1

2
 NOTE
This is a training guide only and not an official U.S. Army publication; however, all material
has been copied from the mentioned references. This guide does not replace existing manuals.
All material in this guide is sourced from existing available publications in the Standards Office.
The material has been condensed and gathered into a single source to provide for easier access to
all non-rated crewmembers. Furthermore, this guide does not contain material from the UH-60
operator’s manual nor the UH-60 technical manual series.

3
4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 FLIGHT PERSONNEL pg.5

Chapter 2 GENERAL ACFT OPERATIONS pg. 19

Chapter 3 MISSION PLANNING pg. 23

Chapter 4 ALSE pg. 26

Chapter 5 HAND AND ARM SIGNALS pg. 31

Chapter 6 INTERNAL LOADS pg. 42

Chapter 7 POL OPERATIONS pg. 55

Chapter 8 WEIGHT AND BALANCE pg. 66

Chapter 9 AEROMEDICAL FACTORS pg. 68

Chapter 10 EMERGENCY EVACUATION/ EGRESS pg. 84

Chapter 11 PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION pg. 86

Chapter 12 NVG’s pg. 91

Chapter 13 NIGHT FLIGHT pg. 121

Chapter 14 AIRCREW COORDINATION pg. 136

Chapter 15 NAVIGATION AND DECEL pg. 141

Chapter 16 WIRES pg. 143

Chapter 17 SLOPES pg. 145

Chapter 18 MULTI-SHIP OPERATIONS pg. 149

Chapter 19 ASE SYSTEMS pg. 158

Chapter 20 MOORING pg. 162

5
Chapter 21 APU OPERATIONS pg.166

Chapter 22 AR 40-8 AND OTC MEDICATIONS pg.167

APPENDICES
Appendix A Task Reference Sheet pg.171
Appendix B Fuel management Sheet pg.177
Appendix C JP-8 Conversion Table pg. 180
Appendix D APU Checklist pg. 181

6
CHAPTER 1

FLIGHT PERSONNEL
AR 95-1
Crewmembers Prohibited From Performing Aircrew Duty
All crew members while attending non-flying courses of instruction of more than 90 days.

Those disqualified, temporarily suspended, or whose aviation service is administratively

terminated (AR 600-106).

Crew members in an authorized leave status.

Logging Flying Time

An entry will be made on DA Form 2408-12 (Army Aviator's Flight Record) for each flight in
aircraft and flight simulators by all crewmembers indicating duties performed, mission, and
flight condition.

AO—aeroscout/aerial observer.

CE—crewchief, aircraft mechanic, and non-crew members designated by the commander and
included in the unit's ATP.

FE-- flight engineer.

FI—non-rated crewmember instructor.

SI—non-rated crewmember standardization instructor.

MO--flight surgeon or other medical personnel.

OR--aircraft maintenance personnel, technical observer, fire fighter, aerial photographer, gunner,
or duties requiring flight. 2.6.B Mission.

Mission Symbols
The following symbols are authorized mission symbols to be entered on the DA FORM 2408-12.
A--acceptance test flight.

C--combat mission directly against the enemy within a designated combat zone.

F--maintenance test flight.

S--service missions, other than A, C, F, T, or X.

7
T--training flight for individual qualification, refresher, mission, or continuation.

X--experimental test flight.

D--imminent danger. Applies when Imminent Danger Special Pay is authorized per Department
of Defense (DOD) Pay Manual, chapter 10.

Flight Condition
Each crewmember will use only one of the following symbols to identify the condition or mode
of flight for any time period.

AA--air to air.

D--day. Between the hours of official sunrise and sunset.

DS--day vision system. Night vision system installed on aircraft used during the day; also logged
when two or more devices are used.

H--hood/simulated IMC. Vision of the person flying the aircraft is artificially limited from
viewing the horizon or earth surface. Aircraft attitude must be controlled using aircraft
instruments. An observer is required for all hooded flights.

N--night. Between the hours of official sunset and sunrise.

NG--night goggles. Night vision goggles used during night.

NS--night systems. Night vision system installed on aircraft used during night; also logged when
two or more devices are used simultaneously.

W--weather. Actual weather conditions that do not permit visual contact with the horizon or
earth surface. Aircraft attitude must be controlled using aircraft instruments.

Computation Of Flying Time

Flying time starts when an airplane begins to move forward on the takeoff roll or when a
helicopter lifts off the ground. Flying time ends when the aircraft has landed and the engines are
stopped or the flying crew changes.

Individual Flight Records

Each crewmember must present his or her individual flight records to the unit to which assigned
within 14 calendar days after reporting for duty.

The flying experience and qualification data for each rated crewmember and flight surgeon in
aviation service and each non-rated crew member (AR 600-105 and AR 600-106) will be
documented in the DA Form 3513 (United States Army Individual Flight Records Folder
(IFRF)). DA Form 759 (Individual Flight Record and Flight Certificate--Army); DA Form 759-1
(Individual Flight Record and Flight Certificate--Army, Aircraft Closeout Summary); DA Form

8
759-2 (Individual Flight Record and Flight Certificate--Army, Flying Hour Work Sheet); and
DA Form 759-3 (Individual Flight Record and Flight Certificate--Army, Flight Record and
Flight Pay Work Sheet) are used to develop data for the permanent record. These forms are filed
in the IFRF and become DA's permanent statistical, historical, and personnel flight records. DA
Form 759-3 becomes a part of the aeroscout observer's permanent flight records. Records are
kept and distributed in accordance with FM 1-300.

Flight records will be prepared and kept on file for personnel authorized to take part in flights.

Closing Flight Records

Active duty and USAR aviators, flight surgeons in aviation service, field artillery observers,
aerial observers and other non-rated crew members who have a flight record requirement will be
closed out at the end of the birth month and when change occurs in duty or aviation service.

Crewmember Flying Status

AR 600-106
The following persons will be considered crewmembers under DOD 7000.14-R, vol. 7A,
paragraph 220101:

Crew chiefs, flight engineers, flight stewards, nonrated crewmember flight instructors (FI) or
standardization flight instructors, nonrated (SI), assigned to authorized crewmember flight
positions as documented in TAADS. Except where otherwise authorized by HQDA or CNGB for
Army National Guard (ARNG), only soldiers in positions designated with special qualifications
identifier (SQI)"F" on the authorization document for the type aircraft shown in (1) through (12)
below will be placed on flying status provided the soldier is MOS qualified. Commanders or
authorities issuing orders will ensure the number of people on flying status does not exceed the
following crewmember limits per assigned aircraft:

UH-60, Utility Tactical Transport Helicopter; Aeromedical Evacuation Unit-One and one-half
crew chiefs per aircraft; all others-Two

MEDICAL QUALIFICATIONS
Nonrated Army personnel covered by this chapter must meet class III flight physical standards
per AR 40-501. Enlisted aeroscout observers and aerial fire support observers must meet class 2S
flight physical standards. Aeromedical physician assistants must meet class 2F medical standards
for fitness for flying duties.

Army ground liaison officers attached to the USAF, USN, or USMC must meet the flight
physical standards of the Service concerned. These standards must be met before personnel are
placed on flying status and required to take part in frequent and regular aerial flight.

In unusual cases, it may not be possible to receive a flight physical. However, orders may be
published to place personnel on non-crewmember flying status and the flight physical
temporarily deferred by commanders issuing orders. If an appropriate medical authority
determines, at a later date, that these soldiers are not physically qualified for flying duty, the
flying status will be terminated. The effective date of this termination will be recommended by

9
competent medical authority and established by the commander. Deferment of flight physicals
may not exceed 30 days.

Drugs and Alcohol Abuse

Central review by aeromedical authorities by Commander, USAAMC (HSXY-AER), Fort
Rucker, AL 36362-5333, will be accomplished for-

Reports of medical disqualification for alcohol/drug abuse or dependence for any personnel
covered by AR 600-106.

ISSUING ORDERS
Requirements for performing frequent and regular aerial flight, entitlement to nonrated
crewmember or non-crewmember flight pay and removal from this duty will be provided for by
competent orders.

When flying status for nonrated personnel is to cover a certain period of time only, the orders
will cite the exact dates for which flying status is authorized. These dates will coincide with the
dates of assignment to duties requiring participation in frequent and regular aerial flight.
However, unless confirming a verbal order of competent authority, the date flying status
commences will not be earlier than the date of the written order. Orders awarding flying status
will state that the soldier must perform frequent and regular aerial flight, the duty position of the
soldier, and the purpose for placing the soldier on flying status.

TERMINATION OF ORDERS
Flying status will be terminated at the times or under the conditions shown below.

On the date shown in the orders: on reassignment of the incumbent to a new unit or activity;
upon relief from assignment to the position for which flying status was authorized if a 120-day
advance notice of removal from flying status was given; or upon separation of the soldier from
the Army. The issuing authority may, for cause (for example,
disciplinary/medical/administrative/performance), terminate or suspend flying status orders.
Soldier must be notified in writing by the issuing authority of said termination or suspension, and
the reason for said action. New orders are not needed to continue flying status in effect for
soldiers who reenlist or extend their service commitment. This applies only if they remain in the
same duty position at the same station without a break in service. Also, the orders in effect at
time of separation are so worded that, by their express terms, they remain effective after
discharge for immediate reenlistment.

Soldiers who have not had a current valid medical examination as stated in AR 40-501 will be
automatically suspended from flying status. The suspension will be effective on the date their
medical examination expires. Commanders will notify the servicing Finance and Accounting
Office when nonrated Army aviation personnel have been suspended from flying status.

Soldiers who fail to complete ATP requirements as outlined in AR 95-1 and TC 1-210, will be
terminated from flying status.

10
120 DAY ADVANCE NOTICES
Advance notice to remove crewmembers (enlisted and officer) from crewmember flying duty
(advance 120-day notice is not applicable for personnel receiving non-crewmember flight pay)

The procedures below give guidance on advance notice to remove crewmembers from flying
duty and attendant loss of flight pay. They do not alter or interfere with the minimum
performance requirements established by Executive Order 11157, 22 June 1964, as amended, or
the provisions of the DOD 7000.14-R, vol. 7A.

All crewmembers will be notified at least 120 days before being involuntarily removed from
duty through no fault of their own. Exceptions are shown in paragraph 2-9.

Assignment of crewmembers will be carefully managed to achieve the required advance notice
before removal from flying duty.

Advance notice will be accomplished by issuing orders as shown below.

Known termination date. When flying duty exceeds 120 days and a termination date is known,
that date will be cited in the flying status orders.

Reassignment within CONUS or within an OCONUS command. Orders will provide a

termination date. This date will be the same as the departure date from the losing command if
this date gives at least 120-day advance notice. If the orders are issued less than 120 days before
the date of departure, the date of termination of HDIP for flying duty will be set as stated in
paragraph 2-9.

Reassignment from CONUS to an OCONUS command. Commanders will notify crewmembers

and issue termination orders not less than 120 days before the reassignment date. If a soldier is
placed in a crewmember position by the gaining command, the gaining unit will issue the orders.
The effective date of flying status entitlement will be the same as the date of arrival at the
gaining unit.

Reassignment from an OCONUS command to CONUS or between OCONUS commands. The

OCONUS commands will notify crewmembers and issue termination orders not less than 120
days before the date the soldier is eligible for return from OCONUS or the date of reassignment
to another OCONUS command. If a soldier is placed in a crewmember position by the gaining
command, the gaining unit will issue orders. The effective date of flying status entitlement will
be the same as the date of arrival at the gaining OCONUS or CONUS unit.

When notice of impending removal from flying status cannot be accomplished by orders, a
competent authority, no lower than the soldier's unit commander, may give the soldier a written
or verbal notice. If verbal notice is given, the unit commander will write a memorandum for
record which will be placed in the soldier's flight records. The soldier will be provided with a
copy of the memorandum. This type of notice does not remove the requirement for the issuance
of formal orders (e below).

11
Documentation of the requirement to perform crewmember flying duty and removal from this
duty will be issuance of competent orders (AR 600-8-105, app A, format 332). This will be
accomplished regardless of the method used for advance notice.
2.9 Exceptions to the 120-day advance notification requirement for removal of persons from
crewmember flying duty

Advance notice may be less than 120 days for the following reasons:

Personnel may voluntarily waive the advance notice in writing. Voluntary termination occurs
when a soldier accepts the results of a favorable personnel action. Examples of this termination
are shown below.

A soldier applies for officer candidate school and is accepted. In this case, voluntary waiver is
not effective until the person in crewmember status accepts the results of the personnel action.

Acceptance of appointment as a commissioned officer or warrant officer

Promotion or acceptance of an approved application for school training

The requirement to perform crewmember flying duty is known to be less than 120 days. In this
case, the termination date will be cited in the orders awarding the flying status

Late receipt of DA directed assignment instructions. Personnel will be given 120-day notice from
the date of delayed notification.

HDIP for Flying Duty may be continued for 120 days when authorized by TAPC-PLP-I even
if the advance notice is less than 120 days and minimum performance requirements are not met.

A crewmember who is involuntarily removed from flying duties, with less than 120 days
advance notice, may be considered to have fulfilled all the requirements for HDIP for Flying
Duty up to 120 days from the date of notice of this removal (for example, DA directed
reclassification/training). This 120 days advance notification requirement is prescribed by
Executive Order 11157, 22 June 1964, as amended.

This authority will not be used when crewmembers have banked flight time that entitles them to
incentive pay.

This exception authority will be used only in unusual cases as determined by the unit commander
such as national emergencies, short notice unit inactivation, manpower authorization reductions,
urgent fill of personnel requirements, or transfer or loss of aircraft.

Advance notice is not required and entitlement to HDIP for Flying Duty will be terminated if
removal from flying status is for the following reasons:

AWOL.

12
Confinement

Relief for cause

Medical unfitness, including failure to maintain a current medical examination

Unsatisfactory participation in an RC unit

Requests for exception to the 120-day advance notification requirement will be sent to
Commander, PERSCOM (TAPC-PLP-I), 2OO Stovall Street, Alexandria, VA 22332-0406. The
request will contain the following information:

Name, grade, MOS/AOC, and SSN

Reason for removal. If by DA assignment instructions, provide the Enlisted Personnel

Management Directorate (EPMD) control and serial number. For officers, the requisition
identification (ID) number

Proposed date of removal

Reason 120-day advance notice was not given

Copy of written notice of involuntary removal from flying status and proposed effective date of
removal

Copy of DA Form 759 (Individual Flight Record and Flight Certificate - Army)

FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
DOD Financial Management Regulation Volume 7A, Chapter 22 February 2001
A member in a flying status shall perform the minimum aerial flights as specified in the
following paragraphs.

Minimum Flying Time Each Month

During 1 calendar month 4 hours of aerial flight. If a member does not fly 4 hours in any month,
then any hours flown during the last 5 preceding months (which have not already been used to
qualify for flight pay) may be applied to meet this 4-hour requirement.

During 2 consecutive calendar months when the requirements of the above paragraph (1 month
minimum) have not been met-- 8 hours of aerial flight.

During 3 consecutive calendar months when the requirements of the above paragraph (2 month
minimum) have not been met-- 12 hours of aerial flight.

13
Fractions of a Calendar Month
For fractions of a calendar month, calculate the percentage that the period in question is of the
calendar month. The flying time required is that same percentage of the aerial flight time
required for a full calendar month.

Fractions of 2 Consecutive Calendar Months

For fractions of 2 consecutive calendar months, consider the whole period in question. Calculate
the percentage that the period in question is of the calendar rnonth. The flying time required is
that same percentage of the aerial flight time required for a full calendar month.

Application of Hours Flown

Hours flown in any month apply to the extent of hours available:
First, to meet flight requirements for that month.

Next, if the member has entered a grace period for meeting flight requirements, to the prior
month or months, as applicable.

Next, in order, to the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth succeeding months, but only to the
extent that the member fails, during each such month, to fly the required 4 hours. (Such hours
available to meet requirements of later months are referred to as "excess" flight time.

Military Operations or Unavailability of Aircraft

When, under authority conferred by the Secretary of the Military Department concerned, the
commanding officer certifies that a member is unable to meet normal flight requirements
because of military operations (combat or otherwise) or the non-availability of aircraft in order to
complete those requirements, the member may comply with the minimum flight requirements by
performing 24 hours of aerial flight over a period of 6 consecutive calendar months. The
commanding officer shall certify that only those conditions specified in this subparagraph:
prevented completion of normal flight requirements. The 24-hour flight requirement may be met
at any time during the 6-calendar month period and in any combination of flights.

If the member is in a 3-calendar-month grace period when military operations or aircraft non-
availability prevents fulfillment of flight requirements, then the 6-calendar-month period for
meeting the 24-hour flight requirement under this subparagraph begins on the first day of the
grace period.

If the member is not in a 3-calendar-month grace period, then the first month in which military
operations or aircraft non-availability prevents fulfillment of flight requirements is the beginning
of the 6-calendar-month period for meeting the 24-hour flight requirement under this
subparagraph.

During the 6-calendar-month period, hazardous duty incentive pay for flying may be paid for any
single month, or for multiple months, when minimum requirements have been met.

14
At the end of the 6-calendar-month period, hazardous duty incentive pay for flying may be paid
for missed months in the period to the extent that the remaining hours flown are applicable.
Excess hours are applied prospectively if the member continues to fly under the same orders.

DETERMINATION OF A 3-CALENDAR-MONTH PERIOD

When 3-Month Period Starts and Ends

The 3-calendar-month period in which flight requirements must be met begins with the first
month in which flight requirements are not met. If the member flies enough time in the second
month to cover the first and second months, then the period ends with the second month. If not,
the period extends through the third month.

Deficiencies for Fraction of a Month

If a member fails to qualify for a fraction of a month (because flying status or active duty began
on an intermediate day of the month), then the 3-month period ends on the last day of the second
full month following the fractional month.

When Next 3-Month Period Starts

A new 3-month period starts with the first month in which flight requirements are not met
following a month in which flight requirements were met. For a new 3-month period to begin
immediately after a prior 3-month period, flight requirements must have been met for the entire
prior 3-month period, not merely for the last month. If the requirements for the entire prior
3-month period were not met, a new period does not begin until flight requirements are met for at
least l month after the prior 3-month period. After a month when flight requirements are met, any
month in which flight requirements are not met begins a new 3-month period. A new period may
not start with the second or third month in which flight requirements are not met; nor may a new
period start with the fourth month in which flight requirements are not met. There must be at
least 1 month in which requirements are met before a new 3-month period begins.

ENTITLEMENT TO PAY WHEN NO FLIGHTS PERFORMED IN FIRST MONTH OF

3-MONTH PERIOD
Assume, for the purposes of this paragraph that the member had no excess flight time from prior
months.

Second Month
If a member performs no aerial flights during the first month of a 3-month period and, in the
second month, performs at least 4 hours but less than 8 hours, he or she is entitled to pay only for
the second month. For example: In January, no aerial flights are performed; in February, 5 hours
of aerial flight are performed. Flying pay is payable only for February.

Third Month
If a member performs no aerial flights during the first 2 months of a 3-month period, he or she
must perform 12 hours of aerial flight in the third month to be entitled to incentive pay for all 3
consecutive months. For example: If flight requirements are met for January and a member
performs no flights during the months of February and March, he or she must perform at least 12
hours in April to be entitled to receive the incentive pay for the period 1 February to 30 April. If

15
the member performs 4 or more hours, but less than I2 hours in April, he or she is entitled to
incentive pay only for April.

First and Third Months

If a member performs no aerial flights during the first month and, in the second month, performs
only sufficient flights to qualify for the second month, then he or she must perform enough hours
of flight to total 12 hours during the third month in order to qualify for the incentive pay for the
first and third months of the 3-month period. For example: In January, no aerial flights are
performed; in February, 5 hours of aerial flight are performed. The deficiency in January must be
made up in March; that is, if at least 7 hours are accomplished in March, then flying pay for
January and March is payable. If only 6 hours are flown in March, then flying pay is payable
only for March (the payment for February previously having been made) and incentive pay for
January is lost.

INJURY OR INCAPACITY RESULTING FROM PERFORMANCE OF HAZARDOUS

DUTY

Flight Requirements
When a member in a flying status is injured or otherwise incapacitated as a result of performance
of flying or other hazardous duty to which ordered, he or she is considered to have met flight
requirements during the incapacity, but not for longer than 3 months. Appropriate medical
authority determines the cause of the incapacity and the date of recovery. If the member has met
flight requirements for the month in which the incapacity occurs, then the 3-month period begins
the first day of the following month. If the member has not met flight requirements for the month
in which the incapacity occurs, the 3 month period begins the first day of the month in which the
incapacity occurs.

Change of Station for Medical Treatment

When a member in receipt of flying pay under the terms of the paragraph above is ordered to a
medical facility on permanent change of station, temporary duty, or temporary additional duty
orders, he or she is entitled to flying pay for the period of incapacity, but not longer than 3
months, notwithstanding the change of station, provided his or her continued flying status is not
terminated.

Incapacity Due to Shock, Derangement, or Exhaustion

A member who becomes incapacitated for flying duty by reason of shock, derangement, or
exhaustion of the nervous system, which can be attributed to an aviation accident or the
performance of aerial flights, is deemed to have met the flight requirements for not more than 3
months following the date of the incapacity, as determined by appropriate medical authority.

Hazardous Duty for Stated Period

If a member has been placed on flying status for a definite period and is entitled to flying pay
while incapacitated as a result of performance of flying duty, then flying pay normally is not
payable beyond the ending date of duty period stated in the orders. If evidence is furnished that
the member would have continued in flying status had it not been for the incapacity, then flying
pay may be paid beyond the ending date of the duty.

16
Incapacity Not the Result of Performance of Hazardous Duty
The right of a member on flying status to flying pay during an incapacity, which is not the result
of performing hazardous duty, depends on fulfillment of flight requirements above.

DETERMINATIONS AFFECTING ENTITLEMENT TO FLYING PAY

Flying Pay From Date of Reporting for Duty. A member is entitled to flying pay on and after
the date that he or she reports for and enters upon duty under competent orders, subject to
meeting flight requirements. A member in a non-duty status (such as on leave or sick) at the time
that flying status orders are issued is not entitled to flying pay for any period before he or she
reports for and enters on duty under such orders.

Excess Flight Time. When authorized above, flight time in excess of the time required or
insufficient to qualify for a particular month, may be applied against a later month in which
minimum requirements are not met provided that the orders under which flying time was logged
remain in effect.

Change of Designation. Non-crew Member to Crew Member or Vice Versa. A member whose
status changes from non-crew member to crew member (or vice versa) within a month or other
qualifying period, may not combine time flown in both categories for pay purposes. The member
is entitled to flying pay as a non-crew member for the period of time member held that status if
he or she met the pro rata requirements as a non-crew member. The member is entitled to flying
pay as a crew member for the period of time member held that status if he or she met the pro rata
requirements as a crew member.

17
CHAPTER 2

GENERAL AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS

TM 1-1500-204-23-1
Hearing Protection
Noise levels reached during ground run-up of Army aircraft are of a level that may cause
permanent hearing loss. Maintenance personnel shall wear adequate hearing protection when
working on aircraft with engines in operation.

Aircrew and Maintenance Checklists

AR 95-1
The publications and forms required by DA Pam 738-751 will be in each aircraft.

Operator and crewmember checklists will be used for before starting engines through before
leaving aircraft checks. While airborne, when time does not permit use of the checklist or when
its use would cause a safety hazard, required checks may be accomplished from memory.

Checklists will be used while making maintenance operational checks, maintenance test flights,
and preventive maintenance inspections.

Only DA approved operator's manuals and checklists will be used, except as specified in
paragraph 9-5.

18
PARKING
TM 1-1500-204-23-1

NOTE
Aircraft shall have all fuel cells fully serviced prior to being parked or stored in a hangar. All
fuel cells should be full in order to minimize the presence of flammable vapors within fuel cell
(for safety purposes) and additionally to minimize water condensation and subsequent
microbiological growth, which results in contamination of the fuel. This procedure should be
adhered to at all times; except when impending mission requirements shall necessitate a reduced
fuel load or when an aircraft shall require maintenance to the fuel system.

NOTE
Do not set brakes of aircraft in a hangar or outside during subzero temperature

Place chocks fore and aft of main landing gear wheels. Do not use parking brakes as substitutes
for chocks. Use steel chocks for snow or ice operating only. Use sandbags on steel matting. Use
wooden chocks for all other operations. Set brakes only after they have cooled.

Avoid parking aircraft in wet or slushy areas saturated with fuel or oil.

Install pitot tube covers and wheel covers.

Preparation Of Aircraft For Storms

The following general precautions are to be observed when storms are anticipated: Install all
protective covers and shields to protect aircraft from accumulation of snow, frost, or ice. Ensure
aircraft is chocked and tied down in accordance with applicable maintenance manual storm
procedures.

Hydraulic Fluid Servicing

Hydraulic fluid servicing precautions are explained in the following paragraphs.

WARNING
To avoid contamination, do not use previously opened cans of hydraulic fluid. A new sealed can
of fluid must be opened and used. When opening can, clean top, and use a clean sharp, unplated
instrument to prevent contamination.

Do not overfill reservoir or spill fluid in surrounding areas. When fluid is spilled, absorb with
clean rags.

When filling reservoirs, extreme care shall be taken to ensure that no dirt or foreign matter enters
the system.

Engine Operation
Safety procedures and general operating procedures for reciprocating and turbine engines are
contained in the following paragraphs.

19
Safety Procedures Prior To Starting
The following safety procedures should be accomplished prior to starting.

Head aircraft so that exhaust blast is directed to least inhabited areas.

Place approved chocks fore and aft of main landing gear wheels.

Clear aircraft and surrounding areas of covers, tools, rags, work stands etc , and remove mooring
ropes.

Secure access doors by closing or removing prior to ground testing turbine-powered aircraft
engines.

Do not allow personnel on any external portion of an aircraft during engine start or operation.

Station ground crew member, equipped with a carbon dioxide or equivalent fire extinguisher to
one side and forward of engine being started. This crewmember will observe for fire and fire
hazards, such as fuel from overflow lines, fuel/oil leakage, chock slippage, and other irregular
conditions.

CAUTION
If aircraft utility fire extinguisher is utilized for an engine start, another fire extinguisher, rated
capacity of 10-B or more, will be located within 50 feet of all fixed or rotary wing Army aircraft.
Fire fighting capability must be maintained.

NOTE
If ground crewmember does not have radio communication, he must stand in view of aircraft
operator.

Safety Procedures during Starting

The following safety procedures should be accomplished during starting:

Employ hand signals for directing activity when engine operating noise will not permit voice
communication.

When fire occurs during engine start, or while operating, the operator shall take necessary action,
as outlined in applicable maintenance manual, to extinguish flame. Should this action fail, the
fireguards shall take immediate action with approved fire extinguishing agent provided. Should
fire get beyond control of operator and fire guard, all available approved means of extinguishing
an aircraft or engine fire shall be used.

During start, and while engines are operating, personnel shall stand well clear of propellers and
of areas affected by turbine air intake flow and exhaust blast.

20
All personnel will remain clear of engines necessitating close inspections or adjustment, as
directed by the specific equipment manual, until operating engine speed (rpm) has been obtained.

Do not use a quick, excessive throttle start on rotary aircraft This kind of start could swing the
tail rapidly, with the possibility of injury to personnel or damage to equipment from the tail rotor.
Keep personnel and equipment clear of aircraft at a distance at least equal to its length.

Safety Procedures during Engine Operation

The following safety procedures should be accomplished during engine operation.

Do not operate engines in hangars.

Do not operate aircraft engine where propeller or turbine blast would cause injury to personnel or
damage to aircraft and property.

Non-rated personnel cannot run up rotary wing aircraft under any conditions.

Safety Procedures after Operating Engines

The following safety procedures should be accomplished after engine operation:

Place ignition switch in OFF position. It is imperative that the ignition switch of an aircraft
engine be in OFF position when engine is not operating. Master battery switch shall be turned off
when no longer required.

Turn off all tank selector and emergency fuel system valves.

When practicable, make adjustment to engine and rotors with engine stopped.

Turbine Engines
Starting: Start engines using the following general procedures.

Remove ice or frost from engine cowling and inlet section prior to starting.

Connect an authorized auxiliary power unit.

NOTE
In normal temperatures, starting attempts below recommended starting rpm increases the
possibility of engine damage due to hot starts.

21
CHAPTER 3

MISSION PLANNING
AR 95-1

The aviator will evaluate aircraft performance, departure, en route and approach data, notices to
airmen (NOTAM), and appropriate FLIP or DOD publications per paragraph 5-1b.

Fuel Requirements
At takeoff, aircraft must have enough fuel to reach the destination and alternate airport (if
required) and have a planned fuel reserve of--

Rotary-wing

VFR - 20 minutes at cruise

IFR - 30 minutes at cruise

FLIGHT WEATHER PLANNING

Flight into Icing Conditions
Aircraft will not be flown into known or forecast severe icing conditions. If a flight is to be made
into known or forecast moderate icing conditions, the aircraft must be equipped with adequate
operational deicing or anti-icing equipment.

VFR Flight
Destination weather must be forecast to be equal to or greater than VFR minimums at estimated
time of arrival (ETA) through 1 hour after ETA. When there are intermittent weather conditions,
predominant weather will apply. Aviators may file flight plans to a destination within Class B, C,
D, and E surface area airspace when weather conditions are forecast to be equal to or greater than

22
known special VFR minima for that airspace at ETA through 1 hour after ETA. Helicopter
SVFR minima is 1/2 mile visibility and clear of cloud unless a higher minimum is required at the
airfield. For airspace class, forecast en route weather must permit flight with separation from
clouds and flight visibility equal to or greater than minimums stated in table 5-1.

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flight

Destination weather must be forecast to be equal to or greater than the published weather
planning minimum for the approach procedure to be flown at ETA through 1 hour after ETA.
When there are intermittent weather conditions, predominant weather will apply. Aviators flying
helicopters may reduce destination and alternate Category A visibility minimums by 50 percent,
but not less than 1/4 mile or metric equivalent. Reduction of visibility for approaches labeled”
copter only" is not authorized. Category II approach procedures may not be used in destination
or alternate weather planning.

Weight And Balance

The PC will ensure--

The accuracy of computations on the DD Form 365-4 (Weight and Balance Clearance Form F-
Transport/Tactical).

That a completed DD Form 365-4 is aboard the aircraft to verify that the weight and center-of-
gravity will remain within allowable limits for the entire flight. Several DD Forms 365-4
completed for other loadings also may be used to satisfy this requirement. In this case, the actual
loading being verified must clearly be within the extremes of the loading shown on the DD
Forms 365-4 used for verification.

Departure Procedures

REQUIRED EQUIPMENT DAY NIGHT IMC (2) NVD

(2)
Heading Indicator X X X
Altitude Indicator X X X
Turn & Slip Indicator X(4)
Airspeed Indicator X X X X
Pressure Altimeter X X X X
Vertical Speed Indicator (4) X X X
Magnetic Compass X X X X
Fuel Quantity Indicator System X X X X
Clock/watch W/ second X X X X
Free Air Temp X X X X
Pitot Heat X
Radar Altimeter (4) X(5) X
AFCS/ DASE X(5) X(6)
Vertical Gyros & Indicators X(6)
AHARS/ HARS/ FCC (4) X X X X
Commo Equipment X X X X

23
 Nav Equipment X(8)
Transponder X
Anti-collision Light(s) X X X X
Position/ Instrument Light(s) X X
Landing/ Search Light (3) X X
Flashlight X X

NOTES:

1. Equipment designated for flight in day, night, IMC, or NVD must be operational and is the
minimum required without any regard for mission requirements.

2. Items 1 through 6 must be operational at the pilot's station for fixed wing aircraft and
operational at both pilot's and copilot's station in rotary wing aircraft where provisions exist. All
vacuum and electrical sources for flight instruments must be operational.

3. NVD IR light must be installed and operational for all NVD flights except FLIR aircraft.
Failure of the light in flight must be evaluated to determine impact on mission and further NVD
flight.

4. If part of normal or installed aircraft equipment, it must be operational.

5. Both AFCS and all components of either vertical gyro shall be operational for CH-47 and UH-
60.

6. Visible horizon may be substituted for attitude indicator.

7. GPS navigation systems used for IFR must have a current non-corruptible database and
comply with all FAA TSO C-129 (A-1) requirements.

24
CHAPTER 4

ALSE/ ALSS
AR 95-1

ALSS
The ALSS consists of components, techniques, and training required to ensure aircrews and their
passengers the best possible flight environment. Beyond providing for maximum functional
capability of flying personnel throughout all environments experienced during normal missions,
the ALSS also affords the means to enhance safe and reliable escape, descent, survival, and
recovery in combat and emergency situations. These capabilities are achieved by the integration
of three subsystems, each composed of functionally related components, which comprise the
ALSS. This integration effort is to ensure maximum combat mission effectiveness of the total
weapon system by enhancing the performance potential of the crew member.

The ALSS is composed of three subsystems as follows:

Environmental life support and protective subsystem provides optimum support, protection,
and comfort to flying personnel and their passengers in all normal flight environments.
Maximum mission effectiveness is enhanced by superior aircrew station and personal equipment
such as oxygen equipment, aircrew support facilities, flight and specialized clothing, and
miscellaneous personal accessories and equipment. Environmental support equipment includes
but is not limited to the list below.

Flight clothing items include gloves, helmets, fire retardant flight suits, aircrew environmental
clothing such as parkas, fire retardant chemical biological (CB) suits, masks, hoods, and boots.

Aircrew body armor is an ensemble.

Environmental control items include pressure gauges, temperature gauges, and humidity
gauges.

25
 Warning devices include hypoxia warning devices and nuclear, biological, and chemical
(NBC) detection alarms.

Oxygen systems include in-flight equipment, walk-around equipment, on-board equipment,

oxygen bottles, oxygen hoses, oxygen regulators, and oxygen connectors.

Protective masks include aircrew CB protective masks, oxygen masks, and smoke masks.

Eye protection devices include nuclear flash protective devices, laser protective goggles,
visors, and glasses, smoke goggles, clear and tinted visors and sunglasses.

Support equipment may include flashlights, pilot clipboards, microphones and headsets, fire
extinguishers, and first aid kits.

Restraint devices include seat and lap belts, shoulder harnesses, five-point restraint systems,
inertia reels, gunner restraint systems, and inflatable body and head restraints.

Fixed crew seats, troop seats, armored crew seats, crash-worthy crew seats, crash-worthy
devices, cockpit airbags, energy attenuation devices, nonflammable materials, airframe mounted
armor plating designed to protect the aircrew.

Escape and descent life support subsystem components are provided to ensure safe and
reliable escape and descent from disabled aircraft. Presently included are harnesses, parachutes,
ejection seats, propellant devices, Let-down ropes and equipment. Also included are devices to
improve capabilities for crew and passenger escape either onto the ground or into the water
through explosively created exits, escape slides and helicopter emergency egress device (HEED).
Equipment includes but is not limited to the list below.

Forced escape devices may include ejection seats, extraction device, crew escape systems,
rocket catapults, seat stabilizers, and propellant actuated devices.

Controlled descent devices including ground evacuation slides, and aircrew ladders.

Manual escape devices including door and canopy jettison devices, breakout knives, crash
rescue axes, and crash rescue equipment.

Survival recovery life support subsystem - aids survival, escape, evasion, and recovery of
downed aircrews and their passengers in any global environment. Components include life
preservers and rafts, anti-exposure suits, and survival kits and vests. Signaling devices such as
lights, flares, beacons, survival radios, personal locating devices, and power sources are also
included to locate personnel. Equipment includes but is not limited to the list below.

Survival clothing may encompass cold weather clothing, wet suits, and antiexposure suits.

26
 Distress incident locators include electronic transmitters, personnel locator systems, rescue
beacons, visual signal devices, audible signal devices, and search and rescue radios.

Over Water Flights

Aircraft engaged in over-water flight will adhere to the following requirements:

All personnel aboard Army aircraft flown beyond gliding distance of land will--

Single-engine aircraft occupants must wear life preservers.

Multi-engine aircraft occupants must wear or have life preservers readily available.

The following survival equipment is the minimum required on all Army aircraft during flights
made in excess of 30 minutes flying time or 100 nautical miles from the nearest shoreline:
Survival kits, life raft(s) sufficient for all persons on board. (See TM 1-1500-204-23-1, table
11-4.)

Aviation unit commanders will develop a policy for the wear of anti-exposure suits aboard Army
aircraft when any portion of the flight is over water and ambient water temperature is 60 degrees
Fahrenheit or below. This policy should be reflected in the risk assessment performed for the
flight and will include as a minimum:

1. Type of aircraft being flown.

2. Altitude to be flown.

3. Availability of search and rescue.

4. Types of anti-exposure suits (constant wear or quick-don) available.

Ferry flight equipment will be per AMCOM ferry flight packet instructions. The command
providing delivery aircrews must provide the proper ALSE.

Aircrews carrying the Helicopter Emergency Egress Device (HEED) will complete U.S. Navy
initial and annual recurrent HEED training or equivalent, prior to carrying the HEED on over-
water flights.

Training For Aircrews

Prior to initial flight training and at least once annually, Commanders will ensure that all aircrew
personnel are adequately trained in the operation, use, and operator maintenance of ALSS.

Protective Clothing and Equipment

Proper wearing of fire-resistant flight clothing includes sleeves rolled down and the use of fire
resistant flying gloves.

27
Items of clothing for specific geographic areas as listed in the appropriate CTA are also
authorized when required by climatic conditions.

The following U.S. Army approved clothing and equipment will be worn by all crew members
when performing crew duties:

Leather boots.

Flight helmet.

Flight suit.

Flight gloves.

Cotton, wool, or nomex underwear.

Identification tags.

Major Army commanders, USARC, CNGB, and CG, USAAVNC may waive the requirements in
(1) through (5) above for crew members assigned to flights that require other uniforms.

Passengers will wear approved hearing protection devices.

Seat Belts and Restraints

The pilot in command will ensure that--

(1) There are installed seats and seat belts for each passenger on the aircraft.

(2) Passengers can operate seat belts and, if installed, shoulder harness.

(3) Passengers are in seats and restrained by seat belts and, if installed, shoulder harness during
takeoffs, landings, and turbulence.

The crew members will wear a properly adjusted seat belts and shoulder harness when at the
controls.

Other crew members will wear an approved restraining harness instead of seat belts when
required by mission.

The commander will ensure that personnel are equipped with ALSE appropriate for the mission,
topography, and climate along the proposed route of flight. Use will be in accordance with the
ALSE program.

Each aircraft crew member will wear a survival vest with components on all flights as identified
in TM 55-1680-317-23 & P. MACOM commanders, numbered Army commanders, the CNGB,
or the Commander, USAAVNC, may waive this requirement for multiengine airplanes.

28
Each aircraft crew member will be equipped with a survival radio when available. For
multiengine airplanes where the requirement for survival vests has been waived, a minimum of
two survival radios will be carried at all times on board the aircraft.

All Army aircraft will carry appropriate survival kits for all crew members appropriate to the
geographical areas in which flight will be conducted.

Local commanders will provide the minimum essential climatic protective clothing and
equipment as required.

29
CHAPTER 5

HAND AND ARM SIGNALS

SIGNALS TO AIRCRAFT FM 21-60
General
With the introduction of the airplane and helicopter to the combined arms team, a new
requirement for communication was added to the battlefield. Ground troops and air forces need
to communicate. There will be times when radios cannot be used and visual signals must be
used. Therefore, systems of standard visual signals have been developed to allow ground-to-air
communication. These systems include arm-and-hand signals used by ground forces to direct
helicopters in direct support; devices that can be used to communicate with aircraft; and ground-
to-air emergency signals and codes.

Arm-and-Hand Ground Signals

Helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft are often used to support ground forces by moving supplies
and/or personnel. Often, pathfinder personnel will not be available to direct aircraft in support of
these efforts. Therefore, the responsibility to guide aircraft will fall upon the ground forces. To
be prepared for this effort, the soldier must know these general signals (Figures 5-1 through 5-
22).

30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
CHAPTER 6

INTERNAL LOADS
FM 55-450-2

LOAD PREPARATION, LOADING, AND TIE-DOWN INSTRUCTION

Introduction
This section deals with preparing loads. It describes how to determine tie-down requirements and
shoring needs.

Restraint Criteria
Tie-down devices secure cargo against forward, rearward, lateral, and vertical movement during
takeoff, flight, and landing. To determine the number of devices needed to safely secure a given
item of cargo, you must know the--
Weight of the cargo.

Restraint criteria for the aircraft.

Strength of the tie-down devices and fittings.

Angles of tie to be used.

Restraint Factors
Compute restraint criteria for each aircraft to counter the maximum amount of force or thrust that
cargo can be expected to exert against tie-downs under operating conditions. Restraint factors are
influenced by--
Acceleration during takeoff.

Stability during flight.

Deceleration during landing.

Type of landing field (improved or unimproved) for which the aircraft is designated.

Tie-Downs
The effective holding strength of a device (or fitting) is determined by the rated strength of the
item and how it is employed. All tie-downs must be anchored to a tie-down fitting. The strongest
tie-down is no stronger than the fitting to which it is attached. If a tie-down is stressed to its
breaking point, the fitting is stressed an equal amount up to the full rated strength of the tie-
down. Figure 6-1 shows a typical tie-down correct pull-off.

41
Restraint Nomenclature
Restraints are named for the direction in which they are meant to keep the cargo from moving.
Forward restraints keep the cargo from moving forward, aft restraints keep it from moving aft,
and lateral restraints keep it from moving side to side. Vertical (downward) restraint is supplied
by the cargo floor.

Calculation of Tie-Down Devices Required

Use the following method to calculate the number of tie-down devices required to restrain a load
from moving in any direction, using the restraint criteria provided:

PROBLEM
How many tie-down devices rated at 5,000 pounds will be required to restrain a load weighing
4,000 pounds with tie-down devices at a 30-degree vertical and a 30-degree side angle?

CALCULATION
Forward restraint (formula)

NOTE
Since the equation yields a fractional number, this number is increased to the next whole
number. Therefore, five tie-down devices will be required to provide forward restraint; six tie-
down devices are desirable.

Aft restraint (formula)

42
 NOTE
Since the equation yields a fractional number, this number is increased to the next whole
number. Therefore, three tie-down devices will be required; four tie-down devices are desirable.

Vertical restraint (up) (formula)

NOTE
If the forward and aft restraint is provided by tie-down devices applied over the cargo or attached
to the cargo, no additional vertical restraint is required. Otherwise, four tie-down devices will be
needed to provide vertical restraint.

Vertical restraint (down)

The floor provides the downward restraint.

Lateral restraint (formula)

43
 NOTE
If the forward and aft restraint is provided by tie-down devices applied over or attached to the
cargo, no additional lateral restraint is required. Otherwise, three tie-down devices will be needed
to provide lateral restraint; four tie-down devices are desirable.

Effect of Tie-Down Devices at Angles

A tie-down will withstand a force equal to its rated strength only when the force is exerted
parallel to the length of the tie-down device. It is seldom possible to fasten a tie-down device in
this manner. Instead, it is usually necessary to fasten the tie-down device to the cargo at some
point above the floor, resulting in a loss of restraint strength. The strength of restraint is reduced
in ratio to the angle formed by the tie-down device with the floor and the axis of the helicopter.
Based on calculations, a 30-degree angle of attachment in the intended restraint direction causes
a restraint loss of only 25 percent in that direction. This is the most desirable angle. While
causing a loss of restraint in one direction, imposing these angles on the tie-down device
furnishes restraint in two other directions, so that one tie-down device provides restraint in three
directions simultaneously. Thus, a tie-down device applied to provide forward restraint at an
angle of 30 degrees also furnishes about 50 percent of its rated strength in lateral and vertical
restraint.

Methods of Restraining Cargo

There are two basic methods of applying tie-downs to restrain cargo. The method used depends
upon whether or not the cargo has tie-down provisions. Cargo with no tie-down provisions is
restrained by passing the tie-down (straps) over or around the cargo and attaching both ends of
the tie-down device to the tie-down fittings in the cargo floor. Cargo with tie-down provisions is
restrained by attaching one end of the tie-down device to the tie-down fittings in the cargo floor.

Restraint of Cargo without Tie-Down Provisions

Many cargo loads carried in the aircraft will consist of a variety of boxes, crates, and so forth.
This type of cargo must be secured by passing tie-down devices over and around the cargo.
When cargo is restrained in this manner, the following factors must always be kept in mind.

Amount of Restraint. A tie-down device placed around an item of cargo will provide restraint
equal to the effective strength of the device in the direction it prevents the cargo from moving.
This means that a CGU-1B tie-down device applied over cargo (Figure 6-3 Detail A) will

44
provide restraint in the forward, vertical, and aft directions since it will prevent the cargo from
moving in these directions. The device applied across the front of the cargo will only provide
restraint in the forward direction since it is the only direction in which it really prevents the cargo
from moving (Figure 6-3 Detail B). There would be no lateral or vertical restraint from this
device since the cargo can readily move in these directions. Extreme care must be taken in
applying devices in this manner.

Length
and Tie-Down Angle of the Tie-Down Devices-A tie-down device should generally be as short
as possible and follow as closely as possible the contour of the cargo it is securing to minimize
slippage. When tie-down devices are passed over cargo from side to side (Figure 6-3 Detail C),
the tie-down device should be as close to 90 degrees as the floor fittings will permit. This is also
true of the first two tie-down devices (if there are two) which pass over the cargo in the fore and
aft direction. If there are more than two devices in the fore and aft direction, the tie-down angle
of the additional devices on the aft side of the cargo should be changed to 45 degrees to obtain
additional protection against any tendency the cargo may have to tumble forward. This procedure
is particularly important when tying down tall items and composite cargo loads consisting of
several stacked boxes. In arranging composite loads, cargo should not be stacked so that it is top
heavy. The height of a composite load should not be greater than its length in the longitudinal
direction, if it can be avoided.

CAUTION
Tie-down angle should be 45 degrees with this
technique. A 30-degree angle will allow cargo to shift.

45
Shifting of Cargo-Since the tie-down devices are not actually attached to the cargo, make sure
that the load cannot slip from under the tie-down device. This is especially important when
several items are tied together. After the proper number of tie-down devices have been applied to
comply with the restraint criteria, always check the load to see if any part of it can slip
free(Figure 6-3 and 6-4). In many cases where several items are tied down together, it may be
necessary to add more tie-down devices to completely secure the load.

Rules for Applying Tie-Down Devices to Cargo without Tie-Down Provisions

Use the following rules when applying tie-down devices to cargo without tie-down provisions:

Rule 1. If the cargo to be tied down as one load is less than 2,000 pounds, determine the
minimum number of tie-down devices required.

Rule 2. If the load is over 2,000 pounds and consists of a single item, follow the procedures out-
lined in the sample problem in paragraph 6-7.

Rule 3. If the load is over 2,000 pounds and if it is a composite load consisting of several items,
separate the load into two smaller loads. If this is not possible, follow the procedures outlined in
the sample problem below.

Rule 4. If enough tie-down devices are applied over the top of the cargo to provide forward and
lateral restraint, then vertical and aft restraint will automatically be provided. If tie-down devices
are applied across the cargo, the restraint in each direction should be checked if there is any
question.

Rule 5. After applying the tie-down devices required for minimum restraint, check the load to
determine if additional tie-down devices are required to prevent the load from shifting.
Composite loads will almost always require additional tie-down devices in the lateral direction.

Figure 6-5 provides a simple method for determining the minimum number of tie-down devices
required to meet the restraint criteria for different cargo weights. The tie-down patterns shown
apply to single as well as composite loads. However, for composite loads, additional tie-down
devices will almost always be required to prevent the load from slipping.

46
Sample Problem for Securing Cargo without Tie-Down Provisions.
Determine the amount of tie-down devices required to properly secure a composite load of 1,800
pounds.

Determine the amount of forward and lateral restraint. Refer to Rule 4, paragraph 6-6.
1,800 x 4.0 Gs = 7,200 pounds of forward restraint.
1,800 x 1.5 Gs = 2,700 pounds of lateral restraint.

Determine the minimum number of tie-down devices necessary for the required restraint.

Apply tie-down devices to the load.

47
In accordance with Rule 5 in the above paragraph, check the load to see if any additional tie-
down devices are required to prevent the load from shifting. In this case, more than two tie-down
devices are required to prevent the cargo from shifting sideways and at least four tie-down
devices will be required.

48
Rules for Applying Tie-Down Devices on Cargo with Tie-Down Provisions.
The rules used when applying tie-down devices to cargo with tie-down provisions are as follows

Rule 1. Always apply an even number of tie-down devices, attached in pairs, for forward and aft
restraint (Figure 6-7).

Rule 2. Apply the tie-down devices as close as possible to the rule-of-thumb tie-down angles.
Apply the first four tie-down devices so that the tie-down angle is 30 degrees with the cargo
floor and 30 degrees with the longitudinal axis of the helicopter.

Rule 3. If the tie-down devices can be applied at the rule-of-thumb tie-down angles, determine
the number of tie-downs required to provide restraint.

Rule 4. If the tie-down devices cannot be applied at the rule-of-thumb angles, follow the
procedure outlined in the sample problem in paragraph 6-10.

49
SAMPLE PROBLEM. Cargo with Tie-Down Provisions.
KNOWN:
The shipping container shown weighs 1,000 pounds (Figure 6-9). Because of its shape, size, and
the tie-down locations, the tie-down devices cannot be applied at an angle of 30 degrees to the
cargo floor.

PROBLEM:
How many tie-down devices are required to properly secure the container?
STEP 1. Determine the amount of restraint required in each direction.
1,000 x 4 Gs = 4,000 pounds of forward restraint.
1,000 x 1.5 Gs = 1,500 pounds of lateral restraint.
1,000 x 2 Gs = 2,000 pounds of aft restraint.
1,000 x 2 Gs = 2,000 pounds of vertical restraint.

50
STEP 1. If the actual restraint is less, add more tie-down devices and continue the procedure
until sufficient restraint is obtained. In this case, no additional tie-down devices are required
since the actual restraint is greater than the required restraint.

STEP 2. Check Table 6-2 and determine how many tie-down devices would be required if the
container could be secured at the rule-of-thumb tie-down angles. The table shows that at least
four tie-down devices attached to 5,000-pound tie-down fittings are required.

STEP 3. Tie down the container with the number of tie-down devices determined in Step 2.
Apply the tie-down devices as close as possible to the rule-of-thumb tie-down angles.

STEP 4. Construct a table similar to the one shown and estimate the tie-down angle for each tie-
down device.

STEP 5. Obtain the amount of restraint provided by each tie-down device, and add the results to
determine how much restraint is actually provided in each direction.

STEP 6. Compare the actual restraint found in Step 5 with the restraint required

SHORING
Shoring is a method of using lumber, planking, or similar material to spread highly concentrated
loads over a greater floor area than that occupied by the cargo alone. It also protects the cargo
floor from damage caused by tracked vehicle cleats, steel wheel rims, and packing case bands or
studs. Shoring size is determined by the cargo to be carried and the floor strength of the
helicopter carrying it. In general, 2 inches by 8, 10, or 12 inches of shoring can best be used.
Lengths of shoring may vary depending on the intended use. For ease of handling, length should
not exceed 12 feet. Plywood sheets of various thicknesses and sizes may be used when practical.
Since shoring is used both to load and unload, it will be transported with the cargo and tied down
as directed by the aircrew. Include shoring weight with the cargo weight to accurately determine
cargo CG. Since all aircraft have relatively fragile flooring, place particular emphasis on proper
distribution of cargo weight. A cargo item that has a small bearing area on the cargo floor in
comparison with its weight may exceed the aircraft floor strength and require shoring.
NOTE

51
The structure limits of the flooring for a particular aircraft are found in the aircraft operator's -10
manual.

Load Spreaders. Load spreaders (shoring) are support placed beneath an object to increase floor
bearing area to prevent excessive concentration of weight. As Figure 6-9 shows, the weight of a
load resting on shoring is not spread over the entire shoring area. It is increased over an area
extending from the point of contact at a 45-degree angle until it contacts the surface on which the
shoring rests. Inspect shoring before it is used to make sure that it is clean, sound, and fit for its
intended purpose. Defects in shoring reduce its effectiveness. If the shoring has a split in it, the
weight of the cargo will not be transferred past the split, as shown in Figure 6-10. If the shoring
is not wide enough, the cargo area is not spread past the edge of the shoring.

Shoring Requirements
To determine the need for shoring or load spreaders for a given load, consider only the area of
contact with the floor. In calculating the contact area for rectangular-shaped loads, multiply the
width of the item by the length. As an example of load spreading, assume that the plank is 2
inches thick and the box is 12 inches long by 6 inches wide. The area of contact between the box
and the plank will be 6 by 12 inches, or 72 square inches. Now extend imaginary planes
downward and outward from the edges of the bottom of the box at a 45-degree angle. Where
these imaginary planes intersect the cargo floor, the area of contact will be 10 by 16 inches, or
160 square inches. In this case, the area of contact has been more than doubled--an increase of
122 percent. The proportioned increase, however, will not always be so great. When 2-inch-thick
shoring is used, that area over which the load is distributed is enlarged by a border 2 inches wide
all around the area of load and shoring contact. This border is as wide as the shoring is thick.
Thus, if the shoring is 1 inch thick, the load-bearing border added is 1 inch wide. If the shoring is
3 inches thick, the load-bearing border added is 3 inches wide, and so forth. But as a general rule,
the use of shoring more than 4 inches thick is not practical. The relationship between border
width and shoring thickness applies to all shoring. Since the increase in area occurs only around
the perimeter of the load/shoring contact area, the larger the contact area, the smaller the
proportional increase in contact area. For example, shoring 2 inches thick under a box 12 inches
square will increase the area of contact 77 percent by adding 112 square inches to the original
144 square.

52
ITEM WEIGHT
There are several ways of finding the weight of an item. One is to look it up in TB 55-46-1. If
you do not have the technical bulletin but do have access to a scale, you can weigh the item. If
the item is too big to manhandle onto a scale, load it on a vehicle and then weigh it on a vehicle
scale.

CHAPTER 7

53
POL OPERATIONS
POL SAFETY FM 10-67-1
STATIC ELECTRICITY ON PERSONNEL AND CLOTHING
The human body conducts electricity. In a very dry atmosphere, a person can build and hold a
charge of several thousand volts when walking over rugs or working in certain manufacturing
operations.

Charge Formation
Outer clothing, especially if it is made of wool or synthetic fiber, builds a charge not only by
absorbing part of the body charge but also by rubbing against the body or underwear. When the
wearer takes the charged clothes off or moves them away from the body, the electrical tension or
voltage increases to the danger point. If the clothes are wet with fuel, they may burst into flames
when removed due to the dissipation of static electricity. Exposed nails on worn footwear can
also cause sparks. This is a serious danger since fuel spills in refueling areas are common and
fuel vapors near the ground ignite easily.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Personnel must wear protective clothing when handling fuels. It is the command's responsibility
to ensure that all protective clothing required by the MSDS is provided to the aviation fuel
handler. Clothing includes field wear, goggles, hearing protection, gloves, and boots. Each is
discussed in Table 2-9.

WEAR OF CLOTHING AND PERSONAL ITEMS

Wear shirt sleeves rolled down and buttoned. Do not wear or carry loose items of clothing. Do
not wear the wool sweater when refueling as the material produces static electricity. Do not carry
anything in shirt pockets because items may fall out of them and cause sparks or fall into the fuel
tank. Do not wear jewelry that might spark against metal surfaces. Ensure footwear is not
damaged. Exposed nails can cause sparks.

SAFETY MEASURES
Before opening aircraft or vehicle fuel ports or doing any other operation that would let fuel
vapors escape into the air, fuel handlers should bond them to the container by taking hold of it
with a bare hand. If it is an aircraft or piece of metal equipment, they should take hold of a bare
metal part with both hands for a few seconds. Although this type of bonding will not completely
discharge static electricity, it will equalize the charge of the body with the charge on the
equipment. Do not remove any piece of clothing within 50 feet of a refueling operation or in an
area where a flammable vapor-air mixture may exist. Do not enter a flammable atmosphere after
removing a garment. Wait at least 10 minutes before carrying the garment into such an
atmosphere. If a fuel handler gets fuel on his clothes, he should leave the refueling areas as soon
as refueling is completed. He should then wet the clothes with water before taking them off. If
there is not enough water at the site to wet the clothes thoroughly, he should ground himself to a
piece of grounded equipment by taking hold of it before taking off the clothes. A skin irritation
from fuel is not fatal; the fire that may follow a static discharge from clothes can be fatal.

54
Do not enter a flammable atmosphere right after removing a garment. Wait at least 10 minutes
before carrying the garment into such an atmosphere.

TM 1-1500-204-23-1
NOTE
Personnel who refuel aircraft may not carry lighters or matches on their persons and must not
allow anyone else to carry a lighter or matches within 50 feet of an aircraft that is being refueled.
Use of exposed-flame heaters, welding or cutting torches, and flare pots is forbidden within 50
feet of refueling operations.

Safety requirements
The following safety requirements must be followed when refueling Army aircraft.

Do not allow any open flame, open-flame device, or lighted smoking materials within 50 feet of
an aircraft refueling operation.

Do not allow electrically powered tools to be used in the refueling area.

Do not allow any metalworking tools to be used within 50 feet of an aircraft being refueled.

Do not use flashlights within 50 feet of the refueling operation unless the lights are of the
approved explosion-proof type.

Do not allow flashbulbs or electronic flash devices to be used within 10 feet of refueling
equipment or the fill port or fuel tank vents of aircraft.

Do not remove any piece of clothing while within 50 feet of a refueling operation or in an area
where a flammable vapor-air mixture may exist.

DANGERS FROM FUELS FM 10-67-1

The main day-to-day dangers from fuel, outside of fire, are its effects on the human body. Lead
is a deadly poison that accumulates in the body, especially in the liver. It can cause nerve
damage and death. The body easily absorbs lead through the skin. It can also absorb lead through
the lungs by breathing vapors of leaded fuels like AVGAS. Another danger from fuel is skin
irritation. Aviation fuels take the natural fats and oils out of skin. The fuel leaves skin rough, dry,
chapped, and cracked. Infections start easily in dry skin cracks. JP-4, especially if it stays on the
skin any length of time, can cause blisters. Fuel is both painful and dangerous if it gets in the
eyes, nasal passages, or mouth. It can be fatal if swallowed. You can prevent and treat these
problems as given below.

Prevention
The best way to control skin irritation from aviation fuels is to avoid contact with them. There
are two ways of doing this. First, wear the clothing specified in this chapter. Second, handle the
fuels carefully. In open-port refueling, the danger comes from overfilling the tanks or losing
control of the open nozzle in a power surge caused by closing another nozzle in the system.

55
When the tank is almost full, slow the rate of flow from the nozzle. Watch the tank carefully so
as not to overfill it. To keep from losing control of the nozzle in a power surge, hold the nozzle
firmly and keep it pushed in as far as it will go into the aircraft port.

First Aid
If AVGAS or jet propulsion fuel comes in contact with skin, wash it off immediately with soap
and water. In forward areas with limited water supplies, use canteen water to wash off the fuel. If
aviation fuel gets in the eyes or mouth, flush them thoroughly and repeatedly with water. Do not
swallow the water. Do not induce vomiting. Get medical help as quickly as possible. If possible,
establish a permanent eyewash at a refueling site. If aviation fuel gets on clothes, remove them
promptly and carefully by following the procedures in this chapter. These procedures protect the
soldier from the danger of a static spark igniting his clothes as he removes them. MSDS’s give
first aid procedures for exposure to hazardous materials.

TESTING FUEL IN AIRCRAFT TANKS

A visual check of the fuel in aircraft tanks must be made by the flight crew before the first flight
of each working day. The pilot or crew chief must draw a sample from each tank as part of
preflight procedures. The sample must be drawn in a clean, clear glass container. The size of the
sample may vary between ½ and 1 pint depending on the condition of the fuel. If contamination
shows in the sample, more fuel should be drawn. If water, sediment, or any other suspicious
matter is visible in the fuel after 1 quart or more is drawn, the supervisor should be consulted for
instructions. Taking a preflight sample is the only way to ensure that the fuel on board does not
contain water or other visible contaminants. When a visual check shows that the fuel may be
contaminated, the aircraft should not be permitted to fly and the fuel sample should be sent to the
supporting laboratory for testing. Any remaining fuel in storage should be isolated and not used
until test reports are received. Any fuel that fails a visual check should be segregated and held
until laboratory test results are received.

Although visual checks safeguard against and warn of contamination, they do not ensure that the
checked product meets all requirements of its specification. To visually check a fuel, draw a
sample in a clean sample bottle and look for the items described below.

FUEL CONTAMINATION
Cleanliness and brightness. The fuel should be clean and bright. Cleanliness and brightness are
distinct from fuel color. Clean means without visible sediment, cloud, haze, emulsion, or free
water. Bright means having the characteristic sparkle of clean, dry fuel in transmitted light.

Cloud or haze. Ordinarily, a cloud or haze in fuel shows the presence of water, but cloudiness
can be caused by large amounts of fine sediment. Cloudy fuel is not acceptable for use in
aircraft. When a clean, bright fuel cools, a light cloud may form. Such a cloud shows that
dissolved water has separated into a very small amount of free water. Since free water is not
acceptable in aviation fuels, the fuel should be rejected. If a cloud is present in a fuel after it has
been passed through a filter/separator system, the filter elements in the filter/separator should be
replaced. Also, the source tank should be stripped of both water and emulsion. Cloudy fuel
should be recirculated through fresh filter elements. A precipitation cloud can be removed by a
filter/separator that is working properly.

56
Sediment
Sediment from tanks, pipes, hoses, pumps, people, and the air contaminates fuel. The most
common sediments found in aviation fuels are pieces of rust, paint, metal, rubber, dust, and sand.
Sediment is classified by particle size.

Coarse sediment. Particles classified as coarse are 10 microns in size or larger (25,400 microns
equal 1 inch). Coarse sediment settles out of fuel easily, and it can also be removed by adequate
filtering. Particles of coarse sediment clog nozzle screens, other fine screens throughout the
aircraft fuel system, and most dangerously, the fuel orifices of aircraft engines. Particles of this
size also become wedged in sliding valve clearances and valve shoulders where they cause
excessive wear in the fuel controls and fuel injection equipment.

Fine sediment. Particles classified as fine are smaller than 10 microns in size. Removing fine
sediment by settling or filtering is effective only to a limited degree. Fine sediment accumulates
in fuel controls and forms a dark, shellac-like surface on the sliding valves. It can also form a
sludge like material that causes fuel injection equipment to operate sluggishly. Particles of fine
sediment are not visible to the naked eye, but they do scatter light. This light-scattering property
makes them show up as point flashes of light or as a slight haze in the fuel.

Water
Either fresh or saltwater may be in fuel. Water (fresh or salt) may be present as dissolved or free
water.
Free water. Free water can be removed from fuel by adequate filtering. It can be seen in the fuel
as a cloud, emulsion, droplets, or in large amounts at the bottom of a tank, sample container, or
filter/separator. Free water can freeze in the aircraft fuel system, can make certain aircraft
instruments malfunction, and can corrode the components of the aircraft fuel system. Saltwater is
more corrosive than fresh water. Ice in an aircraft fuel system can make the engines fail.

Dissolved water. Dissolved water is water that has been absorbed by the fuel. It cannot be seen
and cannot be separated out of the fuel by filtration or mechanical means. The danger of
dissolved water is that it settles out as free water when the fuel is cooled to a temperature lower
than that at which the water is dissolved. Such a cooling of fuel is likely at high altitudes. Once
freed, all the dangers of free water are present.

Microbiological Growth
If there is no water in the fuel, microbes cannot grow. Microbiological growth is brown, black, or
gray and looks stringy or fibrous. It causes problems because these organisms hold rust and
water in suspension and act as stabilizing agents for water-fuel emulsions. These suspensions
cling to glass and metal and can cause false fuel quantity readings. They also make fuel controls
operate sluggishly and make fuel flow dividers stick. Microbiological growth in aircraft fuel is a
reliable indication that the fuel filters have failed, that the water has not been properly stripped
from the fuel, or that the fuel storage tanks need to be cleaned more frequently. Addition of FSII
to JP-4 has helped curb microbiological growth. However, it is still necessary to remove all
water from aviation fuel and aircraft fuel systems.

57
Color. The color of an aviation fuel depends on its type and grade. Leaded fuels must be dyed, so
AVGAS is dyed differently for different grades. Grade 100/130 is dyed green and grade 80/87 is
dyed red. Jet fuels, because they are unleaded, are not dyed. They may be any color from water
white to amber. Proper color shows freshness and uniformity, but not necessarily quality. An off
color or color of the wrong intensity does not always mean that the fuel is off specification;
however, it does mean to look for contamination signs.

Fibrous material
A quart sample of acceptable aviation fuel should not contain more than 10 fibers. The presence
of more than 10 fibers per quart indicates that the filter/separator from the servicing vehicle is
not working properly or that the filter elements are breaking down. The fibers can be detected
visually, but a specific count can be determined only by laboratory testing.

REFUEL SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS HOT REFUEL

The FARE system should be primed and ready for operations as soon as it is laid out and the fuel
has been sampled. The pump should be started and idling before the first aircraft arrives. There
should be at least three people, besides the air traffic controller or pathfinder, present during
FARE point operations--one to tend the pump and one to tend each of the two nozzles. (A
member of the crew of the aircraft being refueled can operate the nozzle fire extinguisher.)
However, aircrew members must be properly trained and able to handle the refueling of their
own aircraft if the need arises. All three of the personnel should hold MOS 77F. The sequence of
actions in refueling is vital to the safety of the operation. This sequence is described below.

Land Aircraft
The ground guide directs approaching aircraft and tells the pilot where to land. If necessary,
guide the aircraft into final position. (Use the marshaling signals discussed in Chapter 2.) Check
to see that armaments aboard the aircraft have been set on SAFE.

Deplane Crew and Passengers

Only the pilot may remain in the aircraft during refueling. Passengers should go to the passenger
marshaling area. If required, a crewmember may assist with the refueling by manning the fire
extinguisher.

Passenger Area
In laying out the site, set aside and mark off space for a passenger marshaling area. The
passenger marshaling area should be at least 50 feet from the nearest nozzle.

Position Fire Extinguisher

Carry the fire extinguisher from its position by the ground rod to the side of the aircraft by the
fill port.

Turn Off Radios

All radios must be turned off for refueling except for the radio used to monitor air traffic control.
The pilot must not transmit while actual refueling is taking place.

58
Ground and Bond the Nozzle to the Aircraft
Either insert the nozzle bond plug into the bond plug receiver on the aircraft or attach the
connector clip to a bare metal part of the aircraft. Usually the clip is attached to the skid structure
of helicopters; it should never be attached to the radio antenna or to a propeller. When the CCR
nozzle is used, it is grounded to the ground rod. Connecting the bonding wire grounds the aircraft
and bonds the nozzle to the aircraft.

Remove Dust Cap

After bonding the nozzle, remove the dust cap from the nozzle and then remove the plug from
the aircraft fill port. Never put a dust cap on the ground. This could get dirt and dust in the fuel
system.

Refuel
During refueling, the pump operator has one set of duties and the nozzle operator has another.

Replace Caps and Plugs

Replace the plug of the aircraft fill port. Then recap the nozzle.

Remove Nozzle Bond

Unplug the nozzle bonding plug or release the connector clip Carry the nozzle back to its hanger;
do not lay it on the ground or drag it across the ground.

Remove Fire Extinguisher

Take the fire extinguisher back to its position by the ground rod.

Board Crew and Passengers

Have the members of the crew and passengers reboard the aircraft.

Direct Aircraft Lift-Off

On direction from the ground guide, have the aircraft lift off.

REFUELING WITH AN M978 HEMMT

The M978 tank truck, also called the HEMTT, is used to refuel aircraft, transport bulk fuels, and
service combat vehicles. The M978 tank truck is able to transport bulk fuels in areas where other
tank trucks cannot operate. It has a stainless steel 2,500-gallon tank with a single compartment
shell. The fuel system of the truck includes a pump and a filter/separator. Power for the 300-
GPM centrifugal pump comes from the truck engine. The truck also has an alternate fuel delivery
pump. This 25-GPM pump is powered by 24 DC from the truck’s electrical system. It is a 300-
GPM unit with a pressure differential indicator, 15 filter and canister assemblies, and a manual
drain valve The tank truck has two hose reels in the rear cabinet. Each hose reel has 50 feet of 1
1/2-inch dispensing hose. Each 1 1/2-inch hose has a 50-GPM capacity. The hose ends have
male, quick-disconnect fittings and bonding connections. Each hose reel has a fuel-servicing
nozzle.

59
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS COLD REFUEL
Refueling from a tank vehicle requires at least two people. If only the vehicle operator and his
assistant are present, the operator should attend the pump and the assistant should handle the
nozzle. A fire extinguisher should be within reach of each. Where possible, the aircraft crew
chief should be present to oversee the entire operation and another member of the aircraft or
ground crew should man the fire extinguisher at the nozzle. After the aircraft parks, its engines
are shut down, the rotor blades are secured, and armaments are set on SAFE, the refueling
operation sequence can start. The procedures must be done in the sequence described below.

Check the Aircraft

Check the interior of the aircraft. No one should be on board during refueling unless the pilot
must be on board to monitor the quantity of fuel to be loaded. Find out before starting the
refueling sequence whether or not there is a person in the aircraft. Check with the pilot to ensure
that all armaments are on SAFE.

Position the Refueler

Drive the tank vehicle into position in front of the aircraft. Use the approach route shown in A,
Figure 16-1. Do not drive the refueler directly toward the aircraft because brake failure could
cause a serious accident.

Minimum Distances
Keep a distance of at least 10 feet between the refueler and the aircraft. There must be at least 10
feet between the refueler and rotor blades of a helicopter. Keep a distance of at least 20 feet
between the exhaust pipe of the pump engine (or truck engine) and the aircraft fill port and tank
vent. See B, Figure 16-1.

Refueler Path
Park the refueler so that there is a clear open path to drive it away from the aircraft in an
emergency. Do not detach a tank semitrailer from its tractor when refueling an aircraft. The
tractor must be ready to pull the trailer away from the aircraft if the need arises.

Ground Guides
If the refueler can be driven into position without backing, do so. If the refueler must be backed
toward the aircraft, bring the truck to a full stop 20 to 25 feet away from the aircraft or its rotor
blades. Have another soldier act as a ground guide. Follow his signals to guide the final backing
approach until he stops the refueler at the proper distance from the aircraft and its fill port or
vent. See C, Figure 16-1.

Parking
Stop the refueler’s engine (unless it powers the pump), and set the brake. Chock the tires of the
refueler and, if appropriate, the aircraft.

60
 Positioning tank vehicle for refueling aircraft

Check the Fuel

Check the fuel in the tank to make sure it is the right type for the aircraft. Check the sight glass
of the filter/separator to make sure all water has been drained out.

Position Fire Extinguishers

Place the truck fire extinguisher by the pump. Place a fire extinguisher by the aircraft fill port.
Have members of the ground crew or aircrew man these two fire extinguishers. If there are no
personnel available to man the fire extinguishers, place them near the pump and nozzle
operators. Position them where they will not be in the operator’s way and where they are not
likely to be engulfed if a fire should start.

61
Ground the Refueler
Unreel the ground cable, and attach it to an existing ground rod. If no ground rod exists at the
location, drive the refueler’s ground rod into the earth to required depth and attach the clip to the
rod. See Chapter 2.

Bond Nozzle to Aircraft

Bond the nozzle to the aircraft before the dust cap is removed from the nozzle and the plug is
removed from the fill port. If the aircraft has a receiver for the bond plug, use the plug. If not,
attach the bonding clip to a bare metal part of the aircraft.

Open Fill Port

Open the fill port and remove the nozzle dust cap. If an open-port nozzle or the CCR nozzle
adapter is being used, put the nozzle well down into the fill port. Do not open the nozzle until it
is inside the fill port. If the CCR nozzle is being used, mate the nozzle into the fill port. If they
will not latch together, look for dirt in the fill port or on the nozzle. Wipe the fill port out and
clean the nozzle; then mate the two together.

Refuel
The procedures for refueling depend on the type of refueling. They are described below.

Close Fill Port

Replace the plug on the fill port. Replace the nozzle dust cap before disconnecting the nozzle
bond.

Undo Nozzle Bond

Remove the nozzle bond plug or undo the bonding clip. Reel up the hose and nozzle.

NOTE
Do not drag the nozzle across the ground.

Replace the fire extinguisher used at the nozzle.

Undo Refueler Ground

Release the clip on the ground rod, and reel up the grounding cable. Do not drag the cable clip
across the ground. Guide the cable back onto the reel to prevent damage to the grounding system.
If the refueling operation is over and the refueler’s ground rod was used, pull the rod up and stow
it in the refueler. Place the fire extinguisher in the refueler.

REFUELING DUTIES
Pump operator
Watch the refueling operation. Maintain visual contact with the nozzle operator. When aircraft
are being refueled, run the pump engine at full throttle. When flow stops at both nozzles, cut the
speed back to idle. If other aircraft are waiting for fuel or are in sight, let the engine idle. If not,
shut down the engine. (The pump engine can idle for a long time without damage, but idling

62
unnecessarily cuts down on the serviceable life of both the pump and the engine.) Watch the
500-gallon drum that fuel is coming from so that a change can be made when it is getting low.

Nozzle operator. The nozzle operator has different duties depending on which type of refueling
is taking place. The duties are described below.
CAUTION
The nozzle operator must maintain physical contact with the nozzle at all
times while refueling.

Closed-Circuit Refueling. Insert the CCR nozzle into the receiver (fill port) mounted on the
aircraft. If the CCR nozzle and port will not mate, look for dirt in the fill port. Wipe out the port
with a clean rag, wipe off the nozzle, and lock the parts together. Pull back on the control handle
latch, and then push the flow control handle up and toward the aircraft into the FLOW position.
If the tank is to be filled completely, watch the back of the nozzle. When flow stops
automatically, a red indicator will pop out on the back of the nozzle. If the tank is not going to be
filled completely, watch for the pilot to signal when to stop flow. When he signals or the red
indicator pops out, pull the flow control handle back toward the hose into the NO-FLOW
position.

Open-port refueling. Take the dust caps off the front of the CCR nozzle and the back of the
open-port nozzle adapter. Lock the adapter into the CCR nozzle before bonding the nozzle to the
aircraft and removing the nozzle dust cap and the fill port cap or plug. Pull back on the control
handle latch. Put the nozzle adapter deep into the fill port. Push the CCR nozzle flow control
handle up toward the aircraft into the FLOW position, and slowly squeeze the trigger of the
open-port nozzle to let the flow start. Watch the pilot for a signal if the tank is not going to be
filled completely; watch the fill port if the tank is to be filled completely. When the tank gets
close to full, let up on the trigger and finish filling slowly. Release the trigger, and pull the CCR
nozzle flow control handle back to the NO-FLOW position (back toward the hose). Drain
remaining fuel out of the nozzle before taking it out of the fill port.

CHAPTER 8
63
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
AR 95-1
Weight and Balance File
This file will contain all of the aircraft's weight and balance data. The aircraft designation and
serial number will be noted on the file folder. Each aircraft will have its own file that will usually
be retained aboard that aircraft. When an aircraft will be operated only in close proximity to its
home station or some similar single location, the weight and balance file may be removed from
the aircraft at the discretion of the local commander provided the following conditions are met:

The file is located so that it is readily available for update in the event of removal or addition of
aircraft equipment or other actions.

Duplicate copies of all DD Forms 365-4 in the file are carried aboard the aircraft.

Local procedures are established to assure that duplicate DD Forms 365-4 carried aboard the
aircraft are updated and remain valid.

DD Form 365-4. Sufficient completed DD Forms 365-4 will be in the file, enabling the pilot to
determine proper aircraft loading for any normal anticipated unit mission and verify that the
weight and center-of-gravity will remain within allowable limits for the entire flight.

Electronic computer data sheets may be used instead of any of the DD Form 365 series when
information is identical to that required on the DD 365-series. Any computer data sheets which
meet this requirement may be used. The Army standard automated system (USAF Edwards'
automated weight and balance system) fulfills these requirements. The system program may be
obtained from Commander, Aviation and Missile Command, ATTN: AMSAM-I-MDC,
Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, AL 35898 for nonstandard Army aircraft, the commercial
equivalents of basic weight checklists, loading data, and weighting instructions may be
substituted for DD Forms 365-1 and Chart E. All of the above forms are available through
normal publications supply channels.

Removal, Addition, or Relocation of Aircraft Equipment

When aircraft equipment that is part of aircraft basic weight is added to, removed from, or
relocated within the aircraft because of maintenance or specific mission requirements, flight in
this changed configuration will not be accomplished unless the weight and balance change is
documented by one of the following methods:

Treating the additions, removals, or relocations as a permanent change by making entries on the
DD Form 365-3 and establishing a new basic weight and moment. Also if the change in basic
weight or moment is beyond the limits stated in TM 55-1500-342-23, prepare new DD Forms
365-4 that reflect the new basic weight and moment to replace those in the weight and balance
file.

64
 If the changes are of a temporary nature, make entries on DA Form 2408-13 series (aircraft
inspection and maintenance record) and DA Form 2408-14 (Uncorrected fault record) following
the instructions provided in DA Pam 738-751 and TM 55-1500-342-23. Temporary changes in
basic weight may be reflected on DA Form 2408-13 series or DA Form 2408-14 for a period not
to exceed 90 days. If not accomplished sooner, the DD Form 365-3 will be updated to reflect the
temporary change at the expiration of this 90 day period.

TM 55-1500-342-23
A basic weight difference of + or - 0.3% and/ or a center of gravity difference of 0.3 inch at the
basic weight are the maximum differences allowed when comparing the Form F (DD FORM
365-4) and the last entry on the Chart C ( DD FORM 365-3).

CHAPTER 9

AEROMEDICAL FACTORS
FM 3-04.301 (1-301)

65
Hypoxia
Hypoxia is a condition that results from having an insufficient amount of oxygen in
the body. There is a tendency to associate hypoxia only with flights at high altitude.
However, many other factors interfere with the blood's ability to carry oxygen.
Alcohol, many drugs used for medication, and heavy smoking can either diminish the
blood's ability to absorb oxygen or reduce the body's tolerance to hypoxia.

Classifications of Hypoxia
There are four major types of hypoxia: hypoxic, hypemic, stagnant, and histotoxic. They
are classified according to the cause of the hypoxia.
Hypoxic hypoxia. Hypoxic hypoxia occurs when there is insufficient oxygen in the
air that is breathed or when conditions prevent the diffusion of 02 from the lungs to
the bloodstream. This is the type that is most likely to be encountered at altitude. It is
due to the reduction of the 02 at high altitudes.

Hypemic hypoxia. Hypemic, or anemic, hypoxia is caused by a reduction in the

oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Anemia and blood loss are the most common
causes of this type. Carbon monoxide, nitrites, and sulfa drugs also cause this hypoxia
by forming compounds with hemoglobin and reducing the hemoglobin that is
available to combine with 02.

Stagnant hypoxia. In stagnant hypoxia, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is
adequate but there is inadequate circulation. Conditions such as heart failure, arterial
spasm, occlusion of a blood vessel, and the venous pooling encountered during
positive-g maneuvers predispose the individual to stagnant hypoxia.

Histotoxic hypoxia. This type occurs when there is interference with the use of O2
by body tissues. Alcohol, narcotics, and certain poisons, such as cyanide, interfere
with the cell’s ability to use an adequate supply of oxygen.

Signs and Symptoms of Hypoxia

Mild hypoxia is commonly experienced at altitude; therefore, it is critical for those

who fly to recognize the possible signs and symptoms. This is particularly important
because the onset of hypoxia is subtle. Crewmembers are often engrossed in flight
activities and do not readily notice the symptoms of hypoxia. Usually, however, most
individuals experience two or three unmistakable symptoms or signs that cannot be
overlooked. A list of signs and symptoms is given below.

Individual Differences in Susceptibility to Hypoxia - It is impossible to predict

exactly when, how, or at what altitude hypoxic reactions will occur. This is because
individuals vary widely in their susceptibility to hypoxia. Several factors should be
considered in determining individual susceptibility.

66
 1. Alcohol - Alcohol can create histotoxic hypoxia; like smoking, it
increases the physiological altitude. In some cases, an individual
who has consumed 1 ounce of alcohol has a physiological altitude
of 2,000 feet.
Individual factors - An individual’s susceptibility to hypoxia is greatly
influenced by metabolic rate, diet, nutrition, and emotions. These and other
individual factors must be considered in determining susceptibility.
SYMPTOMS (SUBJECTIVE) SIGNS (OBJECTIVE)
Air Hunger
Apprehension
Fatigue
Nausea
Headache Hyperventilation
Dizziness Cyanosis
Hot and Cold Flashes Mental Confusion
Euphoria Poor Judgement
Belligerence Muscle Incoordination
Blurred Vision
Tunnel Vision
Numbness
Tingling
Figure 1-1

Susceptibility to hypoxia

Onset time and severity. The onset time and severity of hypoxic symptoms vary with
individuals and with the amount of oxygen deficiency.

Self-imposed stress. An individual’s physiological altitude must be seriously considered

as well as the altitude of a flight. Self imposed stressors, such as tobacco and alcohol
increase the physiological altitude.
Smoking. The hemoglobin molecule of red blood cells (RBC) has a 200 to 300
times greater affinity for carbon monoxide than for oxygen. Cigarette smoking
significantly increases the amount of carried by the hemoglobin of the RBCs; thus
it reduces the blood’s capacity to combine with oxygen. Smoking 3 cigarettes in
rapid succession or 20 to 30 cigarettes within a 24-hour period prior to a flight
may saturate from 8 to 10 percent of the hemoglobin in the blood.
- The physiological effects of this condition include:
- The loss of approximately 20% of the smoker’s night vision at sea level.
- A physiological altitude of 5,000 feet at sea levels.

Individual factors. An individual’s susceptibility to hypoxia is greatly influenced by

metabolic rate, diet, nutrition, and emotions. These and other individual factors must be
considered in determining susceptibility.

67
 Ascent rate. At rapid ascent rates, high altitudes can be reached before serious symptoms
are noticed.

Exposure duration. The effects of exposure to altitude are directly related to an

individual’s length of exposure. Usually the longer the duration of exposure, the more
detrimental the effect of hypoxia. However, the higher the altitude, the shorter the
exposure time required before hypoxia symptoms occur.

Ambient temperature. Exposure to extremes in temperature usually increases the

body’s metabolic rate. A temperature change increases the individual’s oxygen
requirements while it reduces tolerance to hypoxia. With these conditions, hypoxia may
develop at lower altitudes than usual.

Physical activity. When physical activity increases, the body demands a greater amount
of oxygen. This increased oxygen demand causes a more rapid onset of hypoxia.

Physical fitness. An individual who is physically conditioned will normally have a

higher tolerance to altitude problems than one that is not. Physical fitness raises an
individual’s tolerance ceiling.

Effects of Hypoxia
In aviation, the most important effects of hypoxia are those related, either directly or indirectly,
to the nervous system. Nerve tissue has a heavy requirement for oxygen. Brain tissue is one of
the first affected by an oxygen deficiency. If the lack of oxygen is prolonged or becomes severe,
brain death occurs. Once brain cells are destroyed, they can never be regenerated. (Hypoxia
demonstrations in an altitude chamber do not produce any known brain damage because the
severity and duration of hypoxia are kept to a minimum.)

Stages of Hypoxia
Indifferent stage-The only significant effect of mild hypoxia in this stage is that night vision
deteriorates at about 4,000 feet. Aircrew members who fly above 4,000 feet at night should be
aware that there is a significant loss of visual acuity because of both the dark conditions and the
development of mild hypoxia.

Compensatory stage-The circulatory system and to a lesser degree the respiratory system
provide some defense against hypoxia at this stage. The pulse rate, systolic blood pressure,
circulation rate, and cardiac output increase. Respiration increases in depth and sometimes in
rate. At 12,000 to 15,000 feet, however, the effects of hypoxia on the nervous system become
increasingly apparent. After 10 to 15 minutes, impaired efficiency is obvious. The crewmembers
may become drowsy and make frequent errors in judgment. They may also find it difficult to do
even simple tasks requiring alertness or moderate muscular coordination. The most crucial thing
about hypoxia is that it can be easily overlooked if the crewmembers are preoccupied with
duties.

Disturbance stage-This stage occurs between 15,000 and 20,000 feet. In this stage, the
physiological responses can no longer compensate for the oxygen deficiency. Occasionally

68
crewmembers become unconscious from hypoxia without undergoing the subjective symptoms
that are described in paragraph B. fatigue, sleeplessness, dizziness, headache, breathlessness, and
euphoria are the symptoms most often reported. The objective symptoms explained below are
also experienced.
Senses. Peripheral vision and central vision are impaired, and visual acuity is
diminished. Weakness and loss of muscular coordination are experienced. The
senses of touch and pain are diminished or lost. Hearing is one of the last senses
to be lost.

Mental processes. Intellectual impairment is an early sign that often prevents the
individual from recognizing disabilities. Thinking is slow, and calculations are
unreliable. Short-term memory is poor and judgement, as well as reaction time, is
affected.

Personality traits. There may be a release of basic personality traits and

emotions as with alcoholic intoxication. Euphoria aggressiveness, overconfidence,
or depression can occur.

Psychomotor functions. Muscular coordination is decreased and delicate or fine

muscular movements may be impossible. Stammering or writing illegibly is
typical of this stage of hypoxic impairment.

Cyanosis. The skin becomes a bluish color. This is because oxygen molecules fail
to attach to hemoglobin molecules.

Critical stage- This stage occurs between 20,000 to 25,000 feet. Within three to five minutes
judgment and coordination usually deteriorate. Subsequently, mental confusion, dizziness,
incapacitation, and unconsciousness occur.

Treatment- Individuals who exhibit symptoms of hypoxia must be treated immediately. Generally, the
treatment consists of giving the individual 100% oxygen through an oxygen mask. If oxygen is not available,
descent to an altitude of 10000 feet is mandatory. In cases in which symptoms persist, the type and cause of
hypoxia must be determined and treatment administered accordingly.

STRESS AND FATIGUE IN FLYING OPERATIONS

Stress. Stress results from a perceived imbalance between a demand and the ability to meet that
demand. Stress can cause fatigue.

Fatigue. Fatigue is a state or condition that follows a period of excessive mental or physical
activity or inactivity. It is characterized as by a decrease in work capacity and performance, a
feeling of tiredness, and a desire for rest.

Categories of stress

69
 Acute. Acute stress has the most immediate impact. It is usually very intense in nature
and occurs within a relatively short period of time. Working under acute stress for
exceptionally long periods can cause burnout. Immediate fear of failure, physical
discomfort, fear of physical harm, or workload can contribute to acute stress.

Chronic. Chronic stress differs substantially from acute stress. It is not as intense in
nature and can last months or years. Duty assignments, physiological environment, and
illness contribute to chronic stress; most normal jobs that aircrew members perform are
associated with chronic stress. Over a period of time, it can become more debilitating
than acute stress and can lead to physical illnesses such as an ulcer, a spastic colon, and
migraine headaches.

Aviation related stress- The two types of stress associated with the aviation environment are
aviation related stress and self imposed stress. Both types are cumulative and can lead to
debilitating fatigue. Although aircrew members may have limited or no control over some
aviation related stress, they need to know the sources and understand the effects of this type of
stress.
Altitude. The stress caused by altitude is most evident at altitudes below 5,000
feet. At these lower altitudes where the greatest atmospheric changes occur,
aircrew members are subject to problems resulting from trapped gas. Even a
common cold can cause them to experience ear and sinus problems on descent
from altitude. Because flights seldom exceed an altitude of 18,000 feet, hypoxia
and evolved gas problems, such as the bends, are not significant sources of stress
for most aviators.

Speed. Flight is usually associated with speeds greater than those experienced in
an everyday earthbound environment. These speeds are stressful because they
require an increased alertness and an optimal response level.

Hot or cold environments. Extreme heat or cold cause temperature stress in the
aviation environment. Heat problems may be due to hot, tropic like climates or to
direct sunlight entering through large canopies. Cold problems, on the other hand,
may be due to altitude or arctic climates. To lessen temperature stress,
crewmembers need to adapt to the extremes and use the proper clothing and
equipment.

Aircraft accident and loss rate. A high aircraft accident or loss rate imposes
additional stress on the crewmember. A fearful flyer is a stressed flyer. Enemy
opposition and unpleasant combat experiences such as crashes or deaths of close
friends and comrades can impose stress.

Illness. Although the aviation population is frequently and thoroughly examined,

organic disease should always be considered as a source if stress. Additionally,
fatigue is a common symptom of many diseases.

70
 Family commitments. Although the family can be a source of emotional strength
for the crewmember it can also be a source of stress. Family commitments can
adversely affect performance, particularly when duty assignment separates
crewmembers from their families. The crewmember’s concern for the family may
be of greater significance than the hazards of flying. Frequent deployments can
leave the family with anxieties and frustrations. Normal, predictable problems can
be solved with insight and understanding.

Mental and emotional health. Efficient performance and correct decision

making can be continuously achieved only by a healthy, active, and uncluttered
mind. The individual who copes best with the stress of life is usually happy, well
balanced, and emotionally mature. A well-adjusted personality and a pleasant
home life insulate against stress.

Self imposed stress- Although aircrew members often have limited control over many aspects of
aviation related stress, they can exert significant control over self-imposed stress. Like aviation
related stress, self imposed stress is cumulative and can lead to debilitating fatigue. This category
can be remembered by the acronym DEATH, which stands for Drugs, Exhaustion, Alcohol,
Tobacco, and Hypoglycemia.

Drugs- People are continually exposed to advertising that encourages them to

purchase non-prescription, over the counter medications for a range of minor
ailments. Most drugs whether prescription or over the counter, may have unwanted
side effects that may vary somewhat from person to person. These side effects can
create problems for crewmembers. It is safe to assume that no one taking medication
is fit to fly unless specific clearance has been given by a flight surgeon.

Predictable side effects. These effects accompany the use of a drug and are
incidental to its desired effect.

Overdose problems. Drugs are prescribed to be taken in a specified amount over

a specified period of time. The reasoning that “if one pill is good for me, two will
be even better” is invalid.

Allergic reactions and Idiosyncrasies. Some individuals may experience an

exaggerated or pathological reaction to a medicine. An example is an allergic
reaction to penicillin.

Synergistic effects. This term refers to an undesired result that occurs when a
drug is taken in combination with another drug or when a stressful situation is
experienced while the prescribed drug is being taken.

Exhaustion

Lack of sleep and rest. Aircrew members require adequate sleep and rest to ensure
their maximum performance. There are times when they have difficulty sleeping,

71
 particularly in strange hot or noisy environments. Changes of time zones can also
affect sleeping patterns. Sleeping difficulties should be discussed with the flight
surgeon because inadequate sleep constitutes a potential flight safety hazard.
Changing the work routine may promote sleep and increase operational efficiency.
The effects of fatigue are insidious. Flying for prolonged periods without adequate
rest will seriously affect the aviator’s level of performance.

Lack of physical exercise. Poor physical condition causes impaired circulatory

endurance and efficiency.
A. Exercise stimulates the various body systems. The physiological stress that an
aviator encounters, for example, during acceleration or exposure to heat, calls
for a circulatory system that can handle this stress. General toning of muscles,
heart, and lungs is essential in preparing the aviator for field exercises and
survival situations. Sports that require agility, balance, and endurance provide
an excellent means of keeping the mind and body in top condition.

Alcohol- The intake of alcohol in the form of liquor, beer, or wine is a commonly
accepted practice and usually causes no problems when done in moderation. In the
aviation environment however alcohol can be deadly.
1. Ethyl alcohol acts as a depressant and adversely effects normal body functions.
Even a small amount has a detrimental effect on judgment, perception, reaction
time, and coordination.
2. Alcohol reduces the brain cells’ ability to use oxygen. Each ounce of alcohol
consumed increases the physiological altitude.
3. Alcohol also acts, to some extent, as a relaxant and removes a person’s inhibitions
or worries.
4. The effects of alcohol on the body and brain depend on three factors: the amount
of alcohol consumed the rate of absorption from the stomach and small intestine,
and the body’s rate of metabolism. Of these, the body’s rate of metabolism is
relatively constant- approximately 1 ounce every three hours. This is the amount
of ethyl alcohol found in two ounces of 100 proof liquor or 18 ounces of beer.
5. After drinking alcohol, an aviator should wait at least 12 hours before flying. The
length of time between the last drink and take off is most important. Side effects
are dangerous; if they are present, the non-flying period should be extended
beyond 12 hours. Taking cold showers, drinking black coffee, or breathing pure
oxygen does not speed up the body’s metabolism of alcohol. Refer to AR 95-1 for
specific restrictions.

Tobacco-The detrimental effects of tobacco are well known. Apart from the long term
effects, there are other important, but less dramatic, effects. The chronic irritation of
lining of the nose and lungs caused by tobacco increases the likelihood of infection in
these areas. To aviators this problem is more than a nuisance because it affects their
ability to cope with the pressure changes in the ears and sinuses.
1. Although smoking has many long-term effects, the aviator should be just as
concerned with the acute effect of carbon monoxide produced with smoking

72
 tobacco. Carbon monoxide combines with hemoglobin to form
carboxyhemoglobin. Carbon monoxide attaches to hemoglobin molecules 200 to
300 times more readily than oxygen does. The net effect is a degree of hypoxia.
Average smokers have about 8 to 10 percent CoHB in their blood. This adds
about 5,000 feet of physiological altitude. Cigarette smoking causes decreased
night vision. A nonsmoking crewmember will begin to experience decreased
night vision at 4,000- 5,000 feet. But a smoking crewmember starts out with a
physiological night vision deficit of 5,000 feet. Even at sea level, the smoker’s
night vision is impaired.

Hypoglycemia- The body requires periodic refueling to function. Normal, regular eating
habits are important. Because of mission requirements, aviation crewmembers often
disrupt their regular eating habits and skip meals. This can lead to the problem of
hypoglycemia.
1. The liver has a store of energy that is used as a reserve if meals are missed on a
limited basis. Frequently the aircrew member depends on this reserve source
rather than eating meals at regular intervals. In providing this reserve energy, the
liver stores blood sugar for metabolism in the form of glycogen. It can readily
convert this stored form of sugar into glucose that is released into the body to
maintain its blood sugar level. Unless food is consumed at regular intervals, this
stored glycogen is depleted; then a low blood sugar or hypoglycemia develops.
When the blood sugar level falls, weakness or fainting occurs and the body’s
efficiency decreases.
2. This is not the end of the problem, however. When crewmembers feel tired or run
down after missing a meal, they usually eat a substance that is high in sugar, for
example a candy bar. This ingestion of sugar rapidly increases the blood sugar
level of the body. This often exceeds normal limits, and the body then attempts to
lower it by secreting insulin.
3. Insulin lowers the blood sugar level, but at the same time, the blood sugar is also
decreasing through its normal function of fueling the body. These two actions
result in a rapid drop in blood sugar that causes further tiredness and inefficiency.
4. Eating a good breakfast is not always required for each crewmember to avoid the
effects of hypoglycemia. It is important, however, to maintain a balanced diet of
proper foods that include protein, fats, and carbohydrates. Eating junk food will
deplete blood sugar levels.

SPATIAL DISORIENTATION

Spatial disorientation contributes more to aircraft accidents than any other physiological
problem in flight. Regardless of their flight time experience, all crewmembers are subject
to disorientation. The human body is structured to perceive changes in movement on land
in relation to the center of the earth. In an aircraft, the human sensory systems- the visual
system, the vestibular system, and the proprioceptive system- may give the brain
erroneous information. This information can cause sensory illusions, which may lead to

73
 spatial disorientation. Vision problems and visual illusions will be covered in night flight
techniques and NVG training.
Defintion- Spatial disorientation is an individual’s inability to determine his or her
position, attitude, and motion relative to the earth or significant objects; for example,
trees, poles, or buildings during hover. When it occurs, pilots are unable to see, believe,
interpret, or prove the information derived from their flight instruments. Instead, they
rely on the false information that their senses provide.

Vestibular system- The inner ear contains the vestibular system, which is the motion and
gravity detecting sense organ. This system is located in the temporal bone in each side of the
head. Each vestibular apparatus consists of two distinct structures: the semicircular canals and
the vestibule proper, which contain the otolith organs. Both the semicircular canals and the
otolith organs sense changes in aircraft performance. The semicircular canals of the inner ear
sense changes in angular acceleration, and the otolith organs sense changes in linear
acceleration and gravity.

Otolith organs- The otolith organs are small sacs located in the vestibule.
Sensory hairs project from each macula into the otolithic membrane, an
overlying gelatinous membrane that contains chalk like crystals called otoliths.
The otolith organs normally respond to gravity and linear acceleration. Changes in the
position of the head relative to the gravitational force cause the otolithic membrane to
shift position on the macula. The sensory hairs bend, signaling a change in head
position.
1. When the head is upright, a “resting” frequency of nerve impulse is generated by
the hair cells.
2. When the head is tilted the resting frequency is altered. The brain is informed of
the new position of the head relative to the vertical position.
3. Linear accelerations also stimulate the otolith organs. The body cannot physically
distinguish between the inertial forces resulting from linear accelerations and the
force of gravity. For example, a forward acceleration results in backward
displacement of the otolithic membranes. When an adequate visual reference is not
available, this can create an illusion of backward tilt.

Semicircular canals- The semicircular canals of the inner ear sense changes
in angular acceleration. The canals will react to any changes in roll, pitch, and yaw
attitudes.
1.The semicircular canals are situated in three perpendicular planes to each
other. They are filled with a fluid called endolymph. The inertial torque resulting
from angular acceleration in the plane of the canal puts this fluid in motion. The
motion of the fluid bends the cupula, a gelatinous structure located in the ampula
of the canal. This, in turn, moves the hairs of the cells situated beneath the cupula.
These nerve impulses are then transmitted to the brain where they are interpreted
as rotation of the head.
2. When no acceleration takes place, the hair cells are upright. The body senses that
no turn has occurred. The position of the hair cells and the actual sensation
correspond.

74
 3. When a semicircular canal is pit into motion during clockwise acceleration, the
fluid in the semicircular canals lags behind the accelerated canal walls. This
creates a relative counterclockwise movement of the fluid within the canal. The
hair cells are bent in the direction of the movement of the fluid. The canal and
the body both move in the opposite direction of the fluid. The brain interprets the
movement of the hairs to be a turn in the same direction as the canal wall. The
body correctly senses that a clockwise turn is being made.
4. If the clockwise turn continues at a constant rate for several seconds or longer,
the motion of the fluid catches up with the canal walls. The hairs are no longer
bent, and the brain receives the false impression that turning has stopped. A
prolonged, constant turn in either direction will result in the false sensation of no
turn.
5. When the clockwise rotation of the aircraft slows or stops the fluid in the canal
moves in a clockwise direction for a short time. This sends a signal to the brain
that is falsely interpreted as a turn in the opposite direction. In an attempt to
correct the falsely perceived turn, the pilot may turn the aircraft in the direction
of the original turn.

Proprioceptive system- This system reacts to the sensations resulting from pressures on
joints, muscles, skin, and slight changes in the position of internal organs. It is closely
associated with the vestibular system and, to a lesser degree, the visual system. Forces act
upon the seated crewmember in flight. With training and experience, the crewmember can
distinguish the most distinct movements of the aircraft by the pressure of the aircraft seat
against the body. The recognition of these movements has led to the term “seat of the pants”
flying.

Vestibular illusions
The vestibular system provides accurate information as long as an individual is on the ground.
Once the individual is airborne, however, the system may function incorrectly and cause
illusions. These illusions pose the greatest problem with spatial orientation. Aircrew members
must understand vestibular illusions and the conditions under which they occur. They must be
able to distinguish between the inputs of the vestibular system that are accurate and those that
cause illusions.

Somatogyral illusions
Somatogyral illusions are caused when angular acceleration stimulates the semicircular canals.
Those that may be encountered in flight are the leans, graveyard spin and the Coriolis illusions.

Leans. The most common form of spatial disorientation is the leans. The
leans occur when the crewmember fails to perceive some angular motions. During straight and
level flight the crewmember will correctly perceive that he is straight and level. However, a
crewmember rolling into or out of a bank may experience perceptions that disagree with the
readings on the attitude indicator. In a slow roll, for instance, the crewmember may fail to
perceive that the aircraft is no longer vertical; he still feels as though there aircraft is flying
straight and level although the attitude indicator shows a bank. Once the pilot detects the slow
roll, he makes a quick recovery. He rolls out of the bank and resumes straight and level flight.

75
The crewmember may now perceive that the aircraft is banking in the opposite direction.
However, the attitude indicator shows that the aircraft is flying straight and level. The pilot may
then feel the need to turn the aircraft so that it aligns with the falsely perceived vertical. Instead
the pilot should maintain straight and level flight as shown by the attitude indicator. To counter
the falsely perceived vertical, the pilot will lean his body in the original direction of the
subthreshhold roll until the false sensation leaves.

Graveyard spin. This illusion usually occurs in fixed wing aircraft. For example, a pilot enters a
spin and remains in it for several seconds. The pilot’s semicircular canals reach equilibrium; no
motion is perceived. Upon recovering from the spin, the pilot undergoes deceleration, which is
sensed by the semicircular canals. The pilot has a strong perception of being in a spin in the
opposite direction, even though the flight instruments contradict that perception. If deprived of
visual references the pilot may disregard the instruments and make control corrections against
the falsely perceived spin. The aircraft will then reenter a spin in the original direction.
To compound the action of the semicircular canals under these conditions, a pilot noting a loss of
altitude as the spin develops may apply back pressure on the controls and add power in an
attempt to gain altitude. This maneuver tightens the spin and may possibly cause the pilot to lose
control of the aircraft.

Coriolis illusion. Regardless of the type of aircraft flown the Coriolis

illusions the most dangerous of all vestibular illusions. It causes overwhelming disorientation.
This illusion can take place whenever a climbing or a descending turn is initiated. As a pilot
enters a turn, one semicircular canal is stimulated. In time, the endolymph reaches equilibrium
within the canal. When the pilot turns his head in a geometric plane other than that of the turn,
the fluid decelerates in the canals originally stimulated. At the same time, the fluid moves in the
remaining two semicircular canals and slows in the first canal. The combined effect of bending
the cupula, called cupula deflection, in all three semicircular in each ear is that the pilot perceives
the aircraft’s motion to be in a different direction than it’s actual; motion. The result is the
feeling that the aircraft is rolling, pitching, and yawing at the same time.

Somatogravic Illusions
Somatogravic illusions are caused from changes in linear acceleration or gravity that stimulate
the otolith organs. The three types of somatogravic illusions that can be encountered in flight are
oculogravic, elevator, and oculoagravic.

Oculogravic illusion. This illusion occurs when an aircraft accelerates

forward. Inertia from linear acceleration causes the otolith organs to sense a nose high attitude. A
pilot not cross checking his instruments would most likely dive the aircraft. This illusion usually
does not occur if adequate outside reference is available. If making an instrument approach in
inclement weather or darkness, the pilot would be considerably more susceptible to the
oculogravic illusion. An intuitive reaction to the sensed nose high attitude could have
catastrophic results.

Elevator illusion. This illusion occurs during upward acceleration.

Because of inertia, the pilots’ eyes will track downwards his body tries, through inputs supplied
by the inner ear, to maintain visual fixation on the environment or instrument panel. With eyes

76
downward, the pilot will sense that the nose of the aircraft is rising. This illusion is common for
aviators flying aircraft that experience updraft.

Oculoagravic illusions. This illusion is the exact opposite of the

elevator illusion and results in from the down ward motion of the aircraft. Because of inertia,
the pilot’s eyes will track upward. This usually results in a sensation that the aircraft is in a nose
low attitude. This illusion is commonly encountered as a helicopter enters autorotation. The
pilot’s usual intuitive response is to add aft cyclic, which decreases airspeed below the desired
level.

Proprioceptive Illusions
Proprioceptive illusions rarely occur alone. They are closely associated with the vestibular
system, and to a lesser degree, the visual system. The proprioceptive information input to the
brain may also lead to a false perception of the true vertical. During turns, banks, climbs, and
descending maneuvers, proprioceptive information is fed into the central nervous system. A
properly executed turn vectors gravity and centrifugal force through the vertical axis of the
aircraft. Without visual reference, the body only senses being pressed firmly into the seat.
Because this sensation is normally associated with climbs, the crewmember may misinterpret it
as such. Recovering from turns lightens pressure on the seat and creates an illusion of
descending. This false perception of descent may cause the pilot to pull back on the stick,
causing reduced airspeed.

Prevention of spatial illusions.

Spatial disorientation probably cannot be totally prevented. Perhaps the single most
important factor is to realize that the misleading sensations that come from sensory
systems are predictable. These sensations can happen to anyone because they are due
to the normal functions of and limitations of the senses of balance. Training,
instrument proficiency, good health, and aircraft design minimize spatial
disorientation. Spatial disorientation becomes dangerous when pilots believe their
sensations rather than trust their instruments. All pilots can experience spatial
disorientation. For that reason, they should be aware of the potential hazards,
understand their significance, and learn to overcome them. To prevent disorientation,
aviators should do the following:
• Never fly without visual reference points actual or instruments.
• Trust their instruments.
• Never stare at lights.
• Allow eyes to adapt to the dark before any night flight.
• Avoid smoking, fatigue, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, and anxiety which all aggravate
the illusions.

Treatment of spatial disorientation.

Spatial disorientation can easily occur in the aviation environment. If disorientation
occurs, aviators should do the following:
• Refer to the instruments and develop a good crosscheck.
• Never try to fly IMC and VMC at the same time.

77
 • Delay intuitive actions long enough to check both visual references and
instruments.
• Transfer control to the other pilot if two pilots are in the aircraft. Seldom will both
experience disorientation at the same time.

NOISE IN ARMY AVIATION

Individual Responsibility
Pilots, crewmembers, ground support troops, and passengers should wear hearing protection at
all times. Hearing loss in one hazard of the aviation environment that can be minimized with
adequate protective measures.

The amount of sound protection that a protective device provides is determined by its fit and
condition and, most importantly, the willingness and ability of the individual to use it properly.
Individual devices that are used in combination provide the best hearing protection.

TM 1-1520-237-10 Noise Warning

WARNING
Sound pressures in this helicopter during some operating conditions exceed the Surgeon
General’s hearing conservation criteria, as defined in DA PAM 40-501. Hearing protection
devices, such as the aviator helmet or ear plugs are required to be worn by all personnel in and
around the helicopter during its operation. When window guns are firing, when flights exceed
100 minutes during any 24 hour period, or when speeds are above 120 knots, helmet and ear
plugs shall be worn by all crewmembers.

Protective Devices
Sometimes the intensities of noise levels interfere with the speech communication of Army
crewmembers or pose the risk of hearing loss. To reduce the undesirable effects of the noise,
protective measures should be taken.
These measures include:
Designing "quiet aircraft"

Using personal protective measures

Enclosing the cabin areas with soundproofing material

Isolating or placing the crewmembers at a distance from the noise source

The only protective measures against noise effects that are practical, economical, realistic, and
mission supportive are those each person takes to prevent hearing loss. For Army personnel,
these protective measures include wearing the SPH-4B or HGU-56/P flight helmet, earplugs,
earmuffs, or headsets. Earplugs may be worn along with the other devices for extra protection.
Most of these protective devices are effective in reducing high frequency noise levels above
1,000 hertz and in reducing noise levels to 50 decibels or below.

78
SPH-4B or HGU-56/P Flight Helmet - the flight helmet is the best means of personal
protection from the standpoint of noise and crash attenuation. The helmet, designed primarily for
noise protection, provides noise attenuation exceptionally well in the 3,000 to 8,800 hertz range.
When worn alone, the helmet reduces the noise exposure to safe limits for every aircraft in the
Army inventory except the UH-60 Blackhawk. In the UH-60 the helmet and earplugs together
give aviators sufficient attenuation to prevent hearing loss. To ensure the best protection
possible, aviators should wear earplugs when they wear glasses. They should also wear helmets
correctly, making sure they fit properly and have soft and pliable ear cups that conform to the
shape of the head.

Earplugs - Insert type earplugs are among the most common types of hearing protection now in
use. Earplugs should be comfortable if they are to do their job. All earplugs have a tendency to
work loose as a result of talking and need to be re-seated periodically to prevent leakage. When
earplugs are properly fitted, the user's voices will sound lower and muffled to them, as if they
were talking inside a barrel. The noise protection with earplugs is 30 to 35 decibels across all
frequency bands. Earplugs come in three different forms: the E-A-R foam earplug, the V-51R
single flange earplug, and the SMR triple-flange earplug.

Earmuffs - There are several types of earmuffs that provide adequate sound protection for
ground support aviation personnel. Most earmuffs that are in good condition and properly
adjusted will attenuate sound as well as properly fitted earplugs. The earmuffs tend to give
slightly more high frequency protection and slightly less mow frequency protection than the
earplugs do.

Headsets - The H-157/AIC microphone type headset is mainly used in Army fixed wing aircraft
but is also commonly used in UH-60 command and control helicopters. This headset provides
some protection against high frequency sound but it is less effective against low frequency
sound. The condition of the ear seals and metal cross bands needs to be checked, if worn
continually without proper maintenance, the headsets may afford no hearing protection. To
reduce the degree of auditory risk, anytime a headset is worn, earplugs should also be worn.

Noise Impact on Speech Communication

Speech communication has a vital role in Army aviation. For communication to be meaningful,
information must be understood accurately and immediately. Faulty speech communication may
result in decisions or responses that cause injuries and material damage or prove fatal. Pilots
flying modern aircraft must possess acute hearing, especially for distinguishing speech signals.
Most speech signals are delivered through an electrical communication system. In the past, pilots
heard speech signals that did not require a high degree of fidelity. Now as aircraft are becoming
more complex weapon systems, the pilots rely increasingly on the sense of hearing and they must
simultaneously monitor the primary speech signal and several secondary auditory inputs.

Many factors determine speech intelligibility. Major factors include the characteristics of the
message such as the amount and clarity of information. If the listener is familiar with the
message vocabulary, speech is more easily understood. During normal flight operations, the
experience of the pilot and other flight crew personnel has a direct bearing on how well they
comprehend oral communication. Other factors are the physical environment, noise,

79
atmospheric, and thermal conditions, and stress. The characteristics of the human operator also
influence how well speech communication is understood.

These include:
Training and memory

Psychological idiosyncrasies

Vigilance and susceptibility to fatigue

Social, motivational, and personality factors

Sensory, perceptual, and intellectual capabilities

Few crewmembers experience severe, abnormal auditory fatigue because they can adjust the
intensity of incoming signals on airborne communication systems. Protective devices reduce
auditory fatigue and shut out much of the noise that can mask auditory signals. The result is
clearer, more meaningful communication signals.

80
CHAPTER 10

EMERGENCY EVACUATION/ EGRESS

FM 10-67-1

APPROACH AND ENTRY

No one should assume that an aircraft accident has been fatal to the aircrew. Fire is often a
delayed result of a crash impact and, if the fire-fighting response is immediate, personnel in the
aircraft may be rescued. Regardless of the extent of the fire or limited fire-fighting capability,
firefighting and crash rescue operations should start immediately. Personnel should be aware of
the principal hazards, including armaments and fuel, they will face when attempting an approach
and entry. At semi-permanent airfields, personnel should be familiar with fixed-wing aircraft as
well as rotary-wing aircraft. They may need to know aircraft of other services also.

Approach
Use crash rescue charts (if available) to evaluate the best method of approach to each type of
aircraft. The route of approach of the aircraft is determined by the position of personnel in the
aircraft, the position of the armaments board, the location of the fire and the wind direction, if the
aircraft is on fire.

Entry
Use crash rescue charts (if available), evaluate the exits and where personnel may be located in
each type of aircraft. Be familiarized with every opening device both inside and outside the
aircraft. Know them well enough to operate them effectively in darkness, smoke, or other
conditions of low visibility.

Evacuation
Decide whether the hazards of a situation are so great that the aircrews should be evacuated from
the aircraft instantly or whether the fire should be fought first until help arrives to assist in
rescue. Sometimes wreckage or twisted controls make it difficult or impossible to rescue
personnel without help. Extreme care should be used in moving the injured. Personnel should
know how to release the aircrew from safety belts, shoulder harnesses, parachutes, and ejection
seats. Use the procedures described below.

Removal of Injured Personnel

It is always easiest to remove a soldier through the normal route in and out of the aircraft. Only if
the door or canopy is jammed and impossible to open should rescuers try to enter and remove
victims by another route. Whenever possible, practice with an actual aircraft to become familiar

81
with the small space and limited approach and exit possibilities. If possible, have a first aid
instructor teach the best way of moving a victim. There is no substitute for actual experience.

Egress
If you are involved in an accident in a UH-60, egress from the aircraft with its passengers/ crew
will be your responsibility. When it is time to egress you should be able to direct/ assist your
passengers, crew and yourself through the wreckage The first thing you must determine is the
severity of the accident and the potential for further catastrophic events. If the aircraft lands
without fire or fuel spills that may cause a fire, there may be no need to immediately egress the
aircraft. Immediate egress from a survivable accident may harm you from flying debris and rotor
droop. If the accident does have the potential to be more catastrophic, then egress should be
performed at the greatest ground-rotor separation. These locations are the 3 o’clock to 4:30
position and the 7:30 to 9 o’clock position. Do not exit to the 12 or 6 o’clock unless there is no
other alternative. Egress through these areas allows the pilot to safely release the controls and
egress the aircraft himself. After egress you should rally at the locations briefed prior to flight.
Do not confuse rally points with egress points.

Rally Points
Rally points are points determined by the Pilot-in-Charge prior to flight. The PIC will direct how
personnel accountability and rally will be conducted during the crew brief. The points are
referenced from the nose of the aircraft (12 o’clock). Normally, those points are 12, 3, 6, and 9
o’clock and 50 to 100 meters from the nose.

82
CHAPTER 11
PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION
TM 1-1500-204-23-1

NOTE
These inspections are to be completed in conjunction with the operator’s manual and checklist

Seats
Polyester Fabric Seat Covers (UH-60). Cleaning and inspection procedures for polyester fabric
seat covers are explained in the following paragraphs.

Clean the polyester fabric seat and back using the following procedures

Brush fabric with firm bristle brush removing excess dirt.

Use enough liquid to allow complete immersion of the seat cover to be washed.

Mix 3 ounces of low strength laundry soap, Federal Specification P-S-1792, to each gallon of
water. Synthetic detergent is permissible as an alternative.

NOTE
The water temperature should not exceed 100°F (37°C).

Immerse one cover at a time in the soap solution, let stand for 20-25 minutes, and hand wash for
5 minutes.
Rinse cover in clean water until all soap is removed

NOTE
If machine washed, use complete wash and rinse cycles.

(f) Spread covers on a clean surface out of direct sunlight to dry.

NOTE
Seat backs do not have a damage size limit for repair

Inspect for cuts, tears, punctures, bums and broken stitches. Any damage less than 2-1/2 inches
long x 1 inch wide in the seat bottom may be repaired. Replace seat bottoms with damage greater
than 2-1/2 inches long x 1 inch wide.

83
Protective Covers
The instructions contained below are applicable to all types of aircraft protective covers and
shields used by the Army.

Protective covers shall be installed to protect airframe components, which are affected by
extreme weather conditions.

Covers shall be installed when aircraft is to remain in an exposed area for any extended length of
time, or when snow or ice is anticipated.

To keep out dust, rain, and foreign matter, protective shields, such as intake duct and exhaust
covers, shall be installed to cover openings and passages in the aircraft structure and engine
nacelle which leads to internal components of aircraft.

Do not drag covers over sharp objects; prevent contact with ground when Installing and
removing.

Spread wet covers out to dry before folding and storing.

When installing and removing covers, do not allow attaching buckles to scratch or mar plexiglass
sections of aircraft.

First Aid Kits

NOTE
This seal will be broken on installed first aid kits only when the contents are to be used for first
aid treatment of an injury. When the seal has been broken, it will be annotated on DA Form
2408-13-1/DA Form 2408-13-1-E (Aircraft Inspection and Maintenance Record).

NOTE
If a seal has been broken, and no kit is immediately available, a circled red X status symbol will
be entered in block 16 and a statement entered in Part I, Fault Information Section of DA Form
2408-13-V DA Form 2408-13-1-E (Aircraft Inspection and Maintenance Record) restricting the
aircraft to a specified number of passengers until a serviceable kit is installed. Kits on which a
seal has been broken will be turned in to designated ALSE personnel for a replacement kit.
When kit is due for an inspection or kit is considered unserviceable due to missing or illegible
materiel condition tag, torn case, broken seal, or (on older design) incomplete side pocket
contents, etc., inspector will remove DD Form 1574 (Serviceable Tag Materiel) and retag kit
with DD Form 1577-2 Unserviceable (Repairable) Tag Materiel,

This kit provides first aid essentials for use by flight crews and passengers sustaining injuries due
to combat, accident, malfunctioning of equipment, or survival conditions.

84
The property book officer for authorized activities will submit requests for first aid kits to the
supporting medical supply officer, based on one per crew compartment in Army aircraft; and one
for each five passenger seats/capacity or fraction thereof. Kits will be installed in aircraft
locations indicated in the applicable aircraft maintenance technical manual. When the required
quantity of first aid kits, for troop transport mission(s) is in excess of the provisions for
installation of the kits, the additional kits will be carried on board as loose equipment. Upon
completion of mission(s), the additional first aid kit(s) will be removed and turned in.

The first aid kit will be closed and sealed when carried in aircraft. Serviceable kits will always be
tagged with a DD Form 1574 (Service-able Tag-Materiel) properly completed and attached. This
will be the responsibility of designated personnel.

SEAT BELTS

NOTE
Surface mold or mildew may be removed by washing if no deterioration is evident after washing,
webbing shall be considered serviceable.

NOTE
Fuzzing of the exterior surface caused by broken individual filaments in the yams is not cause for
rejection.

NOTE
Webbing discolored or soiled by grease, oil, aviation fuels and hydraulic fluids shall be cleaned.
Fading of webbing by subjection to sunlight is an unreliable indicator of deterioration and shall
not be cause alone for webbing rejection.

Daily Inspection
Check seat belt shoulder harness, restraint harness, inertia reel strap webbing for: Deterioration
resulting from contact with foreign matter, (i.e acid, petroleum based products, strong caustic
soaps) shall be cause for removal from service. Surface mold or mildew may be removed by
washing. If no deterioration is evident after washing, webbing shall be considered serviceable.

Cuts of the webbing caused by a sharp-edged instrument or object that severs the vertical or
horizontal yarns of the webbing shall be reason for removal.

Broken stitches Identified by missing, skipped, torn or ruptured threads in the stitch pattern
stitching may be repaired and will not because for rejection.

Fraying of the exterior surface of the webbing, causing separation or rupture of yarns sufficient
to obscure the identity of any yarn exceeding 20 percent of the width or 2 inches in length, shall
render the webbing unserviceable.

85
Discoloration of webbing caused by contact with strong caustic soaps, or acid shall be reason for
removal from service. Webbing discoloration resulting from contact with metal articles and
hardware is not cause for removal.

Any metal restraint hardware which is corroded or defective in operation shall be inspected for
operational use and replaced if found to be substandard or excessively damaged. Missing or
unserviceable adjuster webbing retarder springs and loose or missing bolts will be replaced.

Check buckle mechanisms for ease of locking and releasing. When locked, the latch should not
have a tendency to release inadvertently, nor should it be excessively difficult to release.

Pilot/troop type belts, check for freedom of movement of the link within the mated hook and
guide bar. The link shall not bind in any position (i.e. pivot and hook tip) within its operating
limits.

Inertia reels, check for damage, security, positive locking and unlocking, manual lock-unlock
control for proper operation.

Examine restraint system attaching points to aircraft. Check for loose bolts, deformity,
corrosion or sharp and jagged edges which may damage webbing.

CLEANING

CAUTION
Do not use a bleach. Bleach may cause webbing to deteriorate.

NOTE
No cleaning is authorized to inertia reel webbing strap.

NOTE
Do not expose the wet webbing to freezing temperatures or to direct sunlight during cleaning,
drying, or storage. Re-dying or painting is prohibited.

NOTE
Belts utilized in aircraft conducting salt water pick-up training shall be washed in fresh water and
corrosion preventive compound (MIL-C-81309,
NSN 8030-00-938-1947) shall be applied to metal components.

Prepare a concentrated soap and hot water solution, using laundry soap chips, Federal
Specification P-S-1792, or equivalent. Cool the solution to approximately 120°F (49°C), prior to
application.

Dampen an approved clean brush, such as NSN 7920-00-244-7431, with the soap solution and
rub lightly over the affected surface area.

86
Rinse the webbing thoroughly with clear, lukewarm water.

Place webbing in open air or a drying room to dry.

After cleaning visually inspect.

CHAPTER 12

NVG’s
TC 1-204/ TC 1-210

87
NONRATED CREW MEMBER NVG TRAINING
Commanders must establish, in writing, an NVG training program for NCMs when flight
missions include the use of NCMs. (See TC 1-210, paragraph 4-12.) The program will include
NVG qualification, refresher, mission, and continuation training. An NVG IP or SP should
supervise NCM training and evaluations. SPs, IPs, UTs, SIs, and FIs, as appropriate, will
conduct the flight training. Units must document nonrated crewmember NVG training according
to TC 1-210, Chapter 3.

NOTE
The trainer or evaluator will not occupy a crew position with access to the flight controls while
conducting NCM training or evaluations.

Initial NVG Qualification, NVG Aircraft Qualification, and NVG Refresher Training
An NCM is designated RL 3 for NVG purposes while undergoing initial NVG qualification,
NVG aircraft qualification, or NVG refresher training. After being assigned to a crew position
requiring the use of NVG, NCMs must complete RL progression within 90 consecutive days.
(Reserve Component NCMs have one year to progress.) They must complete NVG qualification
or refresher training within 60 consecutive days. (As discussed in TC 1-210, paragraph 4-3a, this
60-day period is a "sliding window" within the progression period.)

Initial NVG Qualification -

Academic training - Unit SPs, IPs, UTs, SIs, and FIs will use the current USAAVNC NVG ETP
to conduct academic training at other than centralized training bases. Trainers will delete aviator-
specific questions from written tests. They will add training material and questions pertaining to
NCM tasks, missions, and local operating procedures. (If the current ETP does not include a test,
units may produce a test locally.)

Flight training -Before the first NVG training flight, NCMs must undergo a one-hour NVG
training period at night in a static aircraft. As a minimum, they must receive training on egress
procedures, NVG failure, and a blind cockpit drill or switch locations. They may apply this
period and the NVG flight evaluation, if applicable, toward the 5.5-hour flight minimum required
for NVG qualification and mission training. The evaluation may be continual or a single
evaluation on completion of the training.

NVG Aircraft Qualification

NCMs must be NVG qualified in each aircraft in which they perform NVG duties. They must
complete the training shown in Figure 4-3. An NVG IP, SP, FI, or SI must administer the NVG
flight evaluation at night in the aircraft. The evaluation may be continual. Mandatory evaluation
tasks are in the appropriate ATM.

ParaHours
Static Aircraft 1.0

88
 In-Flight Qualification - (Scanning techniques,
identification of aircraft structural limitations, distance
5.0
estimation and depth perception, knowledge of
restrictions to visibility, and terrain interpretation.)
In-Flight Mission - (May be conducted concurrently
3.0
with in-flight qualification.)
In-Flight Emergency - (May be conducted concurrently
1.0
with in-flight qualification.)
In-Flight Evaluation - (May be continual.) 1.0

Total Time* 11.0

* The total time, including the hours spent in a static aircraft, may be reduced to no
less than 5.5 hours based on the instructor's recommendation concerning the NCM's
proficiency.

NVG Refresher Training

NCMs must undergo NVG refresher training if they have not completed a one-hour NVG flight
during the previous 180 consecutive days. During this training, the NCM will complete an NVG
evaluation. Commanders will determine the amount and type of training required. This training
will include academic instruction and a minimum of three hours of flight training.

NVG Mission Training

Commanders typically designate an NCM RL 2 for NVG purposes after the NCM completes RL
3 training. They also may designate the NCM RL 2 after a records check or a proficiency flight
evaluation. (Proficiency in mission-related tasks, such as external loads, is the goal of mission
training. Three flight hours should be enough time to accomplish command- directed tasks.
Before beginning NVG mission training, NCMs must be NVG current.
NOTE
An NCM who has completed NVG mission training may not need additional mission training
when transitioning to the same type of aircraft with the same type of mission. For example, an
NCM who completes NVG mission training in a UH-1 may not need additional training when
transitioning into a UH-60. If mission tasks were not trained in the previous aircraft, the NCM
must receive training on those tasks.

NCMs must complete RL progression within 90 consecutive days. (Reserve Components have
one year.)

NVG mission training may be conducted concurrently with NVG qualification training.
Commanders will select mission training tasks that reflect their units mission requirements. On
completion of mission training, the NCM must pass an NVG evaluation. This evaluation may be
continual.

89
NVG Continuation Training
All NCMs begin continuation training after completing qualification or refresher training and
any required mission training.

Minimum NVG semiannual flying-hour requirements are five hours at night in the aircraft while
wearing NVG and performing crew duties.

Minimum annual task and iteration requirements are specified in the appropriate ATM. These
requirements consist of one iteration of all NVG tasks indicated by an "X" in the NVG column
of the task list and any mandatory mission tasks identified by the commander.

NVG Currency
The purpose of NVG currency is to maintain the necessary proficiency level to accomplish
individual, crew, and mission tasks. The hour and flight frequency levels for individuals
indicated in this paragraph are minimum requirements. Commanders should consider increasing
the number of flight hours or reducing the time between NVG flights for less experienced or less
proficient NCMs.

To be considered NVG current, NCMs must participate every 60 days in a one-hour flight at
night in the aircraft while wearing NVG and performing crew duties.

An NCM whose currency has lapsed must complete a one-hour NVG proficiency evaluation at
night in the aircraft given by an NVG IP, SP, FI, or SI.

Semi-Annual Aircraft Flying Hour Requirements

NVG RL1 NCM's, 5 hours at night while performing crew duties and wearing NVG's.

NOTE
FI's and SI's may credit those hours they fly while performing assigned duties toward their semi-
annual flying hour requirements.

Annual NVG Evaluation

All crewmembers that maintain currency must undergo an annual NVG evaluation whether they
are assigned to a designated NVG position or not. For RCMs, an NVG IP or SP conducts the
evaluation at night in the aircraft. An NVG IP, SP, SI, or FI conducts the evaluation for NCMs.
(An NVG-qualified FI or SI, if available, must evaluate an NVG-qualified FE. If an NVG-
qualified FI or SI is not available, an NVG IP or SP may conduct the evaluation.)

Crewmembers designated NVG RL 1 any time within their designated three-month evaluation
period must complete all requirements of the annual NVG evaluation.

90
An NVG evaluation is required for each aircraft group in which the crewmember performs
duties. All tasks identified by an "X" in the NVG column of the task list in the appropriate ATM
must be evaluated. Any NVG mission tasks designated by the commander also must be
evaluated. All evaluations will be performed at night in the aircraft using NVG.

Crewmembers undergoing RL 3 or RL 2 training are not subject to the NVG evaluation unless
they were removed from RL 1 status because of a training deficiency.

Crewmembers completing the hands-on performance tests during RL progression in the

commander-designated three-month annual evaluation period may receive credit for those tasks.

ADDITIONAL CREW MEMBER REQUIREMENTS PER TC 1-210

Single-Ship Operations
UH-1, UH-60, and CH-47 single-ship operations involving the use of NVG require at least three
crewmembers that are NVG current and qualified in the aircraft. Exceptions are operations
conducted at USAAVNC or NGB centralized training bases (WAATS and EAATS) according to
or in support of USAAVNC-approved programs of instruction.

NOTE
Rated aviators who are occupying crew positions with access to the flight controls and are
undergoing RL training with an IP, an SP, or a UT satisfy the three crew member requirement.

Multiaircraft Operations
The two aviators flying UH-1, UH-60, and CH-47 aircraft during aided multiaircraft operations
will be supplemented with additional crewmembers as indicated below.
UH-1 and UH-60 series - These aircraft require one additional crewmember wearing NVG (for a
minimum crew of three). If both sides of the aircraft cannot be observed when necessary, a
fourth crewmember wearing NVG must be added.

NOTE
The third and, if applicable, fourth crewmember may use a different type of NVG than the
crewmembers at the controls; for example, the GM-6 or the AN/AVS-6.

GENERAL NVG REQUIREMENTS PER TC 1-210

ANVIS Qualification
To be considered AN/AVS-6 qualified, a crewmember qualified in the GM-6 series NVG must
receive additional academic instruction on the AN/AVS-6. As a minimum, the training should
include instruction on the AN/AVS-6 operator's manual and the differences in the operating
limitations between the GM-6 series goggles and the AN/AVS-6.

NOTE

91
 After crewmembers complete AN/AVS-6 and AN/AVS-7 initial qualification, units will ensure
that an entry is made on the crewmember's DA FORM 7122-R and transcribed to the DA FORM
759 on closeout.

Type of NVG Worn

While conducting NVG operations, all crewmembers with access to the flight controls must be
qualified and current in the aircraft and NVG. In addition, they must wear the same type of
NVG; for example, the GM-6 or the AN/AVS-6.

NOTE
A formation is a flight in which two or more aircraft are in such proximity to each other that the
others must duplicate any movement by the lead aircraft.

NVG Terrain Flight

For the purpose of NVG training, NVG terrain flight is defined as flight at 200 feet or less above
the highest obstacle. Airspeed and altitude restrictions are outlined below.
NOE flight - (when operating with the skids or wheels up to 25 feet above trees and vegetation
in the flight path)--40 KIAS (maximum)

Contour flight - (when operating with the skids or wheels between 25 and 80 feet AHO)--70
KIAS (maximum)

Low-level flight - (when operating with the skids or wheels between 80 and 200 feet AHO)--
whatever airspeed operational requirements dictate and aircraft limitations allow

NOTE
The airspeeds shown above must be decreased if inclement weather or ambient light levels
restrict visibility.

Authorized formations
Authorized formations for NVG or night multiaircraft operations are outlined below.
More than 80 feet AHO - straight trail, free cruise, staggered, and echelon formations

At 80 feet AHO and below - free cruise formations in conjunction with techniques of
movement.

Pink Light
A search light or landing light, which has been modified by an infrared band-pass filter or pink
light, must be installed on the aircraft and operational before aircrews conduct NVG operations.
If the IR band-pass filter or pink light becomes inoperative during a mission, the PC will
evaluate the impact on mission accomplishment. PC actions may vary from a minor mission
adjustment to termination of the flight.

92
Daylight Filter Training
Daylight filter training is prohibited. Units in geographic areas with insufficient darkness over
extended periods and without compatible visual flight simulators available should request a
waiver for NVG currency.

NVD CHARACTERISTICS AND OPERATION

HISTORY
The concept of aviators utilizing helmet mounted night vision goggles was first tested in 1969. In
1970, the AN/PVS-5 NVG was developed utilizing GEN II technology. The Field of View
(FOV) was 40 degrees with a best visual acuity of 20/50.

Initial flight testing by the Army began in April 1971. Various testing continued until the NVG
received final approval for fielding. The first NVG IP's graduated in 1977 and IERW students
began receiving familiarization flights using full face NVG’s in late 1978.
In June 1979, the GX-5, the first cutaway face plate of the AN/PVS-5, was developed by
members of a Special Operations unit. This allowed aviators to see aircraft instruments without
having to focus one tube onto the aircraft instruments.

USAAVNC began official development of the Modified Face Plate (MFP) in 1980 with final
approval given in June 1983. Upon acceptance of the MFP, full face NVG’s were no longer
permitted for night flights. They were only permitted for day flights using daylight filters. The
daylight filters, fielded in June 1981, permitted aviators to fly NVG’s during the day, allowing
the copilot to serve as a Safety pilot. The daylight filters were no longer used after August 1988.

In July 1986, the National Guard Bureau announced plans for the GM-6 mount. The GM-6
incorporated a flip-up mount with AN/PVS-5 tubes.

The Aviator Night Vision Imaging System (ANVIS), utilizing GEN III tube technology, began
arriving in field units in 1985. This newer, lighter weight NVG has a hinged, flip-up capability
with a best visual acuity of 20/40. As of 1997, GEN II tubes are no longer authorized for aviation
use. The ANVIS is the only NVG currently permitted by the U.S. Army for aviation use.
Additional improvements are currently being tested and fielded.

COMPONENTS OF THE ANVIS SYSTEM

a. Carrying case - The case is for carrying and safeguarding the ANVIS when
not in use.
b. DA FORM 2408-30 - NVG inspection and maintenance record allows users
to write up deficiencies and show status of equipment.
c. Binocular assembly - A pair of monocular assemblies mounted under a pivot-
and-adjustment shelf (PAS).
d. Lens caps - The caps are to protect the objective and eyepiece lenses.

93
 e. Lens paper - The paper is for cleaning the lenses.
f. Screwdriver - Used to remove helmet visor cover and install ANVIS visor on
the flight helmet.
g. Operators manual - TM 11-5855-263-10.
h. Mount assembly - The assembly mounts directly to the flight helmet. Only
qualified personnel may install the mount. The installation of the mount is not
an operator task.
i. Batteries - Batteries authorized for NVG aviation uses are the BA-5567/U
lithium and/or AA alkaline. No other batteries (NiCad, mercury, carbon, AA
lithium, etc.) are authorized.
j. BA-5567/U Lithium 3.0 volt DC - Cell life: 13 to 16 hours at 100.0° F, 13
to 16 hours at 70.0° F, 9 to 12 hours at 0° F, 5 to 8 hours at -20.0° F.
k. AA alkaline (BA-3058) 1.5 volt DC - Cell life for two AA alkaline
batteries is 10 to 22 hours at 100.0° F, 10 to 22 hours at 70.0° F, 5 to 10
hours at 0° F, 1 to 3 hours at -20.0° F.

WARNING
Do not heat, puncture, disassemble short circuit, and attempt to recharge, or otherwise tamper
with the batteries. Turn off NVG’s if battery compartment becomes hot. Lithium batteries have a
safety vent to prevent explosion. When they are venting gas, an irritating odor or the sound of
gas escaping may be detected.

NOTE
Authorized batteries may be mixed in the power pack.

l. Power pack assembly - The assembly provides power for the ANVIS. The
power packs can use batteries or connect to an optional power converter to
power the ANVIS.
m. The original power pack - accepts only BA-5567/U lithium batteries and
draws the power for the low-battery indicator from the compartment
opposite the one being used to power the ANVIS.
n. The dual-battery type of power pack - accepts two BA-5567/U lithium
batteries, four AA alkaline batteries, or a combination of one BA-5567/U
lithium battery and two AA alkaline batteries. Power is drawn for the low
battery indicator from the compartment with the highest voltage. There are

94
 two types of dual-battery power packs. The -G1/-G2, identified by the part
number suffix, produces a steady a low battery indicator light. The -G3
produces a blinking low battery indicator light.
o. The Clip-On Power Source (COPS) - utilizes two AA batteries. The
COPS is designed to power the ANVIS during survival situations,
operator checks, and to help facilitate maintenance procedures.
p. Counterweight system - The counterweight system consists of a weight bag
and counterweights. The unit NVG maintainer is responsible for constructing
the weight bag. When choosing and adjusting the counterweights the
following should be considered:
1. The recommended initial weight is 12 ounces. Add or remove weight
to achieve the best balance and comfort, not to exceed 22 ounces.
2. Attachment of the weight bag should be low on the back of the helmet
with the battery pack mounted vertically above it.
3. The adjustment of weight in the weight bag should be made with the
binoculars attached and flipped down.

WARNING
The use of tire weights and like materials that have sharp edges are discouraged because they can
puncture the weight bag. It is recommended to use buckshot in ziplock pouches, which allows
the amount of weight to be adjusted easily and allows the weight bag to conform to the contour
of the helmet.

NOTE
A Velcro patch on the back of the helmet is required to attach the counterweight system and the
battery pack. Qualified personnel will install the Velcro patch.

q. Light-interference filter (LIF) - The LIF is a laser-protection filter for the

image intensifier; it is placed over the objective lenses for operation in laser
environments. The LIF will cause a slight reduction in system gain. The LIFs
are to remain installed except to clean or replace the LIF or lens.
r. Neck cord - A 42 inch cotton cord attached to the ANVIS at the PAS, required
to be installed on the ANVIS except when using the AVS-7 Heads Up Display
(HUD) or the Optical Display Assembly (ODA).

WARNING
Do not attach the lanyard to the flight helmet. Attaching the lanyard to the flight helmet may
cause head and neck injuries in a survivable accident.

95
 NOTE
While hanging the ANVIS by the neck cord, install lens caps to protect the lenses from being
scratched or twist the neck cord to allow the NVG’s to hang high on the chest.

ANVIS MONOCULAR COMPONENTS

Light Interference Filter (LIF)
The ANVIS are protected from some laser hazards by the LIF. The LIFs are mounted on an
adapter attached to the end of the objective lens.

Objective Lens
An optical element that gathers light and can be focused for the distance of an object. The
objective lens contains a "minus-blue" coating, which filters out light from the aircraft
instrument panel.

Image Intensifier (I2) Assembly

An Electro-optical device that detects and amplifies light to produce a visual image. The
components include:
1. Photocathode - Converts incoming light energy (photons) into electrical
energy (electrons).
2 Microchannel plate (MCP) - A thin wafer with approximately six
million hollow fiber optic channels that serves to increase both the
number and velocity of electrons. The inside passages of these
channels are coated with a material and tilted 8 degrees so as to cause
a secondary electron emission. For each electron that enters, 10,000 or
more will exit.
1. Phosphor screen - Converts electrons into photons. A very thin layer
of phosphor is applied to the output fiber optic system, and emits light
when struck by electrons.

Power Supply Function

The power supply converts the 3.0 volts from the power pack to the voltage required by the
photocathode, microchannel plate, and Phosphor screen. The power supply also provides
automatic brightness control (ABC) and bright-source protection (BSP).
1. ABC - Under high-light conditions, the ABC automatically
reduces the voltages to the MCP to keep the image intensifier's
brightness within a set limit. The effect of this function may be
seen when rapidly changing from low light to high light condition;
the image gets brighter and then after a momentary delay, suddenly
dims slightly to a constant level.

96
 2. BSP - The BSP function reduces the voltage to the photocathode
when the goggles are exposed to bright light sources. The BSP
feature protects the image intensifier from damage and enhances
its life; however, it also has the effect of lowering resolution.
Therefore, under bright conditions when you would not normally
use the goggles, the image produced is not sharp.
Fiber Optic Inverter
A bundle of microscopic light transmitting fibers twisted 180 degrees.

Eyepiece Lens
The function of the eyepiece lens is to focus the image from the fiber optic inverter onto the eye
by adjusting for individual eye acuity. There are two eyepiece lens assemblies, the 15mm and the
25mm eye piece lens assembly.

HOW DO THEY WORK?

Photons enter the monocular assembly through the objective lens and are projected onto the
photocathode. The image is inverted due to the shape of the objective lens.
The photocathode releases electrons proportional to the amount of incoming photons. The
electrons are accelerated by an electrical field in the direction of the phosphor screen.
Between the photocathode and the phosphor screen is a microchannel plate. This plate consists
of approximately 6.34 million microchannels, which are coated with an emissive material on the
inside of the channel walls. The microchannels are tilted approximately five to eight degrees to
ensure that the incoming electrons strike the channel walls. Upon contact, the primary electrons

cause the creation of secondary electrons which, in turn, strike the walls and create additional
electrons, causing a cascade of electrons. This amplification of electrons exits the microchannel
plate in the same pattern that the original electrons entered.

The electrons strike the phosphor screen causing the phosphor to glow, creating a visible image.

The image is then re-inverted (upright) by the fiberoptic inverter where the image is displayed.

The image is focused to the individual eye by the eyepiece lens.

97
ANVIS CHARACTERISTICS
The ANVIS is a passive light amplification/intensification system that intensifies light 2000-
3500 times.

The best visual acuity attainable with ANVIS is approximately 20/25 (OmniBus IV
specifications) to 20/40 (AN/AVS6) which is less than daytime (20/20), but a great improvement
over night unaided (20/200 or less).

The ANVIS will not correct for astigmatism.

Magnification is 1:1. NVG’s do not magnify images.

Depth perception and distance estimation is reduced from daytime capabilities. The quality of
both is affected by ambient light, degree of contrast and viewers experience utilizing monocular
cues.

The ANVIS has a 40-degree field of view (FOV) compared to 200 degree unaided. A 40 degree
FOV is best case and can only be obtained by using the proper Optimal Sight
Adjustment Point (OSAP) procedure. Utilizing proper scanning techniques compensates for the
40-degree field of view limitation.

The ANVIS focal range is 28cm +/-3 cm (11 in +/- 1.2in) to infinity. Infinity for ANVIS is
greater than 108 ft (33 meters).

The temperature range for ANVIS is 125.6° F to -25.6° F (52° C to -32° C).

The ANVIS is stowable in the flipped-up position while attached to helmet. When placed in the
stowed position, the ANVIS is automatically disconnected from the power source and shuts off.
The ANVIS mount assembly permits the use of a clear or tinted daytime visor when the
binocular is placed in the stowed position.

The ANVIS weighs between 550 grams (19.4 oz) and 590 grams (20.8 oz).

The ANVIS has a 10-15g force breakaway capability.

The frequency sensitivity for extends well into the near-IR range. (The minus-blue coating
makes the ANVIS less sensitive to blue lighting).

The ANVIS is monochromatic (single color viewing). All objects viewed through the NVG’s
will appear green. NVG’s do not provide color discrimination.

98
ANVIS MECHANICAL CONTROLS
The ANVIS mount contains the following mechanical controls:
a. Vertical adjustment knob - Adjusts the binocular up or down in a
vertical direction. It has a range of 16-mm total travel.
a. Lock release button - Unlocks the monocular assemblies so they can be
rotated up into the stowed position or down for NVG viewing.

The binocular assembly contains the following mechanical controls, which are located
on the Pivot Adjustment Shelf (PAS):
a. Pivot Adjustment Shelf (PAS) - There are two types of PASs. They are
identified by the presence of a single or an independent (dual) eye-span
knob(s).
b. Eye-span knob(s) - Adjusts for different spacing between the operator’s
eyes. The single eye-span knob adjusts both monoculars simultaneously.
For ANVIS with dual eye-span knobs, the monoculars are adjusted
individually. Turn the knob(s) to move eyepieces together or apart for
optimal spacing.
c. Fore and aft adjustment knob – Allows adjustment to attain the optimal
field of view.

99
 d. Tilt adjustment lever - Adjusts to obtain optimal line-of-sight view.
Allows the binocular to be tilted up or down.

The monocular assembly contains the following mechanical controls:

a. Objective focus ring - Focuses the objective lenses for the distance of an
object and the sharpest view of the scene. The focal range is 28cm+/-3cm (11
+/- 1.2 in) to optical infinity (108 ft or 33 meters) and beyond.
b. Eyepiece focus ring - Focuses the eyepiece lens to adjust for individual
eye acuity within +2 to -6 diopters.

OPERATIONAL CHECKS ON THE ANVIS

THESE CHECKS ARE N0T MEANT TO TAKE THE PLACE OF THE CHECKS
OUTLINED IN THE OPERATOR'S MANUAL (TM 11-5855-263-10). THIS TM
OUTLINES SPECIFIC INSPECTION CRITERIA TO BE USED WHEN
PERFORMING THESE CHECKS.
Before-Operation checks:
(1) Check maintenance forms and records for status of goggles and
inspection/servicing currency.
(2) Inspect the power pack for damage or missing components. Inspect the battery
compartment, power cable, function switch, and Velcro for cleanliness,
condition, serviceability, and proper function.

100
 NOTE:
If the aircraft power connector cap is missing, the power pack is still
operable; it does not affect its function.
(3) Inspect the visor, mount, and power cable for condition, security, and proper
function.
(4) Inspect the binocular assembly including all electrical contacts, lenses,
eyepiece and objective focus assemblies, PAS, monocular housing, and mount
for cleanliness, proper function, condition, and serviceability.
(5) Perform the low-battery indicator test.
(6) Mount the goggles, apply power and look for green glow in both eyepieces.
Check the opposite "ON" position.
(7) Check the viewed image for cosmetic blemishes and unacceptable faults.
NOTE:
The Test Set, (TS) 4348/UV, may be used by the operator to perform a
high/low light resolution test. This check may be performed before or after
operations.
After-Operation checks:
(1) Place the switch in the OFF position, remove the batteries from the power
pack, and stow the power pack in the carrying case so that the power cable
faces up.
(2) Replace all lens covers and adjust the eye-span knobs to allow the binocular to
fit easily into the case. The front (objective lens) should be inserted first into
the carrying case.
(3) Record discrepancies on DA Form 2408-30 IAW DA Pam 738-751.

LOW BATTERY INDICATOR CHECK

WARNING
If eyeglasses are worn, the upper rims of the eyeglasses can obscure the low-
battery indicator.
CAUTION
Check the low battery indicator without the binocular attached to the mount or
while the binocular assembly is in the stowed position.

101
The low battery indicator light is located on the visor mount.
The low battery indicator light is a steady or blinking red light emitting diode (LED) that
illuminates when the battery power is less than 2.4 volts.
Perform the low battery check using the following procedure:
(1) Remove the battery caps by pushing the caps in and turning them
counterclockwise.
(2) Make sure the contacts in the battery caps are clean. Install authorized
batteries into the battery compartments.
(3) Replace the battery caps by pushing the caps in and turning them clockwise.
(4) Mount the power pack onto the Velcro fastener on the back of the helmet.
(5) The power connector is quick release. To connect the cables, align the red
dots and press the male connector (from the power pack) into the female
connector of the visor guard until the two halves click.
(6) With the good batteries installed in both compartments of the power pack,
take off the battery cap to the alternate (lower) compartment. If using AA
batteries, pull the cartridge part way out to ensure electrical contact is broken.
(7) Turn the power switch to the alternate ON position (the compartment with the
cap removed). The low battery indicator should come on steady or blink.
(8) Return the switch to the OFF (middle) position and put the battery cap back
on.
(9) Take off the battery cap to the primary (upper) compartment. If using AA
batteries, pull the cartridge part way out to ensure electrical contact is broken.
(10) Turn the power switch to the primary ON position (the compartment with
the cap removed). The low battery indicator should come on steady or blink.
(11) If the low battery indicator does not come on, replace the batteries with
fresh ones and try again. Make sure the power cable is properly connected. If
the indicator still does not function, return the ANVIS (with the power pack)
and mount to the NVG maintainer.

MOUNTING THE ANVIS TO THE HELMET

CAUTION
To prevent damage to the I2, always set the power pack switch position OFF before changing
batteries, connecting the power pack to the visor or mounting the ANVIS.

102
 CAUTION
If the ANVIS is forced on to the mount assembly incorrectly (upside down or backward),
damage to the visor mount could result. A correctly mounted ANVIS will have the minus blue
coated objective lenses with the LIFs facing outward and the eyepiece lenses facing the user
when in the flipped down position.

Mount the ANVIS by:

(1) Ensuring all lens caps are removed.
(2) Positioning the ANVIS onto the visor mount by sliding the spring-loaded
bearings into the channels of the mount until they lock into place.
(3) When the ANVIS is securely attached, place the ANVIS in the stowed
position.

BATTERY AND POWER PACK INSTALLATION

CAUTION
Be sure the power pack is switched off before installing the batteries

Install either two BA5567/U lithium batteries, four AA batteries, or a combination of one BA-
5567/U battery and two AA batteries as follows. You may mix both types of batteries

1. Remove the battery caps by pushing them in and turning them counterclockwise.

2. Make sure the contacts in the battery caps are clean.

NOTES
The primary battery compartment is the upper compartment with respect to the ON-0FF-ON
label.
The alternate compartment is the lower compartment with respect to the ON-OFF-ON label.
Use a fresh (no-time) battery in the alternate (lower) compartment before beginning a mission.

3. Notice the required polarity for each type of battery as illustrated on the outside of the
power pack. If you are using AA alkaline batteries, install two batteries in a battery
cartridge so the “-“ (flat) end is against the spring and the “+” (nipple) end is against the
flat contact. Insert either two loaded AA battery cartridges (contact-end first), two BA-
5567/u lithium batteries, or a combination of one loaded AA battery cartridge and one
BA-5567/U lithium battery into the battery compartments according to the illustration on
the power pack.

4. Replace the battery caps by pushing them in and turning them clockwise.

103
 5. To mount the power pack in the primary (vertical) position, place the ON-OFF-ON
switch on the left side of the helmet, press the Velcro side of the power pack onto the
Velcro fastener on the back of the helmet. Because a helicopters cyclic is on the right
side of the pilot, the right hand must be used to control the aircraft. In the event of an
emergency, the left hand must be used to flip the ON-OFF-ON switch to a fresh battery;
therefore, the primary power pack position is to mount it with the switch on the left side.
For the dual-battery power pack only, an approved alternative position (horizontal) is to
mount the power pack with the ON-OFF-ON switch facing up. This alternate position
does not allow enough length for the power cable to use the original power pack.

NOTE
Before connecting the two power cables, make sure the switch is in the OFF (center) position

6. The power connector is quick release. To connect the two cables, align the red dots and
press the male connector (from the power pack) into the female connector on the edge of
the visor guard until the two halves click.

FLIPPING DOWN AND FLIPPING UP THE ANVIS

CAUTION
Do not attempt to flip-up or flip-down the binocular without using the lock-release button. The
binocular could be damaged or may come out of the mount if the button is not used.

NOTE
When the NVG’s are in the flip-down position, it is possible to adjust the vertical adjustment
knob too high, which will not allow the binoculars to rotate into the fully down locked position.

Flip down procedure:

(1) Grasp the binocular with the left hand.
(2) With the thumb of the left hand, press in the lock-release button.
(3) Smoothly, but firmly, rotate the binocular downward until it stops.
(4) Release the lock-release button. Make sure the binocular locks into the
operating position.

104
Flip up procedure:
(1) Grasp the binocular with the left hand.
(2) With the index finger of the left hand, press in the lock-release button.
(3) Smoothly, but firmly, rotate the binocular upward toward the top of the helmet
until it stops.
(4) Release the lock-release button. Make sure the binocular is locked in the up
(stowed) position before releasing the binocular.

APPLYING POWER TO THE ANVIS

CAUTION
Do not expose the ANVIS to bright lights when the ANVIS has power. Operate the ANVIS only
in a darkened environment.
Apply power to the ANVIS by:
(1) Pressing the lock-release button and rotating the binocular to the down and
locked position.
(2) Turning the power switch to the primary (upper) ON position. A green glow
will appear in each eyepiece. If a red light appears at the base of the ANVIS
mount, repeat the low battery indicator check procedure.

ADJUSTING THE ANVIS (OSAP)

NOTE
Adjust the ANVIS only in a darkened environment with sufficient ambient light and distinct
geometric forms to view.

NOTE
Perform this procedure with a properly counter-balanced helmet.

The ANVIS is designed to adjust for differences in head shape and correct for differences in
eyesight.

Optimal Sight Adjustment Point (OSAP) Procedure - The OSAP procedure is performed to
precisely align each monocular to the individual eye by obtaining the optimal sight picture.
The optimal sight picture occurs when the optical axes of the monocular is aligned with the
visual line of sight and the eyepiece is at the maximum distance from the eye while providing
the entire FOV. To achieve the OSAP, use the following procedure:

105
(1) Disregard focusing at this time; it is actually better to have the objective lens
out of focus for this procedure.
(2) Use a lighting condition, either actual or simulated, above starlight -
preferably 1/4 to 1/2 moon. The background should be relatively uniform to
produce a viewed image of reasonably uniform brightness without dark or
light areas. Do not permit any light sources in the field of view.
(3) Initially, preset all the mechanical adjustments (except focus settings) to
approximately a middle position. After completing an initial OSAP procedure,
individual preset positions can be used as a starting point for subsequent
OSAP procedures.
(4) From the stowed position, use the lock release button and rotate the goggles
down to the operating position.
(5) Turn on the power pack to the primary ON position, a green glow should be
seen.
(6) Using the vertical adjustment knob, move the goggles so the images appear
circular and roughly centered. If the goggles are too high, the top edges (from
10 o'clock to 2 o'clock) of the viewed image will be clearer than the bottom
edges (from 4 o'clock to 8 o'clock). If the goggles are too low, the bottom
edges will be clearer than the top edges. Move the goggles in the direction of
the blurred edges until both the top and bottom edges are clear.
(7) Obtain clear edges by turning the eye-span knob to move the monocular in the
direction of the blurred edge (for goggles with independent eye-span
adjustment, turn only the knob for the monocular being adjusted). If the
outside edge is blurred, reduce the separation. If the inside edges are blurred,
increase the separation.
(8) Use the fore-and-aft adjustment knob to move the goggles slowly away from
the eyes until all the edges just begin to blur. At this fore-and-aft position very
small deviations of the goggles optical axes from the visual axis will be
detected.
(9) If only one monocular is aligned, close that eye and look at the viewed image
in the other monocular (use the black eyepiece lens cap if necessary). ANVIS
with a single eye-span adjustment knob, blurred edge(s) are usually present
that will require a combination of slight helmet lateral rotation and side tilt,
along with slight readjustment of the eye-span, vertical, and fore-and-aft
positions. ANVIS with two eye-span knobs, repeat step (5) for the remaining
monocular and make whatever tilt adjustments are necessary to the helmet.
Lateral helmet shifts should not be necessary because the independent eye-
span adjustment compensates for this.

106
 (10) When the OSAP procedure is complete for both eyes, use the fore-and-aft
adjustment to move the goggles slightly closer to the eye (about 1/2 turn) to
compensate for shifts that occur during flight.
(10) Tilt lever adjustment - Tilt should be adjusted in the aircraft. When the tilt
angle is adjusted for individual seating position, the vertical height of the
goggles optical axes will change and a corresponding vertical adjustment on
the ANVIS mount assembly will be required.

FOCUSING THE ANVIS

CAUTION
While setting the eyepiece focus, a clear image for each eye (monocular) may be
achieved and yet develop eyestrain, periodic blurred vision and headaches if the focusing
procedure is not completed properly.
CAUTION
Be careful not turn the eyepiece focus rings too far clockwise in the minus diopter
direction ("over minus"). Try to "plus-up" the diopters in the clockwise direction to
obtain a clear image.

NOTE
Perform the binocular focusing procedure in a dark area, but with sufficient light so the
ANVIS operates without appreciable visual noise (scintillation).
NOTE
It is not important to begin the focusing procedure from the left or right monocular as
long as the following steps are completed for both monoculars.
Indoor Binocular Focus Adjustment Procedure - To achieve a clear and relaxed
binocular focus, use the following sequence:
(1) Turn both objective focus rings fully counterclockwise and then turn both
eyepiece focus rings so the reference dot and 0-diopter mark are aligned.
(2) Cover the left eye or cup a hand over the left objective lens. Do not close the
left eye. Be careful not to touch the lenses.
(3) View a target that is 20 feet away (a vision chart or other object that has
lettering or fine detail). If a 20-foot distance is not possible, use the maximum
distance available.
(4) Slowly turn the right objective focus ring clockwise. When the sharpest image
is obtained, stop.

107
 (5) Turn the right eyepiece focus ring counterclockwise until the image blurs
slightly. Now turn the eyepiece focus ring slowly clockwise until a clear
image is obtained, then stop.
(6) Repeat steps (2) through (5) above for the left monocular.
(7) After adjusting both monoculars for best focus, cover the objective lens of the
left monocular and view the right monocular checking to see if the image is
still clear. Then cover the objective lens of the right monocular with the right
hand and view the image through the left monocular. If either monocular is
not clear, repeat steps (2) through (5) for the unclear side.
(8) Check for operational defects and cosmetic blemishes.
(9) Turn off the ANVIS.
Outdoor Binocular Focus Adjustment Procedure - To achieve a clear and relaxed
binocular focus, use the following procedure to accomplish a fine focus adjustment.
(1) Turn both objective focus rings fully counterclockwise and then turn both
eyepiece focus rings so the reference dot and 0-diopter mark are aligned.
(2) Turn on the ANVIS.
(3) Look at a high-contrast target (the edge or some detail of a building or other
man-made structure about 100 to 200 feet away).
(4) Cover your left eye or cup your hand over the left objective lens. Do not close
your left eye. Be careful not to touch the lenses.
(5) Slowly turn the right objective focus ring clockwise. When the sharpest
image, stop.
(6) Turn the right eyepiece focus ring counterclockwise until the image blurs
slightly. Now, turn the eyepiece slowly clockwise until you first obtain a clear
image, then stop.
(7) Repeat steps (3) through (6) above for the left monocular.
(8) Turn the left objective focus ring so it is slightly out of focus and fine details
are blurred but not whole objects. While viewing with both eyes open, fine-
tune the right eyepiece focus ring. When a clear, sharp image is obtained, turn
the left objective focus ring back to its original position.
(9) Repeat step (8) above for the left monocular.

(10) Turn off the ANVIS.

108
DISMOUNTING THE ANVIS
CAUTION
When removing the binocular from the mount do not grasp one of the monoculars and
pull it out of the mount with a twisting motion. This will damage the mechanism in
the PAS or crack the visor mount.
CAUTION
Install the protective caps on the ANVIS when the ANVIS is not in use.
Dismount the ANVIS by:
(1) Ensuring the power pack switch is in the OFF position.
(2) Pressing the lock-release button with the left index finger.
(3) Rotating the monocular assemblies up to a middle position.
(4) Grasping the binocular assembly with both hands at the PAS and pulling the ANVIS
from the visor mount.
(5) Replacing the lens caps.

TYPES OF VISUAL DEFICIENCIES OF THE ANVIS

WARNING
Do not fly with an ANVIS that has an identified defect. Return the ANVIS to the
NVG maintainer.
CAUTION
Inspect the ANVIS for visual deficiencies in the dark after completing the adjusting
and focusing procedure. Use the primary (upper) ON position. Do not use the
alternate (lower) compartment with the fresh (no-time) back-up battery. Look through
the binoculars by viewing one monocular at a time.
Operational Defects - These defects relate to the reliability of the image intensifier and are
an indication of instability. If identified, they are an immediate cause for rejecting the
ANVIS. When a defect has been identified, record the specific nature of the problem on the
maintenance forms and return the ANVIS to the NVG maintainer for repair.
Shading - Each monocular should present a full circle. If shading is present, a full
circular image will not be seen. Shading is indicative of a dying photocathode caused by
a defective vacuum seal of the image intensifier. Shading is very dark and images cannot
be seen through it. Shading always begins on the edge and migrates inward eventually
across the entire image. Shading is a high contrast area with a distinct line of
demarcation. Do not confuse shading with variations in output brightness.

109
 NOTE
Make sure the shading is not the result of improper tilt, eye-span adjustment, or
vertical adjustment.
Edge Glow - Edge glow is a bright area (sometimes sparkling) in the outer portion of the
viewing area. An emission point (or series of emission points) sometimes causes edge
glow just outside the field of view or by a defective phosphor screen that permits light
feedback to the photocathode. To check for edge glow, block out all light by cupping a
hand over the lens. If the image monocular assembly is displaying edge glow, the bright
area will still show up
Flashing, Flickering, or Intermittent Operation - The image may appear to flicker or
flash. This can occur in either one or both monoculars. If there is more than one flicker,
check for loose wires, loose battery cap, or weak batteries. Indicate the rate of flashing or
flickering on the maintenance forms.
Cosmetic Blemishes - These are usually the result of manufacturing imperfections that do
not affect image intensifier reliability and are not normally a cause for rejecting an ANVIS.
However, some types of blemishes can get worse over time. Cosmetic blemishes are not a
cause for rejection unless they become severe enough to interfere with the ability to perform
the mission. When a blemish is cause for rejection, record the specific nature of the problem
on the maintenance forms and identify the position of the blemish by using the clock method
and approximate distance from the center (e.g., 5 o'clock toward the outside, 2:30 near the
center, or 1:00 midway) and return the ANVIS to the NVG maintainer for repair.
Bright Spots - These are signal-induced blemishes in the image area caused by a flaw in
the film on the MCP. A bright spot is a small, non-uniform, bright area that may flicker
or appear constant. Bright spots usually go away when the light is blocked out. Not all
bright spots make the ANVIS unserviceable. Place a cupped hand over the lens to block
out all light. Make sure any bright spot is not simply a bright area in the viewed scene. If
the bright spot remains, an emission point exists and needs to be checked. Return the
ANVIS to the maintainer.
Emission Points - A steady or fluctuating pinpoint of bright light in the image area and
does not go away when all light is blocked from the objective lens of that monocular. The
position of an emission point within the image area does not move. Make sure any
emission point is not simply a point light source in the viewed scene. Not all emission
points deadline the ANVIS. Place a cupped hand over the lens to block out all light. If the
bright spot remains, return the ANVIS to the maintainer to be checked for tolerances.
Black Spots - These are cosmetic blemishes in the image intensifier or dirt or debris
between the lenses.
Chicken Wire - An irregular pattern of dark lines in the FOV throughout the image area
or in parts of the image area. Under the worst case condition, these lines will form
hexagonal or square-wave shaped lines.

110
Image Distortion - This problem is more easily detected in high-light conditions.
Vertical objects, such as trees or poles appearing to wave or bend when your head is
moved vertically or horizontally when looking through ANVIS evidence it. Ground
surfaces in the direction of hover may appear to swell or sink. Distortion does not change
during the life of an image intensifier. Each image intensifier has been screened for
distortion before the first use; therefore, no action is required if this condition is present
unless it interferes with viewing the image and interferes with the operator's ability to
perform the mission.
Fixed-Pattern Noise (Honeycomb) - This is usually a cosmetic blemish characterized by
a faint hexagonal pattern throughout the viewing area that most often occurs at high-light
levels or when viewing very bright lights. The pattern can be seen in every image
intensifier if the light level is high enough.
Image Disparity - This condition may exist when there is a difference in brightness
between the two image-intensifier assemblies within the same binocular.
Output Brightness Variation - areas of varying brightness in or across the image area
evidence this condition. The lower contrasts do not exhibit distinct lines of demarcation
nor do they degrade image quality. Do not confuse output brightness with shading.

CARE AND CLEANING OF THE ANVIS

CAUTION
Do not scratch or touch the external lens surfaces. Do not use abrasive materials to
clean the gold-plated electrical contacts.
Care for the ANVIS by:
(1) Gently brushing off any dirt using only a soft, lint free cloth.
(2) Moistening the cloth with fresh water and gently wiping the external surfaces (except
lenses) so they are free of foreign material.
(3) With another dry, clean, soft, lint free cloth, dry any wet surfaces (except lenses).
(4) Carefully removing all loose dirt from lenses with lens paper.
(5) Dampening a folded lens paper with clean water and lightly and slowly wiping the
lenses. After one straight stroke, discard the lens paper. Repeat this step until the
glass surfaces are clean.
(6) After cleaning, storing NVG’s in a clean, dry carrying case.

CARE AND CLEANING IN ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTS

Saltwater environment -

111
 (1) Clean all hardware thoroughly with a clean soft cloth dampened with fresh
water.
(2) Separate and individually clean the binoculars and all mounting hardware
attached to the helmet. Do not submerge in water.
(3) Carefully inspect for corrosion on the electrical contacts.
Dust or sand environment -
(1) Exposure of the objective lenses to blowing dust or sand may scratch them
and seriously degrade their performance. Keep caps on when NVG’s are not
in use.
(2) Keep the carrying case closed unless removing or replacing the contents.
(3) Ensure that all dust and sand is removed from the binoculars, visor mount, and
carrying case after operation.
(4) When using lens papers ensure all sand has been brushed or blown from the
lens to avoid damage.
Hot, humid, rain, or arctic environment -
(1) Keep the carrying case closed when not replacing or removing items.
(2) Dry all parts and surfaces after exposure to high levels of moisture.
(3) Do not put any parts of the ANVIS away wet or store them in a wet carrying
case or storage case.
NBC environment -
(1) Do not use DS-2 to decontaminate the components. Instead, decontaminate
with a 5-percent solution of sodium hypochlorite and clean with a cloth
dampened with hot soapy water followed by fresh, clean water. Do not
immerse the ANVIS.
(2) Dry the components and ensure all electrical contacts are clean and dry. Use
lens paper to clean the optical surfaces. Do not attempt to disassemble the
binoculars.
(3) Do not put any parts of the ANVIS away wet or store them in a wet carrying
case or storage case.

NVD LIMITATIONS AND TECHNIQUES

Limited Field of View - 40 degrees.
Intensification of Light - 2000X - 3500X times the ambient light.

112
Monochromatic Vision - green or shades of green.
Interior/Exterior Lighting - adjust to lowest usable level to avoid glare.
Tunnel Vision - you must scan constantly.
Astigmatism - NVG's do not correct for astigmatism.
Tired (Crew Endurance) – limited by SOP.
IR Light - must be operational at takeoff.
Obstruction - obstructions that have poor reflective surfaces, such as wires and small tree
limbs, are difficult to detect.
Negligible Depth Perception - best case visual acuity is 20/40 with AN/ AVS 6
Spatial Disorientation - extremely easy to develop, especially on low-illumination nights

ADDITIONAL LIMITATIONS OF NVG’s

Depth Perception and Distance Estimation
Depth perception and distance estimation are difficult with NVG's. The quality of an individual's
depth perception in a given situation depends on several factors. They include the available light,
type and quality of the NVG system used, degree of contrast in the field of view, and viewer's
experience. The aircrew must rely on the monocular cues discussed earlier for accurate depth
perception and distance estimation.

Color Discrimination
Color discrimination is absent when scenes are viewed through NVG's. The picture seen with
NVG's is monochromatic (single color). It has a green hue because of the type of phosphor used
on the phosphor screen of the NVG image intensifier tube. The green hue in NVG's may cause
crew members to experience a pink, brown, or purple afterimage when they remove the device.
This is called chromatic adaptation and is a normal physiological phenomenon. The length of
time the afterimage remains varies with the individual.

Obstruction Detection
Obstructions that have poor reflective surfaces, such as wires and small tree limbs, are difficult
to detect. The best way to locate wires is to look for the support structures. Hazardous wires in
high-use areas should be marked with reflective devices.

Spatial Disorientation
Maneuvers requiring large bank angles or rapid attitude changes tend to induce spatial
disorientation. Therefore, the aviator should avoid making drastic changes in attitude and bank
angle and use proper scanning and viewing techniques.
Airspeed and Ground Speed Limitations
Aviators using NVG's tend to overfly their capability to see. To avoid obstacles, they must
understand the relationship between the device's visual range and forward lighting capability and
airspeed.

113
Lights
Performance of NVG's is directly related to the ambient light. During periods of high ambient
light, resolution is improved and objects can be identified at greater distances, although not to the
degree possible during daylight. To light the flight path of a helicopter in low ambient light, the
aviator may have to use an additional light source.
Bright lights and periods of high ambient light adversely affect NVG’s. When
exposed to a bright light source, the AN/AVS-6 series are susceptible to whiteout.
Saturation of the NVG's appears on the tube as a bright halo effect around the
image of the light source. The halo effect also degrades the contrast of adjacent
portions of the intensified image. This degradation of performance becomes worse
when several bright lights appear in the field of view. Additionally, internal
circuitry automatically adjusts output brightness to a preset level to restrict peak
display luminance. When an area with bright lights is viewed, the display
luminance will decrease ("shut down"). In addition to the halo effect around a bright
light source, the overall display luminance of the rest of the viewed scene will dim.
The brighter the light sources the dimmer the rest of the viewed scene. The
crewmember may also experience the dimming effect when viewing in the direction
of a full moon at low angles above the horizon.
Tunnel Vision
Limits an individual's ability to see outside an area lit by bright artificial lights such as flares,
landing lights, and lights with infrared filters. The ability to see objects within the lighted area
depends on the intensity of the light and the distance of the object from the viewer. A
crewmember should not look directly at a bright light source because it may temporarily degrade
the efficiency of the NVG's. When flying with the landing light or searchlight with the pink light
filter or infrared band-pass filter on, the aircrew should avoid concentrating on the area
illuminated by the light. The aircrew should also scan the area not illuminated by the light for
hazards and obstacles.

Scanning Techniques
Although the basic principles of scanning are the same for unaided and aided flight,
crewmembers must consider a few specific items when conducting operations with NVG's.
Flight techniques and visual cues for unaided night flight also apply to aided night flight. Use
of the NVG's improves ground reference but significantly reduces the field of view.
(1) The FOV of NVG's significantly reduces peripheral vision as compared with
unaided flight. Thus the crewmember must use a continual scanning pattern to
compensate for the loss. Moving the eyes will not change the viewing
perspective; the head must be turned. However, rapid head movement can
induce spatial disorientation. To view an area while using NVG's, the
crewmember must rotate his head and eyes slowly and continuously. When
scanning to the right, he should move his eyes slowly from the left limit of
vision inside the device to the right limit while moving his head to the right. In
this manner, the crewmember will cover a 70 to 80 viewing field with only 30

114
 or 40 of head movement. This technique minimizes head rotation. However,
maximum visual acuity can only be attained when the crewmember views
through the center of the tube. Acuity drops to 20/70 or worse in the periphery
of the NVG's FOV. The crewmember should scan back to the left in reverse
order and avoid rapid head movements because they can induce vertigo. The
crewmember must develop scanning techniques that involve a mix of unaided
and aided vision.
(2) The devices provide the primary source for detailed visual information. When
viewed through the devices, illumination sources, such as aircraft position
lights and ground lights, may not be accurately interpreted according to
intensity, distance, or color. Unaided vision can provide this additional
information. With the modified NVG compatible aircraft cockpits, a slight
downward deflection of the eyes will provide all required visual information
inside the cockpit.
(3) Practice and experience are necessary to obtain maximum visual information
from both unaided and aided vision. Initially, unaided peripheral vision may
be somewhat distracting until the crewmember develops adequate experience
combining through-the-tube viewing with around-the-device scanning.

115
CHAPTER 13

NIGHT FLIGHT
TC1-204

Night flight has assumed an increasingly important role in Army aviation. The Threat trains
around the clock. To counter it, aviators must be able to conduct operations at night as well as
during the day. Technological advances in night vision devices are enabling Army aviation to
extend its operational capability to a 24 hour-a-day schedule. Ongoing improvements to these
devices will further enhance aircrew performance during night operations.

THE EYE

Physiology Of The Human Eye

The cornea is the transparent tissue located over the front of the eye. It is fibrous, tough,
unyielding and perfectly transparent. It is almost circular in shape and projects forward.
The degree of curvature varies with different individuals.

The iris is the round, pigmented (colored) membrane surrounding the pupil, having
ciliary muscles that adjust the size of the pupil to regulate the amount of light entering the
eye. It is a thin, circular shaped curtain, suspended behind the cornea and in front of the
lens. It is perforated by the pupil for the transmission of light.

The pupil is the opening in the center of the iris (black center portion). During daylight
conditions the pupil constricts, during dark conditions the pupil dilates.

NOTE
Pupil size is inversely related to the amount of light presented. Increases in
pupillary diameter decreases image sharpness in a less than perfect lens
systems (i.e., most eyes). Aviators who have mild refractive errors may not
need to wear their glasses during daylight viewing conditions when pupil size is

116
 small. However, at dusk or night, the pupil becomes larger causing vision to
blur unless corrective glasses are worn. Aviators who have minor refractive
errors in their lens system must wear properly fitted glasses for night
operations.

The lens is a transparent, biconvex membrane situated immediately behind the pupil
between the iris and the vitreous humor (a jelly like, transparent substance, 98% water,
which gives the eyeball form). The lens directs light rays entering the pupil upon the
retina.

NOTE
For a person with no refractive error, red light falls naturally behind the retinal
plane so as to markedly worsen presbyopia and hyperopia. Blue-green light
falls naturally on the retinal wall and allows the eyes to more easily focus on
such items as maps and instruments, thus resulting in less eye fatigue. Older
aviators have a problem reading approach plates and other small items with red
light.

The retina is a thin multi-layered membrane, which covers most of the posterior
compartment of the eye. The retina contains the rod and cone cells of the eye. These cells
permit us to see. The retina also contains a coloring tint called rhodopsin or visual purple.
When exposed to sunlight, the retina cells become bleached resulting in a temporary
decrease in night vision.

NOTE
The retina is a complex structure consisting of ten layers. One such layer, the
Jacob's membrane, contains photoreceptor cells, rods and cones, so named
because of their shape. These photoreceptor cells translate light images into
electrical pulses for transmission via neurons to the brain. Cones operate most
efficiently at ordinary illumination levels, which prevail throughout the day and
in normally lighted rooms at night. When the illumination decreases to about
the level of full moonlight, rods are most effective.

Cone cells allow you to identify colors. They are utilized primarily in daylight hours or in
other periods when a bright light source is present. Cones contain a chemical called
Iodopsin. Cone cells pick up certain colors depending on their pigmentation sensitivity.
These colors are red, blue, or green light.

Seven million contained in the fovea and parafovea regions of the retina.

Sharp visual acuity and color sense due to 1:1 ratio of cone cells to neuron cells.

Rod cells allow us to identify the outline of shapes and objects. Rod cells are utilized
mostly during time periods of low ambient lighting and darkness. A chemical known as
Rhodopsin (visual purple) activates rod cells. Rhodopsin increases in the rod cells during

117
 darkness and takes an average of 30-45 minutes to achieve effectiveness and night vision
adaptation.

120 million rod cells are located in the periphery of the retina. The periphery area of the retina
is much more sensitive to light than the fovea.

Use of your peripheral vision while scanning, during night unaided flying, will greatly assist
you in maintaining a positive visual identification and location of flight hazards.

Decreased visual acuity and color sense is directly related to the 10:1 up to 10,000:1
ratio of rod cells to neuron cells.

Retinal blind spots.

The day blind spot or physiological blind spot results from the position of the optic disk on the
retina. The optic disk has no light sensitive receptors (cone and rod cells). The day blind spot
covers an area of 5.5 by 7.5 degrees and is located about 15 degrees from the fovea.

NOTE
Because of the overlap of binocular vision this blind spot is normally not noticed unless only one
eye is used

The night blind spot occurs when the area (cones) in and around the fovea becomes
inactive under low-level light conditions. This night blind spot involves an area from 5
to 10 degrees wide in the center of the visual field.

NOTE
To correct for this limitation, use of proper scanning techniques will assist the
crewmember to maintain visual sighting of objects, hazards, and position of aircraft

TYPES OF VISION

The three types of vision are photopic, mesopic, and scotopic. Each type functions
under different sensory stimuli or ambient light conditions. Night vision involves
mesopic and scotopic vision. Photopic vision at night is possible only when sufficient
levels of artificial illumination exist.
Photopic Vision - Photopic vision is experienced during daylight or when a high
level of artificial illumination exists. The cones concentrated in the fovea centralis
of the eye are primarily responsible for vision in bright light. Because of the high
light level, rhodopsin is bleached out and rod cells become less effective. Sharp
image interpretation and color vision are characteristic of photopic vision.
Mesopic Vision - Mesopic vision is experienced at dawn, at dusk, and during full
moonlight. Vision is achieved by a combination of cones and rods. Visual acuity

118
 steadily decreases as available light decreases. Color perception changes because
the cones become less effective. As cone sensitivity decreases, crewmembers
should use off-center vision and proper scanning techniques to detect objects
during low light levels.
Scotopic Vision - Scotopic vision is experienced under low light levels. Cones
become ineffective, resulting in poor resolution of detail. Visual acuity decreases
to 20/200 or less. This enables a person to see only objects the size of or larger
than the big "E" on visual acuity testing charts from 20 feet away. (A person must
stand at 20 feet to see what can normally be seen at 200 feet under daylight
conditions.) Also, color perception is lost. A night blind spot in the central field of
view appears at low light levels. The night blind spot occurs when cone-cell
sensitivity is lost.

DARK ADAPTATION, NIGHT VISION PROTECTION, AND CENTRAL NIGHT

BLIND SPOT

DARK ADAPTATION
Dark adaptation is the process by which the eyes increase their sensitivity to low
levels of illumination. Rhodopsin (visual purple) is the substance in the rods
responsible for light sensitivity. The degree of dark adaptation increases as the
amount of visual purple in the rods increases through biochemical reactions. Each
person adapts to darkness in varying degrees and at different rates. In a darkened
theater, the eye adapts quickly to the prevailing level of illumination. Compared to
the light level of a moonless night, this level is high. A person requires less time
to adapt to complete darkness after being in a darkened theater than to adapt after
being in a lighted hangar. Thus the lower the starting level of illumination, the
more rapidly complete dark adaptation is achieved.
During the first 30 minutes the sensitivity of the eye increases 10,000 fold, with
little further increase. Dark adaptation for optimal night vision acuity approaches
its maximum level in approximately 30 to 45 minutes under minimal lighting
conditions. If the eyes are exposed to a bright light after dark adaptation, their
sensitivity is temporarily impaired. The degree of impairment depends on the
intensity and duration of the exposure. Brief flashes from high-intensity, white
(xenon) strobe lights, which are commonly used as anticollision lights on aircraft,
have little effect on night vision. This is true because the pulses of energy are of
such short duration (milliseconds). Exposure to a flare or a searchlight longer than
one second can seriously impair night vision. Depending on the brightness and
duration of such an exposure, an aviator's recovery of dark adaptation could take
from 5 minutes to the full 45 minutes.
Exposure to bright sunlight also has a cumulative and adverse effect on dark
adaptation. Reflective surfaces, such as sand, snow, or water, intensify this
condition. Exposure to intense sunlight for two to five hours decreases visual
sensitivity for up to five hours. In addition, the rate of dark adaptation and the

119
 degree of night visual acuity decrease. These cumulative effects may persist for
several days.
The retinal rods are least affected by the wavelength of a dim red light. Because
low ambient light levels stimulate rods, red lights do not significantly impair night
vision if the proper techniques are used. To minimize the adverse effect of red
lights on night vision, the light intensity should be adjusted to the lowest usable
level and the illuminated object should only be viewed for a short time.
Illness also adversely affects dark adaptation. A fever and a feeling of
unpleasantness are normally associated with illness. High body temperatures
consume oxygen at a higher-than-normal rate. As a result, hypoxia is induced and
night vision may be degraded. In addition, the unpleasant feeling that is associated
with sickness is distracting and restricts the crewmember's ability to concentrate
on flying requirements.
Night vision devices affect dark adaptation. If a previously dark-adapted
crewmember wearing a NVD removes the device in a darkened environment, a
30-minute dark adaptation level can be regained in about 2 to 3 minutes. No dark
adaptation period is necessary before using the NVD. Vision with NVD's is
primarily photopic, but the low light levels produced by the NVD's do not fully
bleach out rhodopsin. Use of NVD's does not seriously degrade dark adaptation.

NIGHT VISION PROTECTION (Use the acronym PROTECTIONS)

Prepare takeoff and landing facilities
1. Airfield lighting should be reduced to the lowest intensity.
2. Hover lanes should be established and marked with minimal lighting to
permit hovering without using the landing light or search light.
3. If possible aircraft scheduled for night flights should be positioned on the
airfield where the least amount of light exists.
4. Departure and arrival routes should be selected to avoid highways and
residential areas.
5. Light discipline should be practiced by maintenance and service crews.
Red lens goggles
1. Rod cells are much more sensitive to blue light than to red light. They are
stimulated so slightly by red light that by wearing red lens goggles you can
achieve a fair degree of dark adaptation and still see well enough to read or
write. This is NOT as good as 30 minutes of complete darkness.
Oxygen

120
 1. Lack of oxygen to the rod cells significantly reduces their sensitivity,
increases the time required for dark adaptation, and decreases the ability to
see at night. Use oxygen when flying unaided above 4000 feet, aided
vision is not significantly affected.
Turn away from bright lights
If a flash of high intensity light is expected from a specific direction, turn the
aircraft away from the light source. When flares are used, maneuver your
aircraft away from the flare to the periphery of the illuminated area to
minimize you exposure to the light source.
Exterior Lights
Exterior light should be turned off or taped, (check with local SOP's and
applicable regulations), to protect the night vision of other aircrew members in
a multiship environment.
Close one eye
If an unexpected flash of high intensity light occurs close one eye. When light
is no longer a factor the closed eye will provide enough night vision for flight.
Towns, avoid built up areas
Select flight routes to avoid built up areas where there is a heavy concentration
of light sources.
Interior lights down
Set instrument lighting and other forms of internal aircraft lighting to the
lowest usable level. This will aid in dark-adapting and help prevent loss of
night vision should you need to go unaided.
Ordnance, use short bursts
Use short bursts of fire, close one eye, or look away from the firing. Door
guns firing will affect not only the door gunner but the pilot on the firing side
also.
Nutrition
Not only can an improper diet cause hypoglycemia but a diet that is deficient
in Vitamin A can cause impairment of night vision. Vitamin A is an essential
element in the buildup of rhodopsin in the rod cells. Without this, night vision
is severely degraded. An adequate intake of Vitamin A through a balanced diet
that includes such foods as eggs, butter, cheese, liver, carrots, and most green
vegetables will help ensure proper visual acuity. Keep in mind that excessive
quantities of Vitamin A will not improve night vision and may be harmful.
Prior to supplementing your diet consult your flight surgeon.

121
 Sunglasses
Repeated exposure to bright sunlight has an adverse effect on dark adaptation
and is intensified by reflective surfaces like sand and snow. Exposure for 2 to
5 hours causes a decrease in your scotopic visual sensitivity that can last as
long as 5 hours. When exposed to bright sunlight use military neutral density
(N-15) or equivalent sunglasses, especially when you anticipate night flight.
This precaution maximizes the rate of dark adaptation at night and improves
night vision sensitivity.
CENTRAL NIGHT BLIND SPOT
The night blind spot should not be confused with the physiological blind spot (the so-
called day blind spot) caused by the optic disk. The physiological blind spot is present
all the time, not only during the day. This blind spot results from the position of the
optic disk on the retina. The optic disk has no light-sensitive receptors. The
physiological blind spot covers an area of approximately 5.5° by 7.5° and is located
about 15° from the fovea. Because of the overlap of binocular vision, this blind spot is
normally not noticed unless one eye is not used. The physiological blind spot becomes
an important consideration when monocular night vision devices, such as the PNVS,
are used.
The night blind spot occurs when the area in and around the fovea becomes inactive
under low-light conditions. This night blind spot involves an area from 5 to 10 degrees
wide in the center of the visual field.
The night blind spot is due to the complete absence of rod cells in the fovea and the
inability of cone cells to function under low-light conditions.
If an object is viewed directly at night, it may not be detected because of the night blind
spot; if it is detected, it may fade away. The size of the night blind spot increases as the
distance between the eyes and the object increases. Therefore, the night blind spot can
hide larger objects as the distance increases. This effect is shown in the graphic below.

DISTANCE ESTIMATION AND DEPTH PERCEPTION

Distance estimation and depth perception cues are easily recognized when crewmembers use
central vision under good illumination. As the light level decreases, the ability to judge
distances accurately is degraded and visual illusions become more common. Knowledge of
distance estimation and depth perception mechanisms and cues will assist crewmembers in
judging distances at night. These cues may be monocular or binocular. Monocular cues are
more important for crewmembers than binocular ones.

122
Binocular cues depend on the slightly different view that each eye has of an object.
Consequently, binocular perception is useful only when the object is close enough to
make an obvious difference in the viewing angle of both eyes. In the flight
environment, most distances outside the cockpit are so great that binocular cues are of
little, if any, value. In addition, binocular cues operate on a more subconscious level
than monocular cues and are performed automatically. They are subconscious and
automatic.
Monocular cues aid in distance estimation and depth perception. They include
Geometric Perspective, Retinal Image Size, Aerial Perspective, and Motion Parallax.
(GRAM)
Geometric Perspective - An object may appear to have a different shape when
viewed at varying distances and from different angles. Three types are Linear
Perspective, Apparent Foreshortening, and Vertical Position in the Field. (A
memory aid acronym is LAV).
Linear Perspective - Parallel lines such as railroad tracks or runway
lights tend to converge as distance increases.
Apparent Foreshortening - The true shape of an object or a terrain
feature appears elliptical when viewed from a distance. As the distance
decreases the true shape is apparent. Examples are a pond or inverted
"Y".
Vertical Position in the Field - Objects or terrain features that are a
greater distance away, appear higher on the horizon than objects which
are closer. At night, lights on elevated structures or low flying aircraft
can be misjudged as ground structures and can appear to be farther
away.
Retinal Image Size - The size of an image focused on the retina is perceived
by the brain to be a certain size. Four factors: Known Size of Objects,
Increasing/Decreasing Size of Objects, Terrestrial Associations, and
Overlapping Contours. (A memory aid acronym is KITO).
Known Size of Objects - The nearer an object is the larger its retinal
image size. By experience, the brain learns to associate the distance of
familiar objects by the size of its retinal image.
Increasing/Decreasing Size of Objects - If the retinal image size of an
object increases it is approaching or moving nearer. If it decreases the
object is moving farther away. If it is constant the object is at a fixed
distance.
Terrestrial Association - Comparing of objects such as an airfield with
an object of known size such as a helicopter will help to determine the
object size and distance.

123
 Overlapping Contours - When objects overlap, the overlapped object
is farther away. Especially important at night when approaching for
landing.
Aerial Perspective - The clarity of and the shadow cast by an object are
perceived by the brain and are used as cues for estimating distances. Three
factors: Fading of Colors, Loss of Discrimination, and Lights and Shadows.
(A memory aid acronym is FLL).
Fading of Colors - On a clear night when objects can be seen
distinctly, they appear to be closer than they actually are.
Loss of Discrimination or Texture - As you get farther away from an
object, details become less distinct. If a cornfield appears to be a solid
color then it is judged to be farther away.
Lights and Shadows - Every object will cast a shadow if there is a light
source. The direction of the shadow depends on the position of the
light. If the shadow is towards the observer the object is closer than the
light.
Motion Parallax - Refers to the apparent relative motion of stationary objects
as viewed by an observer moving across the landscape. When the
crewmember looks outside the aircraft, perpendicular to the direction of
travel, near objects appear to move backward, past, or opposite the path of
motion. Far objects seem to move in the direction of motion or remain fixed.
The rate of apparent movement depends on the distance the observer is from
the object. For example, as an aviator flies low level, objects near the aircraft
will appear to rush past the aircraft while a mountain range near the horizon
will appear stationary. As the aviator flies across a power line that extends to
the horizon, that part of the power line near the aircraft will appear to move
swiftly, opposite the path of motion. Toward the horizon, the same power line
will appear fixed. Objects that appear to be fixed or moving slowly are judged
to be a greater distance from the aviator than objects that appear to be moving
swiftly.

VISUAL ILLUSIONS

Decreasing visual information increases the probability of spatial disorientation. Reduced

visual references also create several illusions that can induce spatial disorientation. Many
type of visual illusions can occur in the aviation environment. They are listed below. A good
memory aid acronym is FFF CRASH SAR CL.
FLICKER VERTIGO - Much time and research have been devoted to the study of
flicker vertigo. A light flickering between 4 and 20 cycles per second can produce
unpleasant and dangerous reactions. Such conditions as nausea, vomiting, and vertigo

124
may occur. On rare occasions, convulsions and unconsciousness may also occur.
Fatigue, frustration, and boredom tend to intensify these reactions. During the day,
the problem can be caused by sunlight flickering through the rotor blades or
propellers. At night, an anti-collision light reflecting against an overcast sky, haze, or
the rotor system can also cause it. This can be corrected by turning the ant-collision
light off.
FASCINATION (FIXATION) - This illusion occurs when aviators ignore orientation
cues and fix their attention on a goal or an object. This is dangerous because aircraft
ground-closure rates are difficult to determine at night; normal daylight peripheral
movement is reduced or absent. Target hypnosis is a common type of fascination. For
example, an aviator intent on hitting a target during a gunnery run may delay pull-up
so long that the aircraft contacts the ground. Preventing this illusion requires
increased scanning by the aviator.
FALSE HORIZONS - Cloud formations may be confused with the horizon or the
ground. Momentary confusion may result when the aviator looks up after having
given prolonged attention to a task in the cockpit. Because outside references for
attitude are less obvious and reliable at night, aviators should rely less on them during
night flight. Using instrument crosschecks can help prevent this situation. While
hovering over terrain that is not perfectly level, aviators might mistake the sloped
ground in front of the aircraft for the horizon and cause the aircraft to drift while
trying to maintain a stationary position.
CONFUSION WITH GROUND LIGHTS (GROUND LIGHT
MISINTERPRETATION) - A common occurrence is to confuse ground light with
stars. When this happens, aviators unknowingly position aircraft in unusual attitudes
to keep the ground lights, believed to be stars, above them. For example, some
aviators have mistaken the lights along a seashore for the horizon and have
maneuvered their aircraft dangerously close to the sea; they believed they were flying
straight and level. Aviators have also confused certain geometric patterns of ground
lights. For example, aviators have identified moving trains as landing zone lights and
have been badly shaken by their near misses. To avoid these problems, aviators
should crosscheck aircraft instruments. Also, position lights of other aircraft in
formation can be mistaken for ground lights and might be lost against the horizon
when another aircraft is at or below the altitude of the observer.
RELATIVE MOTION - The illusion of relative motion can be illustrated by an
example. An aviator hovers an aircraft and waits for hover taxi instructions. Another
aircraft hovers alongside. As the other aircraft is picked up in the first aviator's
peripheral vision, the aviator senses movement in the opposite direction. This illusion
may be encountered during multihelicopter operations. Aircrews mistake the motion
of another aircraft for that of their own. The only way to correct for this illusion is to
have sufficient experience to understand that such illusions do occur and to not react
to them on the controls. The use of proper scanning techniques can help prevent this
illusion.

125
AUTOKENISIS - When a static light is stared at in the dark, the light appears to
move. This phenomenon can be readily demonstrated by staring at a lighted cigarette
in a dark room. Apparent movement will begin in about 8 to 10 seconds. Although
the cause of autokenisis is not known, it appears to be related to the loss of
surrounding references that normally serve to stabilize visual perceptions. This
illusion can be eliminated or reduced by visual scanning, by increasing the number of
lights, or by varying the light intensity. The most important of the three solutions is
visual scanning. A light or lights should not be stared at for more than 10 seconds.
This illusion is not limited to light in darkness. It can occur whenever a small, bright,
still object is stared at against a dull dark or nondescript background. Similarly, it can
occur when a small, dark, still object is viewed against a light, structureless
environment. Anytime visual references are not available; aircrews are subject to this
illusion.
STRUCTURAL ILLUSION - Heat waves, rain, snow, sleet or other factors that
obscure vision cause structural illusions. For example, a straight line may appear to
be curved when seen through a desert heat wave or a wing-tip light may appear to
double or move when viewed during a rain shower.
HEIGHT PERCEPTION ILLUSION - When flying over desert, snow, water, or other
areas of poor contrast, crewmembers may experience the illusion of being higher
above the terrain than they actually are. This is due to the lack of visual references.
This illusion may be overcome by dropping an object, such as a chemical light stick
or flare, on the ground before landing. Another technique to overcome this illusion is
to monitor the shadows cast by near objects, such as the landing gear, or skid
shadows at a hover. Flight in an area where visibility is restricted by haze, smoke, or
fog produces the same illusion.
SIZE-DISTANCE ILLUSION - This illusion results from viewing a source of light
that is increasing or decreasing in luminance (brightness). The crewmember may
interpret the light as approaching or retreating. For example, when an aviator
hovering near a second aircraft, changes the position lights from DIM to BRIGHT,
the other aircraft may appear to jump toward him.
ALTERED REFERENCE PLANES - When approaching a line of mountains or
clouds, aviators may feel that they need to climb even though their altitude is
adequate. Also, when flying parallel to a line of clouds, aviators may tend to tilt the
aircraft away from the clouds.
REVERSIBLE PERSPECTIVE ILLUSION - At night, an aircraft may appear to be
going away when it is, in fact, approaching a second aircraft. This illusion often
occurs when an aircraft is flying parallel to another's course. To determine the
direction of flight, aircrews should observe aircraft lights and their relative position to
the horizon. If the intensity of the lights increases, the aircraft is approaching. If the
lights dim, the aircraft is moving away. Also, remembering the "3 R's" will help
identify the direction of travel when other aircraft are encountered. If the RED aircraft
position lights are on the RIGHT, the aircraft is RETURNING (coming toward the
observer).

126
 CRATER ILLUSION - Viewing the peripherae of the IR band-pass filter (pink light)
or IR searchlight gives the illusion that the flat terrain slopes upward. Viewing
another aircraft landing using the pink light or the IR searchlight can give the illusion
that the observed aircraft is descending into a crater when the terrain is actually flat.
1. Prevention:
2. Knowledge and awareness of this illusion will help if it occurs.
3. Conduct a thorough map and route reconnaissance to identify terrain
features/contours.
4. Conduct a high and low recon prior to landing.
5. Sweep searchlight laterally for cues.
6. Scan past IR searchlight limits.
LACK OF MOTION PARALLAX - At low level flight mode altitudes, the lack
of discernible terrain features may result in perception of near zero ground speed
when you are actually moving.
Prevention:
Refer to airspeed indicator (airspeed indicators are typically unreliable below
20 to 40 KIAS, if possible use a ground speed measuring device such as
GPS or Doppler).
Direct crewmember assistance for airspeed/groundspeed callout.

NIGHT VISION LIMITATIONS AND TECHNIQUES

NIGHT VISION LIMITATIONS
Several visual problems or conditions affect night vision. These include presbyopia, myopia,
hyperopia, astigmatism, retinal rivalry, and radial keratotomy.
Presbyopia
This condition is part of the normal aging process, which causes the lens of the eye to
harden. Beginning in the early teen years, individuals gradually lose accommodation;
that is, the ability to focus on nearby objects. When individuals are about 40 years
old, their eyes are unable to reliably focus at the normal reading distance without
reading glasses. As presbyopia worsens, instruments, maps, and checklists become
more difficult to read, especially with red illumination. This difficulty can be
corrected with certain types of bifocal spectacles that compensate for the inadequate
accommodative power of the eye lenses.
Myopia

127
Myopic individuals do not see distant objects clearly; only nearby objects are in focus
for them. At night, blue wavelengths of light prevail in the visible portion of the
spectrum. Because of this, slightly nearsighted (myopic) individuals will experience
visual difficulty at night when viewing blue-green light that could cause blurred
vision. Also, image sharpness decreases as pupil diameter increases. For individuals
with mild refractive errors, vision may become unacceptably blurred unless corrective
glasses are worn. Another factor to consider is "dark focus." When luminance levels
decrease, the focusing mechanism of the eye may move toward a resting position and
make the eye more myopic. These factors are more important when the aircrew looks
outside the cockpit during unaided night flight. Special corrective lenses can be
prescribed to correct for myopia.
Hyperopia
Like myopia, hyperopia is also caused by an error in refraction; the lens of the eye
does not focus an image directly on the retina. Also, as in myopia, the result is blurred
vision. In hyperopia, however, the near image being viewed is focused behind the
retinal plane. Objects that are nearby are not seen clearly; only more distant objects
are in focus. This is often known as farsightedness.
Astigmatism
Astigmatism is an irregularity of the shape of the cornea that may cause an out-of-
focus condition. If, for example, an astigmatic person focuses on power poles
(vertical), the wires (horizontal) will be out of focus in most cases. If the astigmatism
is 1.00-diopter or greater, the aviator must be individually evaluated before flying
with NVD's that preclude the wearing of eyeglasses. An example is full-faceplate
devices used with daylight filters.
Retinal Rivalry
Eyes may experience this problem when attempting to simultaneously
perceive two dissimilar objects independent of each other. This
phenomenon may occur when pilots are viewing objects through the
heads-up displays found in the optical systems of the AH-64 Apache.
If one eye is viewing on image while the other eye is viewing another,
there may be a problem in total perception. Quite often the dominant
eye will override the nondominant eye, possibly causing the
information delivered to the nondominant eye to be missed.
Additionally, this rivalry may lead to ciliary spasms and eye pain.
Mental conditioning appears to alleviate this condition; therefore,
retinal rivalry becomes less of a problem as pilots gain experience.
Radial Keratotomy
Radial Keratotomy is a surgical procedure that creates multiple radial,
spoke-like incisions on the cornea of the eye to produce better visual
acuity. Radial Keratotomy disqualifies an individual from Army
Aviation. Glare sensitivity is the most often cited complication of the

128
 procedure; it may be especially troublesome at night. Other
complications include fluctuating visual problems because of corneal
swelling and increased susceptibility to injury. However, possible
long-term complications of this procedure are unknown.

Night Vision Techniques

Dark adaptation is only the first step toward increasing aircrews’ ability to see at night. Applying
night vision techniques will enable aircrews to overcome many of the physiological limitations
of their eyes. Because the fovea centralis is automatically directed toward an object by a visual
fixation reflex, scanning techniques require considerable practice and concerted effort on the part
of the viewer.
Horizontal Scanning - Scanning techniques are important in identifying objects at night.
To scan effectively, crewmembers look from right to left or left to right. They should
begin scanning at the greatest distance an object can be perceived (top) and move inward
toward the position of the aircraft (bottom). This scanning pattern is shown below.
Because the light-sensitive elements of the retina cannot perceive images that are in
motion, a stop-turn-stop-turn motion should be used. For each stop, an area
approximately 30 wide should be scanned. This viewing angle will include an area
approximately 250 meters wide at a distance of 500 meters. The duration of each stop is
based on the degree of detail that is required, but no stop should last longer than two to
three seconds. When moving from one viewing point to the next, crewmembers should
overlap the previous field of view by 10°. Other scanning techniques, such as the ones
shown below, may be used if appropriate to the situation.
Off-Center Viewing - Viewing an object using central vision during daylight poses no
limitation. If this same technique is used at night, however, the object may not be seen
because of the night blind spot that exists during low illumination. To compensate for this
limitation, crewmembers must use off-center vision. This technique requires that an
object be viewed by looking 10° above, below, or to either side of the object. In this
manner, the peripheral vision can maintain contact with an object. The graphic below
illustrates an example of the off-center viewing technique.
The technique of off-center vision applies only to the surveillance of targets that are
minimally illuminated or luminous. Under these conditions, cone vision is not
stimulated. Central vision is best used when an object or a target is bright enough to
stimulate the cones and needs to be seen with considerable detail. When the object or
target begins to fade, it should be redetected using off-center vision and retained until
central vision recovers sufficiently to permit further observation.
With off-center vision, the images of an object viewed longer than two to three
seconds will disappear. This occurs because the rods reach a photochemical
equilibrium that prevents any further response until the scene changes. This produces
a potentially unsafe operating condition. To overcome this night vision limitation,
crewmembers must be aware of the phenomenon and avoid viewing an object for

129
 longer than two or three seconds. The peripheral field of vision will continue to pick
up the object when the eyes are shifted from one off-center point to another.

Off Center Vision

Shapes or Silhouettes - Because visual acuity is reduced at night, objects must be
identified by their shapes or silhouettes. To use this technique, the crewmember must be
familiar with the architectural design of structures in the area covered by the mission. A
silhouette of a building with a high roof and steeple can easily be recognized as a church
in the United States; however, churches in other parts of the world may have low-pitched
roofs with no distinguishing features. Features depicted on the map will also aid in
recognizing the silhouettes.

CHAPTER 14

AIRCREW COORDINATION
ACC ETP

Accidents
An analysis of US Army aviation accidents revealed that a significant percentage of these
accidents resulted from one or more crew coordination errors committed before or during the
mission flight. Often an accident was the result of a sequence of undetected crew errors that
combined to produce a catastrophic result. Additional research showed that even when
accidents are avoided, these same errors could result in degraded mission performance. A
systematic analysis of these error patterns identified specific areas where crew-level training
could reduce the occurrence of such errors and break the error chains leading to accidents and
poor mission performance.

Crew Coordination Elements

Broadly defined, aircrew coordination is the interaction between crewmembers necessary for the
safe, efficient, and effective performance of tasks. The essential elements of crew coordination
are described below.

a. Communicate Positively. Good cockpit teamwork requires positive communication

among crewmembers. Communication is positive when the sender directs, announces,
requests, or offers information; the receiver acknowledges the information; the sender
confirms the information, based on the receiver’s acknowledgement or action.

b. Direct Assistance. A crewmember will direct assistance when he cannot maintain

aircraft control, position, or clearance. He will also direct assistance when he cannot

130
 properly operate or troubleshoot aircraft systems without help from the other
crewmembers.

c. Announce Actions. To ensure effective and well-coordinated actions in the aircraft, all
crewmembers must be aware of the expected movements and unexpected individual
actions. Each crewmember will announce any actions that effect the actions of the other
crewmembers.

d. Offer Assistance. A crewmember will provide assistance or information that has been
requested. He also will offer assistance when he sees that another crewmember needs
help.

e. Acknowledge Actions. Communications in the aircraft must include supportive feed

back to ensure that crewmembers correctly understand announcements or directives.

f. Be Explicit. Crewmembers should use clear terms and phrases and positively
acknowledge critical information. They must avoid using terms that have multiple
meanings. , such as “Right”, “Back up”, or “I have it”. Crewmembers must also avoid
using indefinite modifiers such as, “Do you see that tree?” or “You are coming in a little
fast.”

g. Provide Aircraft Control and Obstacle Advisories. Although the Pilot on the
controls is responsible for aircraft control, the other crewmembers may need to provide
aircraft control information regarding airspeed, altitude, or obstacle avoidance.

h. Coordinate Action Sequence and Timing. Proper sequence and timing ensure that the
actions of one crewmember mesh with the actions of the other crewmembers.

Crew Coordination Basic Qualities

The crew coordination elements are further broken down into a set of 13 basic qualities. Each
basic quality is defined in terms of observable behavior. The 13 qualities are listed below.

a. Flight team leadership and crew climate are established and maintained

b. Premission Planning and rehearsal are accomplished.

c. Appropriate decision making techniques are applied.

d. Actions are prioritized and workload is equitably distributed.

e. Unexpected events are managed effectively.

f. Statements and directives are clear, timely, relevant, complete, and verified.

g. Mission situational awareness is maintained.

131
 h. Decisions and actions are communicated and acknowledged.

i. Supporting information and actions are sought from the crew.

j. Crewmember actions are mutually cross-monitored.

k. The crew offers supporting information and actions.

l. Advocacy and assertion are practiced.

m. Crew level after action reviews are conducted.

Crew Coordination Objectives

The crew coordination elements and basic qualities are measured to determine if the objectives
of the crew coordination program have been met. The objectives of the program have been
defined by five crew coordination objectives, these are:

Establish and Maintain Team Relationships. Establish a positive working relationship

that allows the crew to communicate openly and freely and to operate in a concerted
manner.

Mission Planning and Rehearsal. Explore, in concert, all aspects of the assigned mission
and analyze each segment for potential difficulties and possible reactions in terms of the
commander’s intent.

Establish and Maintain Workloads. Manage and execute the mission workload in an
effective and efficient manner with the redistribution of task responsibilities as the mission
situation changes.

Exchange Mission Information. Establish intra-crew communications using effective

patterns and techniques that allow for the flow of essential data between crewmembers.

Cross Monitor performance. Cross monitor each other’s actions and decisions to reduce
the likelihood of errors impacting mission performance and safety.

Standard Crew Terminology

To enhance communication and crew coordination, crews should use words or phrases that are
understood by all participants. They must use clear, concise terms that can be easily understood
and complied with in an environment full of distractions. Multiple terms with the same meaning
should be avoided. Standard words and phrases are detailed below.

Bandit – an identified enemy aircraft

Bogey – an unidentified aircraft assumed to be enemy

132
Braking – announcement made by the pilot who intends to apply brake pressure

Break – immediate action command to perform a maneuver to deviate from the present
ground track; will be followed by “right” or “left”

Call out – command from the pilot on the controls for a specific procedure to be read from the
checklist by another crewmember

Cease-Fire – command to stop firing by continue to track

Clear – no obstacle present to impede aircraft movement along the intended ground track. Will
be preceded by the word “nose”, Tail”, or “aircraft” and followed by a direction; for example,
“right” or “slide Left”. Also indicates that ground personnel are clear to approach the aircraft

Come up / down – command to change altitude up or down

Correct – confirms a statement as being accurate or right

Drifting – an alert of the unannounced movement of the aircraft will be followed by direction

Egress – immediate command to get out of the aircraft

Execute – initiate an action

Expect – anticipate further instructions or guidance

Fire Light – announcement of illumination of the master fire warning light

Firing – announcement that a certain weapon is being fired

Go Plain/Red – command to discontinue secure operations

Go secure/green – command to activate secure operations

Hold – command to maintain present position

I have the controls – used as a command or announcement by the pilot assuming control of the
flight controls

Inside – primary focus or attention is inside the aircraft

In sight – preceded by the words “traffic”, Target”, “obstacle”, or descriptive term. Used to
confirm the traffic, target, or obstacle is positively seen or identified

133
Jettison – command for emergency release of an external load or stores; when followed
by”door”, indicates the requirement to perform emergency door removal

Maintain – command to continue on course of action

Mask – command to conceal aircraft

Move forward/backward – command to hover the aircraft forward or backward; followed by

distance. Also used to announce intended forward or backward movement.

Outside – the primary focus is outside the aircraft

Put me up – command to put the pilot on the controls radio transmit selector switch to a
designated position or to place a frequency in a specific radio

Release – command for the planned release of an external load

Report – command to notify

Right – used to indicate a direction only, not to be used in place of “correct”

Slide left/right – command to hover the aircraft left or right; will be followed by
distance. Also used to announce intended left or right movement

Slow down – command to decrease ground speed

Speed up – command to increase ground speed

Stop – command to go no further

Strobe – indicates that the AN/APR-39 has detected a radar threat; will be followed by a clock
position

Target – an alert that a ground target has been spotted

Traffic – refers to any friendly aircraft that presents a collision hazard; will be followed by a
clock position

Troops on/off – command for troops to enter/exit the aircraft

Turn – command to deviate from the current heading; will be followed by the word “right” or
“left’ and a specific heading or rally term

Unmask – command to position the aircraft above terrain features

134
Up on – indicates the radio selected; will be followed by the position number on the ICS panel;
for example “Up on 3”

Weapons hot/cold – indicates that the weapon switches are in the ARMED, SAFE, or OFF
position

You have the controls – used as a command or announcement by the pilot relinquishing the
flight controls

CHAPTER 15

NAVIGATION AND DECEL

TC1-201

Navigation
An aviator who has navigated successfully at altitude may believe that these skills-can be
transferred to accomplish navigation at terrain flight altitudes. However, this is not the case.

Terrain flight navigation is difficult because the flat visual angle distorts shapes compared to the
map and because vertical relief is the primary means of identifying checkpoints. Accurate
navigation requires proficiency in map interpretation and terrain analysis. In addition, the aviator
must be able to visualize from the map how the terrain should appear. He must be able to look at
the terrain and identify the position on the map.

Navigation is more difficult at NOE altitudes because of the limited visual viewing area.
Low-level navigation is easier because at higher altitudes the visual viewing area is larger. This
enables an aviator to more accurately identify terrain and man-made objects by shapes that are
depicted directly on the map.

Terrain flight navigation requires an exchange of information between the crew members. The
crewman navigating furnishes the pilot with the information that is required to remain on course.
Rally terms, such as turn left, stop turn, increase airspeed, are used by the navigator to convey
instructions to the pilot. To assist the navigator, the pilot points out approaching terrain features.
Standardized terms should be agreed upon to identify terrain features, because they are often
identified by different names in various parts of the country. For example, a body of water called
a creek in some parts of the country might be referred to as a stream or a brook in other areas.
Standardized terms will help prevent misinterpretation of information and reduce unnecessary
cockpit conversation.

Certain aspects of terrain flight navigation differ depending on whether low-level, contour, or
NOE flight is being performed. Because terrain flying normally will involve a combination of

135
these flight techniques during any given flight, the aviator must be familiar with the navigational
techniques associated with all three. Navigational techniques that are applicable to NOE and
contour flight are covered below.

A technique used to aid in terrain flight navigation is to identify a prominent terrain or man-made
feature some distance ahead of the aircraft that lies along or near the course. Using this point to
key on, the pilot can maneuver the aircraft to take advantage of the best terrain and vegetation to
achieve concealment. The ground track may deviate from the pre-selected course. However,
upon reaching the recognizable feature, the aircraft should be on the pre-selected course or using
another distant terrain feature as an aid to navigation. When nearing the objective, the pilot must
return to the pre-selected course and use precise navigation.

During a mission requiring terrain flying, the pilot may find that the pre-selected course does not
provide the aircraft with good concealment from Threat forces. When this situation arises, he
should change to a course that will avoid or minimize detection of the aircraft. The distance he
must deviate from the pre-selected course will vary depending on the nature of the terrain and
availability of vegetation. However, he should return to the pre-selected course when terrain
masking becomes available.

While en route to the objective, he may encounter a condition, such as Threat weapons, artillery
fire, or adverse weather that prevents his following the pre-selected course. When this occurs, he
must immediately maneuver the aircraft away from the Threat. Because an immediate response
is required, there will be little time to plan a new route. The pilot must pick a course that
provides the best concealment and that is oriented along the route. The navigator must follow the
flight path on the map. When performing responsive navigation, the pilot must assist the
navigator by providing information that will aid in navigation. As the night progresses, the
navigator must begin to plan ahead until such time as the pilot is following a course selected by
the navigator.

Terrain Flight Deceleration

At times during terrain flight navigation it may be necessary to come to a halt. When this
happens the crew performs a terrain flight or NOE deceleration. As seen in the following figure,
the aircraft pivots about the mast. This causes the tail of the aircraft to move towards the ground
as the main rotor tilts up at the front and down in the rear. Care should be taken to ensure that
the tail rotor, stabilator, tail pylon, and tail cone sections remain clear of ground objects i.e. trees
during this maneuver.

136
CHAPTER 16

WIRES
TC 1-201

Hazards to Terrain Flight Safety

On a battlefield, we cannot afford losses caused by accidents and carelessness. Safety must
therefore be totally integrated with mission requirements when conducting terrain flight. Specific
hazards to terrain flight safety that must be considered include physical hazards, weather
hazards, and human factors. Other factors include maintenance and indirect fire support. Wire
hazards are discussed below.

137
Wire Hazards
When conducting terrain flying during tactical operations or training, aviators must be aware of
the wire hazards in the area. These hazards consist of power lines, guy wires, communications
wire, fences, missile-guidance wire, and wire barriers erected by the enemy. To minimize the
danger of wire strikes, a detailed study of the unit's hazards map should be made prior to each
flight. Any unmarked wires detected during a flight should be plotted on the hazards map. When
communications wire is laid by aircraft, the route should be plotted on the hazards map. Areas in
which large numbers of wire-guided missiles have been fired from aircraft should be identified.

Wire Detection
The best means of coping with wires when conducting terrain flight is to know where they are
and avoid them. To determine where wires may be located prior to a mission, a map and aerial
photo reconnaissance of the area should be conducted. The unit hazards map will also aid in
detection of wires. When flying in an area where wire obstructions are unknown, the helicopter
should be flown at a slower airspeed. Flight at slower airspeeds provides more time for detection
of wire and evasive action to avoid contact with wires. Two specific visual cues for locating
wires are a swath cut through the vegetation and supporting poles on aerial photos. Also, expect
wires along roads, waterways, near towers, and in the vicinity of buildings.

Wire Crossing
Once the wires are located, they can be negotiated safely, using the flight techniques stated
below.

138
The safest way to cross wires is by over flying them at or near a pole. The pole can be seen more
easily, and it provides a visual cue for estimating height above the wires.

NOTE
Guy wires may be attached to the poles depending on the type and height of them. The pilot
must begin the climb in time to avoid the guy wires; or if passing beneath the wires, he must
maintain sufficient lateral separation to clear them

Another method is to cross the wires at the midpoint between the supporting poles. This is the
lowest point of the wires. However, it will be difficult to estimate the height of the wires. By
using the poles as a reference, a pilot can more easily judge a safe crossing height. If the aircraft
is flown at the same altitude of the poles or higher, it will clear the wires. Height estimation is
also aided by crossing the wire at a reduced speed.

CHAPTER 17
SLOPE OPERATIONS
TC 1-201

Limits
When a helicopter rests on a slope, the mast is perpendicular to the inclined surface; the plane of
the main rotor must parallel the true horizon or tilt slightly upslope (the rotor tilts with respect to
the mast). Normally, the cyclic control available for this rotor tilt is limited by cyclic control
stops, static stops, mast bumping, or other mechanical limits of control travel. These control
limits are reached much sooner in down slope wind conditions. When the hovering helicopter
hangs with one side low and is landing with the low side upslope, there is also less control travel.
A slope-landing site used previously may not be acceptable with a different wind or CG
helicopter loading. Conditions that permitted a slope landing may have changed enough to cause
hazardous conditions for takeoff, for example, wind or a CG loading change.

Types Of Motion

Down Slope Rolling Motion

139
A down slope rolling motion is caused when the aviator applies too much cyclic into the slope.
During landings or takeoffs when the down slope skid is on the slope, the upslope skid may raise
enough to exceed lateral cyclic control limits. Thus a down slope rolling motion occurs.

Upslope Rolling Motion

An upslope rolling motion is caused when the aviator applies cyclic into the slope in
coordination with collective-pitch application. During landings or takeoffs when the upslope skid
is on the slope, the down slope skid may raise enough to exceed lateral cyclic control limits.
Thus an upslope rolling motion occurs.

Types Of Operations

Approach
The approach to a slope may not differ greatly from the approach to another landing area.
However, the slope may obstruct wind passage, causing turbulence and downdrafts. Wind,
barriers, and forced landing sites must be considered.

Landing upslope or cross-slope

Brakes must be set before a wheeled helicopter is landed. The landing is then usually made
heading upslope. This type of landing requires cautious and positive control touch. The
helicopter must be lowered from the true vertical by placing the uphill

Landing downhill
Landing downhill is not recommended with some single-rotor helicopters because the tail rotor
may strike the ground.

Landing uphill
If an uphill landing is necessary, landing too near the bottom of the slope may cause the tail rotor
to strike the ground in some single-rotor helicopters. In this case and when landing downhill, the
mission may sometimes be completed at a low hover.

Takeoff from a slope

To lift off from a slope, the aviator moves cyclic control toward the slope and slowly adds
collective pitch. The downhill gear or skid must first be raised to place the helicopter in a level
attitude before lifting it vertically to a hover.

Dynamic Rollover
A helicopter is susceptible to a lateral rolling tendency called dynamic rollover. This dynamic
rollover can occur on level ground; however, it is more likely to occur and more hazardous
during slope or crosswind landing and takeoff maneuvers. Each helicopter has a critical rollover
angle beyond which recovery is impossible. If the critical rollover angle is exceeded, the
helicopter will roll on its side regardless of the cyclic corrections made. The rate of rolling
motion is also critical. As the roll rate increases, the critical rollover angle at which recovery is
still possible is reduced. Depending on the type of helicopter, the critical rollover angle may
change based on which skid or wheel is touching the ground (acting as a pivot point), crosswind
component, lateral offsets in CG, and left pedal inputs for torque correction (single-rotor
systems).

140
Characteristics
Dynamic rollover starts when the helicopter has only one skid or wheel on the ground. That gear
may become a pivot point for lateral roll. When this happens, lateral cyclic control response is
more sluggish and less effective than for a free-hovering helicopter. The gear may become a
pivot point for a variety of reasons. Most are aviator-induced. The gear or skid can become
caught on objects projecting from the landing surface such as a bent piece of steel planking; it
can possibly become stuck in soft asphalt or mud. Another way the gear becomes a pivot point is
if the helicopter is forced into a slope by an improper landing or takeoff technique. Whatever the
cause, if the gear or skid becomes a pivot point, dynamic rollover is possible when later aviator
actions are incorrect.

Preventing Down Slope Rollover during Landing

Down slope rollover is caused when the helicopter becomes tilted beyond the cyclic control
limits by the steepness of a slope. If the slope (wind or CG conditions) exceeds lateral
cyclic-control limits, the mast forces the rotor to tilt down slope. The resultant rotor lift has a
down slope component, even with full upslope cyclic applied. To prevent down slope rollover
during landing, the aviator slowly descends vertically to a light ground contact with the upslope
gear. While observing lateral, level reference frames, the aviator pauses and maintains a
positive-heading control. Then using careful collective-pitch control, he slowly and cautiously
lowers the down slope gear. As the cyclic stick nears the lateral stop, he pauses to compare the
distance to go with the lateral control travel remaining (limits are given in the appropriate
operator's manual). If it appears the cyclic will contact the upslope control, the aviator stops
before the down slope gear is firmly on the ground, returns the helicopter to a level attitude, and
aborts the slope landing. The aviator lifts off and moves a few feet for another attempt on a lesser
slope.

Preventing Down Slope Rollover during Lift-Off

After landing inadvertently on an excessive slope, the aviator will attempt to liftoff. If the
upslope gear tends to rise, the aviator should smoothly lower the collective pitch. With full cyclic
applied-, however, the resultant lift of the main rotor is not vertical or directed upslope enough to
raise the down slope gear. Therefore, if the upslope gear rises, the mast causes the resultant rotor
lift to move farther down slope. This increases the down slope roll tendency, which continues to

141
increase with added collective pitch. The corrective action is to reduce power at the first sign of a
lateral roll around the down slope skid.

Before another lift-off is attempted, appropriate aviator action may be to-

o Await different wind conditions.
o Change CG loading.
o Dig out from under the upslope gear.

When performing maneuvers with one skid or gear on the ground, the aviator should keep the
helicopter trimmed, especially laterally. Control is maintained if the aviator maintains trim, does
not allow lateral roll rates to become rapid, and keeps the bank angle from exceeding the critical
rollover angle for the helicopter. The aviator must take off smoothly with only small changes in
pitch, roll, and yaw. Untrimmed moments must be avoided.

142
CHAPTER 18

MULTI-SHIP OPERATIONS
TC 1-201

Formation Flight
This action describes basic flight formations, employment considerations, and procedures for
changing from one type of formation to another. However, for convenience, the discussion on
each type of formation only addresses the requirements for close formation flight (two rotor disk
diameters of horizontal separation). For loose and extended formations, the same procedures
apply except for the horizontal separation between helicopters.

Numbering of Aircraft in a Formation

Helicopters are numbered, starting with the leader as number 1; then, progressively, left to right
laterally through each succeeding lateral space area (in the same manner as words and lines on a
written page). Helicopters can be changed easily into other related formation and still maintain
their original numerical sequence within the new formation.

Flight Organization
Section/Element. The basic unit of the free-cruise formation is a two aircraft section or element.
A section consists of a flight lead and a wingman. The lead's primary responsibility, as the name
implies, is to lead the element. In addition to making tactical decisions to accomplish the
mission, lead is responsible for navigation and communications.

143
Two-Helicopter Section/Element

The two-helicopter section/element is the basic building block for all other formations. It consists
of a leader and one wingman. The leader is designated as the number 1 helicopter and the
wingman is designated as number 2. The wingman may fly to the right rear or left rear of the
leader, depending on the leader’s instructions. A wingman is in echelon right position when
flying the right rear, and echelon left position when flying on the left rear. In either echelon
position, the correct angular location of the wingman is 45 degrees to the rear of the leader. The
distance from the leader in a close formation is two times the diameter of the rotor disk with a
stepped-up vertical distance of l to 10 feet. The wingman's echelon position provides a full view
of the lead helicopter from either the pilot's or copilot's seat, and thus permits detection of any
change in attitude or flight-path of the element leader.

Trail Formation
In a close trail formation, the number 2 helicopter takes the position two rotor disk diameters
distance directly behind the lead aircraft, with a 1- to 10-foot vertical step-up. Each trailing
helicopter holds the same relative position on the aircraft immediately to its front. This formation
is not limited to a prescribed number of aircraft. Helicopters are numbered and spaced as shown

Trail Formation Employment Considerations

144
· Requires a relatively long landing area

· Simple pre-positioning of loads

· Allows rapid deployment of troops to the flank(s).

· Allows unrestricted suppressive fire by door gunner

Formation Landing
A formation landing is a landing during which all elements of a formation touch down at the
same time while maintaining their relative position within the formation. Where terrain and
obstacles permit, landings are made to the ground to avoid hovering turbulence and resulting
dust conditions. Every effort must be made to avoid S-turns on final approach, as the airspeed
variations required to maintain relative position in the formation are critical at that time,
particularly with heavily loaded aircraft. During the formation landing, the leader must ensure
that sufficient obstacle clearance and landing space are provided for all aircraft in that formation.
It is important that the lead element hold straight-and level flight until the correct approach angle
is intercepted. During the approach, the leader maintains a constant approach angle so the rear
element will not have to execute excessively steep, shallow, or slow approaches.

During confined area operations, formation flight leaders must plan their approaches far enough
forward in the landing zone to allow adequate space for other aircraft in the formation to land.
When selecting his touchdown point, the flight leader must also consider takeoff power and
distance requirements to clear obstacles upon departure from the landing zone.

If during the approach it becomes apparent that continuation of the approach will result in an
unsafe condition, the flight or individuals should execute a go-around.

Night Formation Flying

Procedures for night formation flight are basically the same as day formation flight, the primary
difference being aircraft spacing. During night flight (unaided vision), the interval between
helicopters normally is increased to three to five rotor disk diameters. During night flight, pilot
depth perception is greatly reduced. For this reason, changes in formation must be kept to the
minimum. Turns should be flown at one half the standard rate, and the rate of climb or descent
should not exceed 500 feet per minute.

Aviators executing a join up, formation change, or position adjustment must take care that their
rate of closure is slow enough to be stopped quickly, and that they do not overrun the helicopter
immediately ahead. The silhouette of a helicopter cannot be seen except at a close distance; the
best point of reference is the position lights. Aircraft with inoperative position lights should not
be flown in formation at night. However, rotating beacons should not be used during night
formation flight.

145
Another problem encountered during night formation flight is fixation. Fixation occurs when the
aviator looks or stares too long or too hard at a point. When experiencing fixation, the pilot is
unaware of the movement of his aircraft or the aircraft he is flying formation on. To avoid this
fixation, the aviator must look around, moving his eyes from one position to another.

Evasive Action
Since free cruise uses the two-ship section as the basic building block, large formations can
easily be broken down into two-ship elements and dispersed if the formation is attacked. Pre-
mission planning should include an evasive action plan and procedures for rejoining the
formation over designated air control points for continuation of the mission.

Terrain Flight Considerations

In terrain flight, a greater number of aircraft can be more easily detected than a lesser number.
Also a large group requires more terrain relief to remain concealed than a small group. If a large
group is required for the mission, dispersion can be achieved by using numerous routes with
small flights of aircraft using each route. However, it will often be necessary to use a single route
in order to concentrate friendly suppressive fires.

When using free cruise at NOE altitudes, individual aircraft within the flight move like
individual infantrymen in a squad. The squad leader picks the general direction of travel, but
each infantryman picks his terrain and moves by rushes or bounds within the loose formation. He
is not required to step in the footprints of every man ahead of him. Likewise, aircrews pick their
own terrain, moving by bounds independently from point to point within the formation. The pilot
must be particularly careful not to maintain equal distances from preceding aircraft or exact
flight routes, which can aid enemy gunners. Each aircrew must be aware of the situation, the
terrain, and the mission, and not follow blindly the tail pipe of the aircraft ahead.

Definitions
· Echelon formation—a formation of aircraft where each succeeding aircraft flies 45 degrees
astern of the aircraft in front of it. All aircraft are echeloned on the same side.

· Formation (flying)—a formation consists of two or more aircraft, holding positions relative to
each other, and under the command of a designated aviator.

· Free cruise—the technique whereby the wingman is free to maneuver in the zone extending 45
degrees on either side and to the rear of the leader's tail.

· Visual signals—a visual signal or communication made by using the hands or other visual
means. By using the appropriate signal, members of a formation can communicate without the
use of radios.

· Horizontal distance—for close, loose, and extended formations:

O Close formation. The horizontal distance between helicopters normally is two rotor disk
diameters measured between tip-path planes.

146
O Loose formation. The horizontal distance between helicopters is three to five rotor disk
diameters.

O Extended formation. The horizontal distance between helicopters may be any required distance
in excess of five rotor disk diameters, depending on tactical requirements.

· Vertical separation—to include flat, stepped-up, and stepped-down separations:

O Flat (separation). All helicopters, or all flights of helicopters, are flown at the same altitude.

O Stepped-up (separation). This is vertical separation of 1 to 10 feet between the wingman and
the section/element leader, measured from the altitude of the leader upward to the altitude of the
wingman.

O Stepped-down (separation). This is vertical separation between the wingman and the
section/element leader, measured from the altitude of the leader downward to the altitude of the
wingman.

NOTE
In stepped-down formation, wingmen may experience difficulty in distinguishing the flicker of
their own rotor blades from that of the leader, thereby increasing the probability of misjudging
the horizontal distance between aircraft.

· Join up—the bringing together of helicopters to establish a specific flight formation.

· Nose-to-tail distance—distance from the tail region of a specified formation leader to the blade
tip of a particular wingman; or, in multiple formations, the distance from the tail region of one
formation to the blade tips of another formation.

· Reference helicopter—a helicopter in a formation that is used as a reference by the pilot of

another helicopter to maintain position in the formation. The reference aircraft provides visual
cues that are used to judge attitude changes and horizontal and vertical separation.

147
· Rendezvous—a prearranged meeting at a given time and place from which to begin an action or
phase of operation; a place to which to return after an operation is completed (to assemble, to
meet, or to arrive at a rendezvous) to meet with another or others in rendezvous.

· Rendezvous and join up—to assemble and form into a specific flight formation.

· Staggered trail (left or right)—a formation in which all aircraft are alternately staggered behind
the leader.

· Trail—a formation in which all aircraft are in single file, each directly behind the other.

· Wingman—an aviator who flies at the side and to the rear of, or directly behind a
section/element leader, commonly in a two-helicopter or three-helicopter formation; also, the
helicopter flown in this position

Echelon Formation (Right or Left)

The echelon formation may be flown either to the right or left as directed by the leader. This
formation is similar to the element, except it contains more than two aircraft. In close formation,
each succeeding aircraft maintains separation of two rotor disk diameters and a vertical step-up
of 1 to 10 feet.

Echelon Formation Employment Considerations

· Requires a relatively long, wide landing area

· Presents some difficulty pre-positioning loads

· Allows rapid deployment of troops to the 1bak.

· Allows unrestricted suppressive fire by door gunners

148
Staggered Trail Formation
In the staggered trail formation, each aircraft of the formation holds a position 45 degrees astern,
of the aircraft to its front, alternating left and right echelon. Each succeeding aircraft maintains a
1- to 10-foot vertical separation on its lead aircraft. This formation is not limited to any
prescribed number of aircraft; its size is dictated by the mission requirement. A diagram of
positions and numbering is shown.

149
Free-Cruise Technique
Free cruise is a technique that permits the wingman in a two ship section to freely maneuver in
the zone extending 45 degrees on either side and to the rear of the leader's tail. Within the zone,
the wingman may vary vertical separation, airspeed, and distance from the leader. The distance
the wingman trails the leader depends on the visibility, the terrain, and the range of organic
weapons. During free cruise, the wingman must maintain visual contact with the leader.
However, he must not fly at an airspeed that would cause him to overtake the leader. The
flexibility of free cruise enables the wingman to change his position behind the leader at will and
without radio communication. The wingman is able to choose his own flight path in order to

150
avoid obstacles, use terrain to the maximum advantage, or orient firepower toward known or
suspected enemy positions.

CHAPTER 19

151
ASE SYSTEMS
FM 1-113

Aircraft Signature Reduction

All cargo and utility helicopters are painted with nonreflecting IR absorbing paint. UH-60 and
EH-60 aircraft are equipped with HIRSS, which reduces the IR signature by suppressing hot
exhaust gases. HIRSS aids the effectiveness of the AN/ALQ-144A IR missile jammer. CH-47
aircraft do not presently have exhaust suppression. The radar and IR signature of utility and
cargo helicopters is least when viewed from the front. The maximum IR signature is from the
rear quadrants, whereas the maximum radar signature is from the side aspects. The aircrews have
the ability of decreasing the signature exposed to threats by changing the aspect of the aircraft.

Aircraft Survivability Equipment Suites.

The UH-60 ASE suite provides for PW radar and decoying for radar directed threats.
Additionally the ASE suite provides ornnidirectional IR jamming for IR directed threats. The
aircraft signature reduction capabilities include both nonreflective IR absorbing paint and
HIRSS, which suppresses hot exhaust gases.

Radar Warning Receivers

The AN/APR-39(V)1 RSDS is the basic version of RSDS, which uses a signal comparator,
signal intensity strobe display, and audio cues to provide detection of PW radar. It provides
coverage for C/D and E through J band PW radar. The system has the capability of detecting all

152
pulse radars normally associated with hostile SAM, airborne intercepts, or antiaircraft weapons.
Indications require direct aircrew interpretation since this system has no EID software.

The AN/APR-39(V)2 RSDS is a special version of RSDS, which uses a digital processor and
alphanumeric display to provide detection of PW radar for special electronic mission aircraft. It
provides coverage for C/D and E through J band pulsed wave radar. The system has the
capability of detecting all pulse radars normally associated with hostile SAM, airborne
intercepts, or antiaircraft weapons. The EID software is reprogram able and must be specific
theater selected before flight.

The AN/APR-39A(V)1 RSDS is an upgraded version of the AN/APR-39(V) I, which uses a

digital processor, alphanumeric symbology display, and synthetic voice warning to alert the
aircrew to the presence of radar directed air defense threat systems. It provides coverage for C/D
and E through M band PW radar. The theater specific EID software is reprogrammable.

Situational Awareness
All cargo and utility aircraft are equipped with PW RSDS (such as AN/APR-39(V)1,
AN/APR-39(V)2, or AN/APR-39A(V)1), which provide the aircrew with alerts of radar activity.
Aircrews use the cues from the RSDS to change modes of flight (contour to NOE) or to increase
vigilance by actively seeking terrain features for masking.

Active Countermeasures
ASE countermeasures assist the aircrew in buying time when masking terrain is not readily
available, and the aircraft must maneuver to masking terrain or move outside the threat range. IR
threats can be jammed by AN/ALQ-144A(V)
EH-60 and UH-60 ASE suites

M-130 General Purpose Dispenser

The M-130 dispenses chaff and flares. The system is operated manually or automatically through
interface with other countermeasure systems. The chaff provides protection against radar
directed antiaircraft weapon systems, while the flares provide protection against IR directed
missile systems. When dispensing chaff, the M-130 reduces or eliminates the enemy's ability to
hit and destroy aircraft by use of radar controlled, antiaircraft weapons. When dispensing flares,
the M-130 reduces or eliminates the enemy's ability to hit and destroy aircraft by use of IR
guided missiles. When the M-130 is set to dispense chaff, the electronic control module must
have the program setting installed prior to flight.

AN/ALQ-144A(V)1 Countermeasure Set

This CMS is an active, continuously operating omni directional, IR jammer system for
helicopters, designed to confuse or decoy threat IR missile systems. The AN/ALQ-144A(V)
CMS is designed to provide jamming of all known threat IR missile systems, and it must be
operated on an aircraft equipped with low reflective paint and engine exhaust suppressers. The
system has specific jam program number settings that must be set prior to flight.

153
ALQ-144
TM 11-5865-324-12
WARNING
REFUELING
The countermeasures set must be shut down at least one minute prior to any refueling operation
and not restarted or originally started, until the aircraft is in motion.

WARNING
REFUELING AREA
Do not operate the countermeasures set when the aircraft is in a refueling area.

WARNING
IR RADIATION
Prolonged viewing of the unit (when operating) from less than 3 feet may cause eye damage. Do
not view the unit in excess of 1 minute when located within 3 feet of the unit.

WARNING
HOT SURFACE
The window assembly is very hot during and immediately after operation. Keep your hands and
other parts of your body away from this area.

WARNING
HIGH NOISE LEVELS
The countermeasures set generates high noise levels during operation. Protective hearing devices
should be worn if operating for extended periods.

CAUTION
AIRCRAFT WASHING
To prevent system damage, do not wash aircraft without protective cover installed on system.

CAUTION
COVERT WINDOW
Do not touch the covert window. Fingerprints will cause damage when the transmitter is turned
on.

CAUTION
ELECTRICAL FAILURE
Because of high power consumption, system operation shall be terminated following any failure
of the aircraft’s electrical system.

154
CHAPTER 20

MOORING
TM 1-1500-250-23

155
The following Department of the Army policy has been established: when notified of the
potential for severe windstorms in excess of 50 knots all Army aviation units will take the
actions prescribed in this General TM.

If unable to evacuate to a safe haven, aircraft will be placed in hangars in the following priority;
OH-58D/C/A, AH-64A, UH-60A, AH-1 all series, UH-IV/H, and CH-47D/C. The priority for
special operations aircraft is: MH/AH-6, MH-60, MH-47, and OH-6. For helicopter with more
than two main rotor blades, if feasible, the blades will be removed or folded to maximize
available hangar space.

All aircraft remaining outside will be tied-down and moored in accordance with appropriate
procedures described in this General TM. When feasible, units will face the aircraft into the
forecasted wind before mooring.

Aviation units will also take additional protection measures to include use of all available
shelters and/or artificial barriers such as revetments, berms, igloos, trucks, buses, tanks, armored
carriers, etc.

Army aircraft located in areas that experience severe windstorms will tie down blades after each
flight and moor aircraft after the last flight of the day regardless of the weather forecast. If
aircraft are not to be flown they shall be left tied down and moored.

Every installation with Army aviation units will have secure mooring points for all assigned
aircraft. Where points are not sufficient, installation engineers will take immediate action to
install required mooring points.

All units with assigned aircraft will ensure tie-down/mooring hardware, particular to each
aircraft, is in good repair.

The horizontal stabilator of the UH-60 is to be set in the neutral position (zero degrees).

UH-60 Helicopter Mooring Procedures

Position the aircraft on the mooring pad with the longitudinal centerline of the aircraft directly
above and parallel to the longitudinal axis of the pad as shown in figures.

UH-60 (Slick) Primary Mooring

(a) Position the aircraft front mooring rings directly in-line with the front mooring pad points.
(b) Connect two chain assemblies from the forward aircraft mooring rings at F.S. 308 to the front
rooming pad points.
(c) Connect two chain assemblies from the front mooring pad points to the aft aircraft mooring
rings at F.S. 485.
(d) Connect two chain assemblies from the aft aircraft mooring rings to the center rooming pad
points.

156
(e) Tighten the MB-1 chain adjusters to remove the slack from all mooring chains. No tools are
required.

UH-60 (ESSS) Equipped Mooring

(a) Position the aircraft cargo hook directly in-line with the center mooring pad points.
(b) Connect two lateral chain assemblies from the aircraft cargo hook to the center mooring pad
points (Ref. figure 4-8, view A-A).
(c) Connect two chain assemblies from the center mooring pad points to the aft aircraft mooring
rings at F.S. 485.

157
(d) Connect two chain assemblies from the aft aircraft mooring rings to the rear mooring pad
points.
(e) Tighten the MB-1 chain adjusters to remove the slack from all mooring chains. No tools are
required.

158
UH-60 (Slick) Alternate Mooring
(a) Position the aircraft on the mooring pad with longitudinal centerline of the aircraft directly
above and parallel to the longitudinal axis of the pad as shown in figure Position the aircraft front
mooring rings, at F.S. 308 ten feet aft of the forward mooring pad points as shown.
(b) Connect two chain assemblies from the front mooring rings at F.S. 308 to the forward
mooring pad points as shown.
(c) Connect two chain assemblies from the front mooring rings at F.S. 308 to the center mooring
pad points as shown.
(d) Connect two chain assemblies from the aft air- craft mooring rings at F.S. 308 to the center
mooring pad points as shown.
(e) Connect two chain assemblies from the aircraft mooring rings at F.S. 485 to the rear rooming
pad points.
(f) Tighten the MB-1 chain adjusters to remove the slack from all mooring chains. No tools are
required.

159
CHAPTER 21

APU OPERATIONS
AR 95-1

NCM APU OPERATIONS AUTHORIZATION

Training
An SP, IP, ME, or MP shall give training for APU operations.

Evaluations
Annual APU operations evaluations shall be given by an SP, IP, SI, FI, or ME.

SEE ATTACHED APPENDIX D FOR LOCAL APU OPERATING PROCEDURES

160
CHAPTER 22

AR 40-8 AND OTC MEDICATIONS

AR 40-8

General
a. Army aircrew members must have optional physiological and psychological fitness in order to
perform their duties. (The term "aircrew members" applies here to any individual involved in the
flight operation of aircraft, including, when medically appropriate, air traffic controllers.)

b. Apart from pathological conditions, fitness may be adversely affected by variety of exogenous
factors, the effects of which may be hardly perceptible and therefore negligible in everyday
activities; however, these same factors may have a considerable effect on aircrew efficiency.

c. The return to flight duty of aircrew members by a flight surgeon may be accomplished
telephonically in those instances where a flight surgeon is not assigned to any unit at a given
installation. This clearance will be recorded in the medical record and on DA Form 4186
(Medical Recommendation for Flying Duty).

Responsibility
a. Flight safety requires that medical treatment of all aircrew members be under the supervision
of a flight surgeon who is aware of the exogenous factors affecting flying and the appropriate
preventive measures.

b. Aircrew members will inform their flight surgeon when they have participated in activities or
received treatment following which flying restrictions may be appropriate.

c. The flight surgeon will keep the aviation unit commander informed of the health of the
command, recommend flight restrictions, when applicable, and insure that aviation unit
personnel are familiar with the physiological limitations of flying and will participate in the unit
safety program.

Exogenous Factors
Aircrew members receiving any substance or procedure likely to provoke an adverse systemic
reaction shall be restricted from flying duties until declared fit by a flight surgeon. Factors to
consider and appropriate medical restrictions to flying activities are--

Administration Of Drugs
Aircrew members taking drugs, which have a systemic effect, will be restricted from flying
duties until convalescence and/or rehabilitation is completed. This will not, however, be
construed as prohibiting aircrew members use of chemoprophylactic agents recommended after
aeromedical evaluation by the appropriate medical authority. All drugs and medications will be
dispensed by or with the knowledge of a flight surgeon. Individuals receiving the following
drugs or types of drugs will be restricted from flying duties as indicated:

161
(1) Alcohol--12 hours after last drink consumed and until no residual effects remain.

(2) Antihistamines or barbiturates--for the period taken and for 24 hours after discontinued or
after any sequelae, whichever is longer.

(3) Mood ameliorating, tranquilizing, or ataraxic drugs--for the period they are used and for 4
weeks after the drug has been discontinued. When medications are utilized for nonpsychotropic
reasons, such as for symptomatic relief of vomiting or muscle spasm, the period of disability will
last only for the duration of the acute illness and for 72 hours after cessation of medication.

Immunizations
Medical restriction from flying will be for a minimum period of 12 hours following all
immunizations except smallpox and for the duration of any systemic or severe local reactions.

Blood Donation
Aircrew members will not be regular blood donors. Following blood donation (200cc or more),
aircrew members will be restricted from flying duty for a period of 72 hours.

Decompression Experience
(1) An aircrew member will be restricted from flying duty until fully evaluated and released for
flying duty by a flight surgeon when symptoms or reactions occur during or after decompression.

(2) Aircrew members engaging in low pressure altitude chamber flights, regardless of altitude
reached, will be restricted from heavy exercise and flying for prolonged duty for twelve (12)
hours following the flight.

Diving
This incidence of decompression sickness during flight is considerably increased after exposure
to any environment above atmosphere pressure, such as SCUBA diving.

(1) Aircrew members will not fly or perform low-pressure chamber "runs" within 24 hours
following SCUBA diving, compressed air dives, or high pressure runs. When urgent operational
requirement dictates, aviation personnel may fly within 24 hours of SCUBA diving, provided no
symptoms of dysbarism have developed and the aircrew members are examined and cleared to
perform flying duties by a flight surgeon.

(2) Decompression sickness symptoms occurring during or after diving imposes a ban on flying
until cleared for duty by a flight surgeon.

Tobacco Smoking
Aircrew members are discouraged from smoking tobacco at all times. They should especially
refrain from smoking before flights at night and during all flights because smoking, with its
increased carbon monoxide in the blood, results in greater detrimental physiological effects than
would normally result from the altitude of the aircraft
1.4 G Strenuous sporting activities

162
Strenuous Sporting Activities
The fitness of aircrew members should be considered following participation in strenuous
sporting activities.

Vision
Aircrew members requiring corrective lenses in order to achieve 20/20 vision shall be restricted
from flying duties unless they are wearing corrective spectacle lenses which provide 20/20, or
better, near and far vision bilaterally. Aircrew members will not wear contact lenses at any time.

CLASS 1: OVER-THE-COUNTER MEDICATIONS

Aeromedical Concerns
Self-medication in anyone on flight status is prohibited by AR 40-8 Over-the-counter (OTC)
medications frequently are combination medications, with one or more components
contra-indicated for safety of flight. Many OTC medications do not provide a listing of
ingredients on the package and often give only sketchy information on side effects.

Waiver
The OTC medications listed below are Class I medications. As such, flight status personnel only
for short-term and only may use them when a flight surgeon is not available to dispense or
approve the medication. Combination medications are acceptable only when each component in
the combination is separately acceptable. Any prohibited component makes the combination a
prohibited medication.

ANTACIDS: (Tums, Rolaids, Mylanta, Maalox, Gaviscon, etc.) When used occasionally or
infrequently. Chronic use is Class 3.

ARTIFICIAL TEARS: Saline or other lubricating solution only. Visine or other vasoconstrictor
agents are prohibited for aviation duty.

ASPIRIN/ACETAMINOPHEN: When used infrequently or in low dosage.

COUGH SYRUP OR COUGH LOZENGES: [Guaifencsin (Robitussin plain)]. Many OTC

cough syrups contain sedating antihistamine or Dextromethorphan (DM) and are prohibited for
aviation duty.

DECONGESTANT: Pseudoephedrine (Sudafed), Phenylpropanolamine (Entex)]. When used for

mild nasal congestion in the presence of normal ventilation of the sinuses, and middle ears
(normal valsalva).

KAOLIN AND PECTIN: (Kaopectate). If used for minor diarrhea conditions and free of side
effects for 24 hours.

163
MULTIPLE VITAMINS: When used in normal supplemental doses. Mega-dose prescriptions or
individual \vitamin preparations are prohibited.

NASAL SPRAYS: Saline nasal sprays are acceptable without restriction. Neosynephrine may:
be used for a maximum of 3 days. Long-acting nasal sprays [oxymetazolinc (Afrin)] are
restricted to no more than 3 days. Use of neosyncphrine or oxymetazoline for longer than the
above time must be validated and approved by a flight surgeon. Recurrent need for nasal sprays
must be evaluated by the flight surgeon. Use requires the aircrew member to be free of side
effects.

PSYLLIUM MUCILLOID: (Metamucil). When used to treat occasional constipation or as a

fiber source for dietary reasons. Long-term use (over 1 week) must be coordinated with the flight
surgeon due to its association with esophageal/bowel obstructions.

THROAT LOZENGES: Acceptable provided the lozenge contains no prohibited medication.

Benzocaine (or similar analgesic) containing throat spray, or lozenge is acceptable. Long-term
use (more than 3 days) must be approved by the local flight surgeon.

DISCUSSION: The aviator requires constant alertness with full use of all of his senses and
reasoning powers. Many OTC medications as well as most prescribed medications cause
sedation, blurred vision, disruptions of vestibular function, etc. Often the condition for which the
medication is used is mild; however, it can produce very subtle effects, which may also be
detrimental in the flight environment. Just like the subtle deterioration of cognitive ability that
occurs with hypoxia and alcohol intoxication, the individual taking the medicine may not
appreciate the effects of medication. These effects may have disastrous results in situations
requiring ful1 alertness and rapid reflexes.

APPENDIX A

TASK REFENCES
BASE TASKS

CREW LEVEL MISSION BRIEF TASK 1000

REF: SOP

164
 PRE-FLIGHT TASK 1005
PLANNING REF: AR 95-1 PARA 5-2
LOGBOOK FORMS AND RECORDS/ REQUIRED FORMS REF: DA PAM 738-751 para 1-
15 c.
DA FORM 2408-31 REF: DA PAM 738-751 para 2-4
DA FROM 2408 REF: DA PAM 738-751 para 2-3
DA FORM 2408-12 REF: DA PAM 738-751 para 2-8
DA FORM 2408-13 REF: DA PAM 738-751 para 2-9
DA FORM 2408-13-1 REF: DA PAM 738-751 para 2-10
DA FORM 2408-13-2 REF: DA PAM 738-751 para 2-11
DA FORM 2408-14-1 REF: DA PAM 738-751 para 2-12
DA FORM 2408-18 REF: DA PAM 738-751 para 2-13
DD FORM 1896 or DD FORM 1897
TM1-1520-237-CL Operator’s checklist
TM1-1520-237-10 Operator’s manual
DD FORM 365-4 REF: TM 55-1500-342-23 para 4-9 & AR 95-1 paras 5-2 h, 7-4 a (2),(3),(6),
and 7-5
LOGBOOK BINDER
HIT LOG REF: TM1-2840-248-23 paras 1-153 & 1-155
PMS MANUAL
AWR – present per AWR
AIRCRAFT REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 paras 8.10 through 8.20
EXTERIOR CHECK
HF RADIO REF: AWR 896
NOSE SECTION
COCKPIT
INTERIOR CABIN
SEATS REF: TM 1-1520-204-23-1 para 9-20 e.
SEATBELTS REF: TM 1-1520-204-23-1 para11-21 a.
FIRST AID KITS REF: TM 1-1520-204-23-1 para 11-19 b.
VIP KIT REF: AWR 896
12 PNT ICS REF: AWR 896
CABIN TOP
FUSELAGE
TAIL PYLON
COLLECTIVE AND YAW BOOST SERVO REF: TM1-1520-237-23-1 para 1-7-49

BEFORE T/O THROUGH BEFORE leaving CHECKS TASK 1007

FLIGHT CONTROLS REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 8.22
PROPER MOVEMENT (BINDS AND RESTRICTIONS)

STABILATOR CHECK REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 8.22

PROPER MOVEMENT

BLADE DEICE CHECK REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 8.22

165
DROOP STOP CAMS

ENGINE START REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 8.23

FIRE GUARD PROCEDURES REF: TM 1-152-204-23-1 para 3-10a.

ENGINE RUN-UP REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 8.23

DROOP STOPS
ENGINE HIT REF: TM1-2840-248-23 paras 1-153 & 1-155
AUXILLARY FUEL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM TRANSFER CHECK

BEFORE TAXI REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 8.24

EJECTOR RACKS
CHAFF
CHOCKS
DOORS

BEFORE T/O REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 8.28 through 8.29

MISSION EQUIPMENT
CREW
PASSENGERS
SEATBELTS REF: AR 95-1 para 8-11

LANDING REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 8.30

BRAKES
MISSION EQUIPMENT
CREW
PASSENGERS
SEATBELTS REF: AR 95-1 PARA 8-11

PARKING AND SHUTDOWN REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 8.34

SHUTDOWN
LANDING GEAR
EJECTOR RACKS
CHAFF
DROOP STOPS
STABILATOR

PARKING
MINIMUMS REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 2.93
COVERS AND PLUGS REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 2.94
MOORING REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 paras 2.95 AND TM 1-1500-250-23 paras 4-1 and 4-2 c.
MAIN ROTOR TIEDOWN REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 paras 2.95.2 AND TM 1-1520-204-23-1
para 3-2 d.

166
 OPERATE ALSE TASK 1010
RESPONSIBILITIES REF: AR 95-1 PARA 8-1
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT REF: AR 95-1 PARA 8-9
SEATBELTS REF: AR 95-1 PARA 8-11
HELMET REF: TM 1-8415-216-12&P
INSPECTION
BEFORE
AFTER
OPERATION
WEAR AND ADJUSTMENT
VEST REF: TM 55-1680-351-10
WEAR AND ADJUSTMENT
COMPONENTS
LOCATION OF EACH
OPERATION OF ALL INSTALLED EQUIPMENT
REQUIRED USE REF: AR 95-1 PARA 8-12a

RADIOS REF: AR 95-1 PARA 8-12b

PRC-90 REF: TM 55-1680-351-10
PRC-112 REF: TM 11-5820-1037-13&P

AMSS KIT REF: TM 55-1680-348-10

REQUIRED USE REF: AR 95-1 PARA 8-12c
COMPONENTS REF: SOP
OPERATION OF ALL INSTALLED EQUIPMENT

EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT (PORTABLE)

REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 PARA 2.14.7, 2.15, 2.16, & 9.6 AND AR 95-1 PARA 8-6

ALSS SYSTEM
SUBSYSTEMS
ENVIRONMENTAL LIFE SUPPORT AND PROTECTIVE
REF: AR 95-1 PARA 8-2b(1)
ESCAPE AND DESCENT LIFE SUPPORT
REF: AR 95-1 PARA 8-2(2)

SURVIVAL RECOVERY LIFE SUPPORT

REF: AR 95-1 PARA 8-2b(3)

MAINTAIN AIRSPACE SURVEILLANCE TASK 1014

SCANNING TECHNIQUES REF: TC 1-204 PARA 1-10
TYPES OF VISION REF: TC 1-204 PARA 1-4
BLIND SPOTS REF: TC 1-204 PARA 1-5c(1)
NIGHT CONSIDERATIONS

FUEL MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES TASK 1023

167
FUEL CONSUMPTION RATE *(ONLY TESTABLE SUBJECT)
RESERVE TIMES REF: AR 95-1 PARA 5-2b(1)
BURNOUT

PERFORM REFUELING OPERATIONS TASK 1042

COLD REFUEL
GROUNDING REF: FM 10-67-1 pg. 16-4
VEHICLE PARKING REF: FM 10-67-1 pg. 16-4 & 16-5
SEQUENCE OF OPERATION REF: FM 10-67-1 pg. 16-4,5,6 & 7
TYPES OF REFUEL PROCEDURES
GRAVITY REF: TM1-1520-237-10 PARA 2.84.3 AND TM1-1520-237-23-1 PARA 1-3-17
PRESSURE REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 PARA 2.84.4 AND TM1-1520-237-23-1 PARA 1-3-1
CLOED CIRCUIT REF: TM1-1520-237-10 PARA 2.84.4 AND TM1-1520-237-23-1 PARA 1-3-
19
FUEL CAPACITY
REF: TM1-1520-237-10 TABLE 2-4 pg. 2-90
PERSONNEL SAFETY
STATIC ELECTRICITY REF: FM 10-67-1 pg. 2-12
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING REF: FM 10-67-1 pg. 2-24
FUEL HAZARDS REF: FM 3-04.301(1-301) AND FM 10-67-1 pg. 2-24

HOT REFUEL
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS REF: TM 10-67-1 pg. 15-5,6,&7
PASSENGER SAFETY REF: FM 10-67-1 pg. 15-14

PERFORM EMERGENCY EGRESS TASK 1065

EMERGENCY EXITS REF: TM1-1520-237-10 para 9.5
EMERGENCY PILOT EVACUATION REF: TM1-1520-237-10 para 2.12.1
EMERGENCY ENGINE SHUTDOWN REF: TM1-1520-237-10 para 9.3d
PASSENGER EVACUATION

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES TASK 1068

EMERGENCY LANDING REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 para 9.3
ENGINE FIRE IN FLIGHT REF: TM1-1520-237-10 para 9.23.4
SMOKE AND FUME ELIMINATION REF: TM1-1520-237-10 para 9.24
LANDING AND DITCHING REF: TM1-1520-237-10 para 9.28
POWER CONTROL LEVER EP’S REF: TM1-1520-237-10 paras 9.9, 9.11, 9.14, 9.15, 9.16,
9.17, 9.18, 9.19, 9.20, 9.22.8, AND 9.23.4

ID/ PERFORM HAND AND ARM SIGNALS TASK 1069

REF: FM 21-60

168
 OBTAIN A FUEL SAMPLE TASK 1070
DAILY SAMPLE REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 PARA 2.84.5 AND FM 10-67-1 pg. 13-6
SPECIAL SAMPLE REF: TM1-1520-237-10 PARA 2.84.5 AND FM 10-67-1 pg. 13-7

CONDUCT A PASSENGER BRIEFING TASK 1071

REF: SOP

PERFORM RADIO COMMO PROCEDURES TASK 1079

ICS REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 table 3-1
FM 1/2 (ARC-114) REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 table 3-1 and para 3.5
FM1/2 (ARC-201) REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 table 3-1 and para 3.8
VHF AM/FM (ARC-186) REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 table 3-1 and para 3.7
UHF REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 table 3-1 and para 3.9
HF REF: TM 1-1520-237-10 table 3-1 and para 3.12A

OPERATE ASE TASK 1095

ASE COMPONENTS REF: FM1-113 para G-3
M130 CHAFF REF: TM1-1520-237-10 para 4.3 and TM 11-5865-200-12 para 4-16
ALQ-144 REF: TM1-1520-237-10 para 4.8

TAKE PART IN A CREW LEVEL AAR TASK 1137

REF: SOP

MISSION TASKS

PERFORM ROLLING TAKEOFF TASK 2001

REF: TC 1-212

PERFORM EVASIVE MANEUVERS TASK 2008

REF: TC 1-212

PERFORM MUTI- ACFT OPS TASK 2009

REF: TC 1-201, TC 1-212 AND SOP

PERFORM INTERNAL LOAD OPERATIONS TASK 2017

PASSENGER BRIEF REF: SOP
SECURE PASSENGERS AND LOAD REF: TM1-1520-237-10 paras 5.14, 5.15, 5.16, 6.15,
6.16, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19, and 6.20
SECURING INTERNAL LOADS REF: FM 55-450-2 chapter 6

PREPARE ACFT FOR MISSION TASK 2046

REF: SOP AND AWR 896

PERFORM EP’S FOR NVG FAILURE TASK 2072

169
REF: TC 1-212

PERFORM TERRAIN FLIGHT NAV TASK 2079

REF: TC 1-212 AND TC 1-201 pg. 6-14 & 6-15

NEGOTIATE WIRE OBSTACLES TASK 2083

REF: TC 1-212 AND TC 1-201 pgs. 6-22 through 6- 25

PERFORM TERRAIN FLT DECEL TASK 2087

REF: TC 1-212 AND TC 1-201 pg. 6-18

PERFORM AFMS OPERATION TASK 2099

NORMAL OPERATIONS REF: TM1-1520-237-10 para 8.39.2
EMERGENCY OPERATIONS REF: TM1-1520-237-10 paras 9.35A, 9.36, and 9.38

PASSENGER PICKUP/ DROP OFF TASK 3004

REF: SOP

PERFORM APU OPS TASK 3003

GENERAL DESCRIPTION REF: TM1 –1520-237-10 paras 2.67, 2.68, and 2.69
APU ESU REF: TM1-1520-237-10 fig. 2-5
SERVICING REF: TM1-1520-237-10 para 2.87 and table 2-4
OPERATING LIMITS REF: TM1-1520-237-10 paras 5.30 and 5.31
NORMAL OPERATION REF: TM1-1520-237-10 para 8.21 and 8.22
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES REF: TM1-1520-237-10 paras 9.23.2 and 9.23.3

APPENDIX B
FUEL MANAGEMENT WORKSHEET
15 MINUTE FUEL CHECK
EXAMPLE
1. START LBS ______2200___ START TIME ___1800________

2. STOP LBS ______2000____ STOP TIME _____ 1815______

3. DIFFERENCE = ___200______

170
 4. 200 X 4 = ______800_____LBS PER HOUR

2.5 = HRS TO BURNOUT

5. 800 2000

6. 2.5 hours = 2 hours 30 minutes

7. 2 hours 30 minutes + 1815 = 2045 burnout time

8. 2045 - 20 minute VFR reserve or 2025 + 20 minute VFR reserve

2045 - 30 minute IFR reserve or 2015 + 30 minute IFR reserve

9. 800 divided by 3 = 270 pounds 20 minute VFR fuel reserve

800 divided by 2 = 400 pounds 30 minute IFR fuel reserve

FUEL MANAGEMENT WORKSHEET

LINE 1: START FUEL______________START TIME_______________

LINE 2: STOP FUEL________________STOP TIME________________

LINE 3: DIFFERENCE ______________

LINE 4: ____________X 4 (15 MINUTES) =_________________

____________X 3 (20 MINUTES) =_________________

LINE 5:
= HRS TO BURNOUT

171
LINE 6:

LINE 7:

LINE 8:

LINE 9:

INSTRUCTIONS

LINE 1: Enter the START FUEL and START TIME

LINE 2: Enter the STOP FUEL and STOP TIME

LINE 3: Subtract LINE 2 (START FUEL) from LINE 1 (STOP FUEL)

HOURLY BURN RATE

LINE 4: Multiply the LINE 3 difference by: 4 for a 15 minute fuel check
3 for a 20 minute fuel check

TOTAL FUEL (IN HOURS) REMAINING

LINE 5: Divide LINE 2 (STOP FUEL) by LINE 4 (BURN RATE)

LINE 6: Convert LINE 5 (FUEL REMAINING) into an hour/ minutes format

EX. 1.85 = 1 hour 51 minutes

172
BURNOUT TIME
LINE 7: Add LINE 6 to LINE 2 (STOP TIME)

RESERVE TIMES
LINE 8: Subtract reserve times from LINE 7 (BURNOUT TIME)
20 minutes VFR
30 minutes IFR

RESERVE FUEL
LINE 9: Divide LINE 4 (BURN RATE) by: 3 for VFR reserve fuel
2 for IFR reserve fuel

ADVISE THE PIC OF ALL UNDERLIGNED STEPS

APPENDIX C

JP8 CONVERSION TABLE (6.7 LBS/GAL)

GALLONS to POUNDS LITERS to GALLONS
1 6.7 10 2.64
2 13.4 20 5.28
3 20.1 30 7.93
4 26.8 40 10.57
5 33.5 50 13.21
6 40.2 100 26.42
7 46.9 200 52.84
8 53.6 300 79.26
9 60.3 400 105.68
10 67 500 132.105
20 134 600 158.53

173
 30 201 700 184.95
40 268 800 211.37
50 335 900 237.79
60 402 1000 264.21
70 469 1100 290.63
80 536 1200 317.05
90 603 1300 343.47
100 670 1400 369.89
200 1340 1500 396.32
300 2010 1600 422.74
400 2680 1700 449.16
500 3350 1800 475.58
600 4020 1900 502.00
700 4690 2000 528.42
800 5360 3000 792.63
900 6030 4000 1056.84
1000 6700 5000 1321.05

Gallons To Liters Multiply Liter # by 3.785

Liters To Gallons Multiply Gallon # by .26421

APPENDIX D

APU CHECKLIST

174
 LIMITATIONS

APU
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) Check1
The APU may be operated continuously with OAT below 51o C.

BACKUP PUMP

Maximum Cool Down

Temp Operating Time Time

-54 TO 32oC Unlimited N/A

33 TO 38oC 24 Minutes 72 Minutes
39 TO 52oC 16 Minutes 48 Minutes

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

APU COMPARTMENT FIRE

1. APU T-handle – PULL

2. Fire Extinguisher Switch – Reserve
3. Time permitting call tower/ground
4. Exit aircraft

APU OIL TEMP HI caution light illuminated

1. APU Control Switch – OFF; do not attempt restart until APU oil level
has been checked.

BATT FAULT caution light illuminated

1. Battery Switch – OFF and then ON

2. If BATT FAULT caution light illuminates, you may switch the battery
switch OFF then ON one more time.
3. If condition returns, Battery Switch – OFF

BATT LOW CHARGE caution light illuminated

This checklist will remain in each aircraft’s logbook.
1. Battery Switch – OFF then ON to reset charger analyzer. It may take
up to 30 minutes to recharge the battery. POC is Standards

175
 PRE-OPERATION
NOTE
1. Logbook – INSPECT If the APU FAIL caution light illuminates, note and analyze the BITE
2. APU accumulator pressure – CHECK, minimum 2800 psi indications on the ESU prior to turning off battery power.
3. Gust lock - ENGAGED
4. Battery – CHECK connected WARNING
5. APU exhaust plug – REMOVE Stabilator will move to full trailing edge down position upon application of AC
6. Chaff cover - REMOVE power (APU generator switch). Ensure stabilator area is clear prior to
7. Left rear main rotor tie-down – UNTIE/ REMOVE (as necessary) energizing stabilator system.
8. Pitot covers – REMOVE
9. Hydraulic access area – CHECK for leaks, oil levels, tempilabels, 1. Stabilator – CLEAR
FOD 2. APU ON advisory light – ON
10. ALQ 144 cover – REMOVE 3. APU generator switch – ON
11. APU oil level – CHECK 4. Avionics – ON as required

BEFORE STARTING APU APU SHUTDOWN

1. Circuit breakers – IN 1. Backup hydraulic pump switch – OFF

2. Avionics – OFF, SET 2. Stabilator – CLEAR; slew to zero
3. Blade de-ice power switch – OFF 3. APU ACCUM LOW advisory light – CHECK OFF
4. Backup hydraulic pump switch – AUTO 4. BACKUP PUMP ON advisory light – CHECK OFF
5. Anti-collision light – BOTH/NIGHT (Heidelberg SOP) 5. Avionics – OFF
6. APU generator switch – OFF 6. Anti-collision light - OFF
7. APU control switch – OFF 7. Pitot heat switch – OFF
8. APU T-handle – IN 8. Heater and vent blower switches – OFF
9. Air source, Heat/Start switch – APU 9. APU generator switch – OFF
10. Heater switch - OFF 10. Fuel pump switch – OFF
11. Windshield anti-ice switches – OFF 11. APU control switch – OFF
12. Pitot heat switch – OFF 12. Battery switch – OFF
13. FAT – NOTE temperature and limitations
14. Headset/helmet – ON RADIO FREQUENCIES
15. Battery switch – ON
FACILITY FM VHF UHF
APU START TOWER 33.60 142.20 245.35
GROUND 143.10 388.65
1. SAS 1 Switch – CHECK OFF
2. Fuel pump switch – APU BOOST; PRIME BOOST PUMP ON
advisory light – ON
3. APU ACCUM LOW advisory light – OFF
4. APU exhaust – CHECK clear
5. APU control switch – ON

176