

3. The Neodymium ions are collected in the level E2 and the population
inversion is achieved between E2 and E1.

4. An ion makes a spontaneous transition from E2 to E1, emitting a

photon of energy hγ. This emitted photon will trigger a chain of
stimulated photons between E2 and E1.

5. The photons thus generated travel back and forth between two
mirrors and grow in strength. After some time, the photon number
multiplies more rapidly.

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 6. After enough strength is attained (condition for laser being satisfied),
an intense laser light of wavelength 1.06μm is emitted through the
partial reflector. It corresponds to the transition from E2 to E1.

ADVANTAGES
• Less reflectivity in reflective metals,
• Low operating costs,
• Fibre optic Beam release system.

DISADVANTAGES
The electron energy level structure of Nd3+ in YAG is complicated.

APPLICATIONS

• It finds many applications in range finders and illuminators.

• It is widely used in engineering applications such as resistor, trimming

scribing, micro machining operations as well as welding, drilling etc.

• It finds many medical applications such as endoscopy, urology,

neurosurgery, ENT, gynaecology, dermatology, dental surgery and
general surgery.

2.2.2 CO2 LASER SYSTEM

It is a continuous high-power laser system (up to 50 kW). It is the most efficient
system compared to other systems. Output efficiency is defined as the ratio of
laser output power to electrical input power and approach 10% the laser can be
produced by a direct current source or by radio frequencies. They emit infrared
radiation with a variable wavelength 9 to 11 μm. However, the most commonly
used wavelength is 10.6 μm. In CO2 laser welding, helium is often used as a
protective gas because helium has increases a high ionization potential, which
reduces plasma formation penetration and allows high quality welds. In special
applications, protection the gases are used as a mixture, which gives better
results.

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WORKING OF CO2 LASER SYSTEM
CO2 laser (carbon dioxide laser) is a molecular gas laser based on a mixture of
gases as the gain medium, which contains carbon dioxide (CO2), helium (He),
nitrogen (N2) and optionally hydrogen (H2), water vapor and / or xenon (Xe).
Such a laser is electrically pumped through an electric gas discharge, which can
operate with direct current, alternating current (eg 20-50 kHz) or in the radio
frequency (RF) range. The nitrogen molecules are excited by the electric
discharge to a metastable vibrational level and transfer their excitation energy
to the CO2 molecules when they strike them. The outgoing CO2 molecules
therefore largely participate in the laser transition. Helium is used to depopulate
the lower laser level and remove heat. Other components such as hydrogen or
water vapor can help (especially in sealed tube lasers) re-oxidize carbon
monoxide (formed during discharge) to carbon dioxide.

Figure 1: Schematic setup of a sealed-tube carbon dioxide laser.

CO2 lasers typically emit at a wavelength of 10.6 µm, but there are other spectral
lines in the 9-11 µm region (particularly at 9.6 µm). In most cases, the average
power outputs range from a few tens of watts to several kilowatts. The energy
conversion efficiency can be much higher than 10%, i.e. it is higher than that of
most gas lasers (due to a particularly favorable excitation path). also higher than
that of lamp-pumped semiconductor lasers, but lower than that of many diodes.
pumped lasers.
Due to their high output powers and emission wavelengths, CO2
lasers require high quality infrared optics, often made of materials such as zinc
selenide (ZnSe) or zinc sulfide (ZnS).

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ADVANTAGES OF CO2 LASER SOURCE
• High electrical efficiency,
• Low operating cost,
• The possibility to easily scale to higher powers.

APPLICATIONS

CO2 lasers are widely used for laser material processing, in particular for

• cutting plastic materials, wood, die boards, etc., exhibiting high

absorption at 10.6 μm, and requiring moderate power levels of 20–200 W
• cutting and welding metals such as stainless steel, aluminium or copper,
applying multi-kilowatt powers
• laser marking of various materials

Other applications include laser surgery (including ophthalmology) and range

findings.

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Chapter 3
LASER WELDING TYPES

3.1 DEEP SOURCE

If the evaporation temperature is reached during the interaction time of the
material with the laser beam, deep welding effect occurs, resulting in a large
amount fine steam range. This type of source is more targeted. The lower the
laser power, the better its focus. Good ability to concentrate allows to set the
desired mixing depth. High temperatures are achieved by focusing the laser
beam in smaller diameters in the interaction zone. The laser beam reaches
deeper points on the surface of the material of the vapor channel formed. This
is called a "keyhole”. Since high welding speeds are achieved with the laser,
solidification speed is also relatively high. For this reason, especially in laser
welding of unalloyed and low alloy steels, the effect of cooling on the
microstructure and final properties of the material is great.

Figure: Deep source laser welding.

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3.2 CONDUCTION LASER WELDING

The physical basis of the principle of laser transmission used in boiling materials
is that the material can reach its boiling point by ingesting the energy of the laser
beam. The constant force applied to materials reaching boiling point causes this
material to be joined. Conductive laser welding is used when the laser power
density is not sufficient to reach the boiling point of the material, but it can melt.
equipment. It is possible to perform fully penetrating welds on thin materials.
But it's not possible to have a high aspect ratio of the joint shape when laser
transmission welding. If it is desired to boil thin metals using high power density
lasers, cutting instead of boiling occurs. Some research has shown that the
transmission laser source is suitable for boiling sheet materials less than 0.5mm
thick.

Figure: Shows conduction laser welding.

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 PARAMETERS AFFECTING LASER WELDING QUALITY

The main parameters affecting the quality of the laser source are
• The wavelength of the laser and the ratio of the lenses used to swallow
the laser beam
• the power of the laser beam,
• stain size of laser beam,
• laser operating mode (continuous wave or pulsed)
• chemical composition of the workpiece,
• physical geometry of workpiece,
• thickness of workpiece,
• surface condition of workpiece,
• Protective gas (mixture rate, flow rate, pressure, nozzle size and
position),
• Welding characteristic (welding speed, joining geometry)
• The depth of penetration of the source into the material depends on the
power density and the speed of the source.
• Depth of penetration as the power density applied to the material
increases and the welding speed decreases

ADVANTAGE OF LASER WELDING

Precise control of the laser beam offers users several benefits over TIG, MIG
and spot-welding:

• Weld strength: The laser weld is narrow with an excellent depth-to-

width ratio and higher strength.
• Heat affected zone: The heat affected zone is limited, and due to rapid
cooling, the surrounding material is not annealed.
• Metals: Lasers successfully weld carbon steel, high strength steel,
stainless steel, titanium, aluminium, and precious metals as well as
dissimilar materials.
• Precision work: The small, tightly controlled laser beam permits accurate
micro-welding of miniature components.
• Deformation: Parts have minimal deformity or shrink.
• No contact: No physical contact between the material and laser head.
• One sided welding: Laser welding can replace spot welding requiring
access from one side only.
• Scrap: Laser welding is controllable and generates low volumes of scrap.

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 PROBLEMS WITH LASER WELDING
The problem associated with laser welding are:

• Placement of assemblies requires precision.

• Due to its reflectivity and thermal conductivity properties, the weldability
of aluminium and copper alloys is adversely affected.
• Due to the high depth/width ratio of the welding site, there is difficulty in
inserting the filling metal in.
• Due to rapid solidification, pore and crispness can be expected in the
source region.
• The protection of optical elements in laser equipment requires a clean
environment.
• Additional measures may be needed, especially at the welding of
materials with high reflectivity. (For example, painting the surface with
black paint, graphite, manganese, etc. such as coating with substances).
• The lasers used cause serious health problems when they come into direct
or indirect contact with the eye or skin.
• Therefore, working personnel should be aware of the dangers of the laser.
• The depth of penetration in welding is between 0.1-8 mm, limiting the use
of thick parts in welding.

APPLICATIONS OF LASER WELDING

Laser welding can solve many engineering problems, especially with regard to
components that are sensitive to the effect of excessive heat input, susceptible
to distortion, or that require extremely precise welding. The unique properties
of laser welding give it a significant advantage over other forms of welding that
can be exploited in several ways:

• Precision parts: Lasers are excellent for welding fine and delicate metal
components and generating minimal internal stresses due to the
minimal heat input.
• Medical devices: Non-contact welding and no welding splatter ensures
hygiene when welding medical devices.
• Solenoids and machined items: Lasers are ideal for joining machined
components such as solenoids, and create minimal distortion due to the
low heat input.
• Aesthetics: Laser welding finishes are excellent.
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 • Limited access: The non-contact laser beam permits welding in
otherwise inaccessible areas.
• Jewellery welding and high value items: The precise controllability and
negligible heating effects make it a good choice for welding high value,
high precision parts including precious metals.

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Chapter 4
LITERATURE REVIEW

There has been numerous works carried out in the field of Laser
machining/welding and its implementation in various manufacturing
companies. Several research papers have discussed various ways of
understanding and optimizing the laser welding process and how they can be
used in various production lines in a firm. This section here discusses some of
the works carried out in this field specially for understanding this concept and
its implementation.
J. Xie And A. Kar [1]: Laser Welding of Thin Sheet Steel with Surface Oxidation.
Surface oxidation enhances the absorption of laser energy significantly and has
little influence on the mechanical properties of laser welds. In this paper some
of the important mentioned are: The reflectivity of cold-rolled sheet steel is in
the range of 65-80% in CO2 laser conduction welding. Surface oxidation could
reduce the reflectivity to approximately 30%. In laser welds with surface
oxidation, oxygen inclusions and porosity are not present, but the grain size is
large. The oxygen concentration in the welds with surface oxidation is slightly
higher than in the welds without surface oxidation. The tensile strength of the
welds is higher than that of the base metal. The toughness of the welds with
surface oxidation is slightly degraded, because of the slight presence of oxygen
in the weld; however, it is still comparable to the toughness of welds without
surface oxidation. The addition of alloyed steel powders containing silicon and
manganese can improve the mechanical properties and reduce the oxygen
content in the welds.

Kitani Yasushi,Oi Kenji,Tamai Yoshikiyo [2] : Application of Laser Welding

Technologies to Automotive Bodies. In this paper the application of remote laser
welding to the high tensile steel sheet lap joint and the rigidity improvement of
the frame parts by application of continuous welding were introduced. The
remote laser welding, which allowed easier control of the weld size, had an
advantage for the improvement of peel strength. This paper introduced remote
laser welding as a welding method that will replace resistance spot welding, and
laser welding and laser/arc hybrid welding as continuous welding methods.

Saheed B. Adisa 1,Irina Loginova, Asmaa Khalil and Alexey Solonin [3] : This
research work aims to find the optimal process parameters for laser welding of
AA7020 aluminum alloys. The use of 7xxx series alloys is limited due to
weldability. Problems, such as hot cracking, porosity and softening of the melt

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zone despite its resistance specific weight ratio. AA7020 aluminum alloy was
brazed by varying the process parameters to achieve optimum welding
efficiency. The welded samples were analyzed to reveal the microstructure,
defects and mechanical properties of the welded area. Samples were prepared
from a sheet of AA7020, which was hot rolled at a temperature of 470 C to a
thickness of 1 mm. Process parameters, such as maximum power, welding speed
and pulse shaping, there were several of them. The samples were welded with
Al-5Ti-B and Al-5Mg as filler metals. The welder, the speed, peak power and
pulse shape have a great influence on weldability and hot cracking. Al-5Ti-B
improves microstructure and final traction strength of AA7020 aluminum alloy.

Mikhail Sokolov, Antti Salminen [4] : Improving Laser Beam Welding Efficiency.
LBW efficiency improvement can be achieved by increase in absorption. There
are three basic ways to improve LBW efficiency: by modifying the workpiece
through surface preparation; by modifying the process with preheating or by
lowering the pressure in the welding zone. In thick section LBW at high power
levels (≥10 kW) absorption has a significant dependence on the edge surface
roughness. The influence of the roughness level has a tendency to increase with
increasing laser power. Use of manufacturing methods that produce edge
surfaces of a pre-determined roughness level is recommended. Preheating
techniques are preferable not only because of the resulting increase in process
efficiency, but also because of reduction in the occurrence risk of defects.
Vacuum-assisted welding provides significant increase in penetration depth and
weld quality

Chintan P. Mazumdar, Ketan Patel [5]: Laser welding is a high-speed welding

process, capable of automated production of consistent quality welds.
Compared with many other arc welding processes, fewer passes or higher
welding speeds can be used, with lower usage of welding consumables. With
proper optimization of welding procedures, full advantage can be taken of the
low heat input nature of laser welding for a wide variety of materials, producing
welds with acceptable hardness and toughness properties. Laser welding input
parameters play a very significant role in determining the quality of a weld joint.

Akira Matsunawa, Jong-Do Kim, Naoki Seto, Masami Mizutani, and Seiji
Katayama [6]: In laser and electron-beam welding, a deep cavity called a keyhole
or beam hole is formed in the weld pool due to the intense recoil pressure of
evaporation. The formation of the keyhole leads to a deep penetration weld
with a high aspect ratio and this is the most advantageous feature of welding by
high-energy-density beams.The keyhole fluctuated very frequently in size and

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shape inspite of almost constant peak power during spot welding. Coincident
with the keyhole fluctuation, the laser-induced plume also repeated to generate
and degenerate periodically and its periodicity was completely coincided with
keyhole perturbation. Evaporation site in the keyhole was not uniform but
changed its position with time, and the keyhole as well as the whole molten pool
was strongly perturbed by the dynamic pressure of the metallic vapor jet. The
liquid motion in the weld pool was also observed using small tungsten particles
sandwiched between thin plates.

K.Y. Benyounis , A.G. Olabi, M.S.J. Hashmi [7]: Laser welding has become an
important industrial process because of its advantages as a bonding process
over the other widely used joining techniques. Laser welding characterize with
parallel-sided fusion zone, narrow weld width and high penetration. Heat input
plays an important role in the weld-bead parameters dimension. Welding speed
has a negative effect on all the responses investigated whereas; the laser power
has a positive effect. As the focused position goes in the metal (F < 0) the
penetration significantly reduces and the HAZ width slightly reduces, but WZ
width increases.

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Chapter 5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

Results from the literature review and the research development on laser
welding, it was concluded that the laser welding input parameters play a very
important role in determining the quality of a welded joint. Joint quality can
be defined in terms of properties such as welding bead geometry, mechanical
properties and distortion. It was also noted that the welding speed is the most
effective parameter followed by the penetration depth and focal length.
Although the development of laser welding has come a long way in the last
decade, the laser welding process is still in an experimental stage. The
application of the industrial laser welding process is limited by several
important technical issues that need to be investigated. The research is
mainly focused on laser welding of conventional materials. There has been
some research on laser welding of steel, nickel alloys, titanium, aluminium
and copper alloys. Extensive parametric research is currently being optimized
to improve laser welding performance measurements. Even more studies on
the effect of process parameters, need to be targeted to better understand
the process.

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REFERENCES

1. J. Xie And A. Kar[1999]: Laser Welding of Thin Sheet Steel with Surface
Oxidation/ Research Development/
2. Kitani Yasushi,Oi Kenji,Tamai Yoshikiyo[2015] : Application of Laser
Welding Technologies to Automotive Bodies/ JFE TECHNICAL REPORT No. 20
3. Saheed B. Adisa 1,Irina Loginova, Asmaa Khalil and Alexey Solonin [2018]:
Effect of Laser Welding Process Parameters and Filler Metals on the
Weldability and the Mechanical Properties of AA7020 Aluminium Alloy/ J.
Manuf. Mater. Process. 2018, 2, 33; doi:10.3390/jmmp2020033
4. Mikhail Sokolov, Antti Salminen [2014] : Improving Laser Beam Welding
Efficiency/ Engineering, 2014, 6, 559-571
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