Stormwater Runoff Quality in Malabe, Sri Lanka
W.W.J.R.A. Fernando1, Dr. U. Rathnayake2
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Srilanka Institute of Information Technology
Email: adhesha.fernando92@gmail.com
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Senior Lecturer (higher grade), Srilanka Institute of Information
Technology.
Email: upakasanjeewa@gmail.com
Abstract- Stormwater is the water that precipitate into
the surface of the earth by rain or snow. Stormwater
precipitation is one of the key element in the water cycle.
Stormwater runoff occurs when the precipitated water
exceeds the infiltration capacity from the ground surface.
This a natural occurring phenomena around the world.
These runoff will then accumulate into the surrounding
waterbodies and help to maintain surface and inland
flows.
But with time and development, the pervious surfaces
which once were get reduced rapidly. And the ability to
infiltrate reduces resulting in more runoff. Due to rapid
urbanization, more impervious surfaces are created thus
increasing the quantity of runoff. Due to this, many
adverse effects arise. Due to the impervious surfaces, the
quality of the stormwater is greatly affected which will
directly affect the human lifestyle and affects the balance
and survivability of other eco systems. Stormwater runoff
is now a main problematic area in the era. The quantity of
runoff is drastically increasing due to the rapid growth
level of urbanization taking place in the country and the
world.
Malabe is one of the rapidly growing areas in Sri Lanka.
The study is carried out to find the quality of stormwater
in the area. Runoff samples were taken from different
impervious areas in malabe and analysis was done to
obtain the quality of the water and it is compared with the
quality of rainwater as well. This comparison will give a
clear idea about the quality of water runoff and how it will
affect the lifestyle of people and other eco habitats in the
area
With the available resources and time frame, following
parameters were measured in the collected runoff samples;
pH, Conductivity, turbidity and colour, nitrates, nitrites,
sulphates, total solids. It is found that certain parameters
like turbidity, nitrate, and nitrite has exceeded the
standard accepted limits in the area. And the probable
reasons for this variations are also discussed
Keywords: Stormwater, runoff, impervious layer,
urbanization, Malabe, contaminants Introduction
Stormwater runoff is generated from a numerous sources
including residential, commercial and industrial areas, roads,
highways and bridges etc. due to the rapid rate of
urbanization. Essentially, if any surface which does not have
the capability to store and infiltrate water will result in a
runoff in case of a rain fall event. At the point when land
region is adjusted from a characteristic forested environment
to an urbanized land utilize comprising of rooftops, streets and
parking lots, the hydrology of the framework is also changed.
Stormwater in general is not an issue. It is a natural occurring
phenomena. But now, stormwater is one of the main
environmental problem faced by the world. As the ground
pervious cover get reduced day by day due to the rapid
development in impervious surfaces, the percentage of
stormwater seeping in to the ground has been reduced
significantly hence increase the percentage of runoff. This
issue is not confined to specific countries, but this is a global
issue which somehow have to manage properly in order to
prevent deadly floods, rapid spread of communicable diseases
caused by contaminated water and to prevent property
damage.
Generally the water falls to the surface will infiltrate the
soil surface and reach the groundwater table. Majority of
water is driven to reach the groundwater table and some more
is evaporated back into the atmosphere and some will be
traveling as inflows in the ground. After full filling all these
modes, the rest of the water; that will be a minute amount, will
result in a surface runoff. But this is not the case anymore.
Due to the rapid urbanization, increase of effective impervious
areas, ground infiltrations tend to be overrun by the surface
runoff. This is a direct impact on the environment and lead to
floods and damage of property and other losses as well. Due to
the accelerated rate of urbanization, surface runoff is
inevitable. But managing runoff can be done effectively
without making in imbalance for the natural system.
In this research study, only the stormwater quality is
analyzed. Due to urbanization with its uncontrollable
impervious surface increase, the quantity of the stormwater
runoff increases hence increase the transport of pollutants to
the receiving waterbodies which significantly affect the
quality of the water. Due to this there will be an adverse effect
on human health and lifestyle and also to indigenous plant and
animals. Prevention and minimizing the stormwater runoff and
its pollution load is a must in order to keep the balance of
nature and human lifestyle. Thus in the modern world,
management is a hard thing to achieve with the rate of
urbanization hence this has become a potential problem source
that needed to be addressed.
Being a tropical country, Sri Lanka gets its main water
precipitation source through rain. Malabe, the town with new
opportunities, is current driving towards rapid urbanization. In
a very little time, the land of Malabe area has highly urbanized
in a way that no city in and around Colombo has. Due to this
rapid urbanization; residential, industrial and commercial
growth can be clearly seen in the area.
As the percentage of infiltration becomes less by the
degree of urbanization, the runoff percentages increase. The
quality of this runoff is significant. As discussed by EPA
(1995b), the adverse impacts associated with stormwater
discharges on receiving waters can be categorized under three
main criteria.
1. Short-term changes in water quality during and after
storm events including temporary increases in the
concentration of one or more pollutants, toxics or bacteria
levels.
2. Long-term water quality impacts caused by the
cumulative effects associated with repeated stormwater
discharges from a number of sources.
3. Physical impacts due to erosion, scour, and
deposition associated with increased frequency and volume of
runoff that alters aquatic habitat.
As described in the Terrene Institute’s Fundamentals of
Urban Runoff Management. (May, et al., 1977) Pollutants
associated with runoff can be categorize into following
potentially harmful materials;
• Solids
• Oxygen-demanding substances
• Nitrogen and phosphorus
• Pathogens
• Petroleum hydrocarbons
• Metals
• Synthetic organics.
These pollutants degrade the quality of water in water
bodies near urban areas. Even though water quality impacts
are often unobserved by the general public, it often contribute
to the impairment of use and exceedances of criteria included
in State water quality standards.
Public health impacts caused by bacteria and disease
causing organisms carried by urban stormwater runoff into
waters used for water supplies, fishing and recreation can
affect the lifestyle of humans. Water supplies can potentially
be contaminated by the urban runoff, posing a public health
threat. Bathers and others coming in contact with
contaminated water at beaches and other recreational sites can
become seriously ill and can negatively affect the fishing
industry and local economies as well.
Debris and litter floating with the runoff in urban
waterways and concentrated on stream banks and beaches
which are visible to the general public also cause Aesthetic
impacts. The presence of floatables such as paper and plastic
bags and packaging materials, bottles, cans, and wood and
other debris in receiving waters during a storm events hinders
the visual attractiveness of waters and deteriorate the
recreational value. Nuisance algal conditions including surface
scum and odor problems can also be attributed to urban
stormwater in many instances. The concentrations of
pollutants found in urban runoff are directly related to degree
of development within area.
The major reason for the increase in impervious surfaces is
the rate of urbanization. Urbanization is a population shift
from rural to urban areas. As a developing country, Sri Lanka
undergoes a rapid urbanization process which creates both
advantages and disadvantages to human lifestyle. And bring
out adverse environmental effects during the process. Efforts
should be taken to minimize these adverse effects to the nature
and minimize the damage in order to preserve the surrounding
and nature to the future generation.
Malabe on the other hand is under rapid development and
urbanization during the past decade. The following statistics
shows the rate of population change from 2001 to 2012 in the
area. These statistics are taken from the divisional secretariat
and t it shows that during the time period, there is a 27%
increment on population in the Malabe area. This suggest the
rate of urbanization is high in Malabe area. This will increase
the impervious land area hence reducing the green cover in the
area as well.
G.N Percentage
Division 2001 2012 Increment Increment
Malabe north 5653 7680 2027 36%
Malabe east 3963 5958 1995 50%
Malabe west 5050 5141 91 2%
Hokandara north 5057 6238 1181 24%
Total 19723 25017 5294 27%
I. LITERATURE REVIEW
It has been reported by the United Nations in 2011 that in
2010 for the first time in history, more than half of the world’s
population lived in urban rather than rural areas. In citation to
Gill (2007), it is anticipated that most of the world’s
population growth will take place in the urban areas in the
next four decades. This will result in where the urban areas
will become larger with increased impervious areas, which in
turn will lead to many more environment problems. These
impacts can be in many forms such as changing hydrology,
climate change, water and food scarcity and urban heat island
effects. (Beecham & Razzaghmanesh, 2014)
Origination of stormwater wash-off is when rain flows
over the impervious surfaces which prevent the infiltration. As
there are various types of pollutants which have been
deposited and gathered on these impervious surfaces receives
to the water bodies even with a minor rain fall event. Whereas
the urban stormwater wash off has been recognized as a “non-
point” pollution source of deterioration of water quality in
surface water bodies. (Barrios, 2000)
According to past researches, in 1950s “quantification of
pollutant loads in urban runoff” was initiated and based on
those analyses, it could be concluded that the shock load to a
receiving water from urban stormwater wash off could be
“100 to 1000 time greater than” it of sanity water and it has a
significant dominating effect on the quality of receiving water.
(Nagasinghe, et al., 2015)
The hydrologic, physiochemical and biological
characteristics of water bodies are adversely affected because
of the pollutants in the stormwater wash off. Thus, measures
to mitigate the adverse effect on stormwater pollution are vital
important to safe guard the urban water quality.
Initiating from 1950 continuous researches have been
conducted to identify and quantify the individual sources to
form of water pollution. Land use has been subsequently
become one of major factors which affects the types and levels
of pollutant generating activities of man and nature.
(Goonetillekea, et al., 2005). Again many researches have
been accrued out to identify the various impervious surfaces
for the contamination of urban stormwater runoff which has
been classified as road surfaces, roof surfaces and parking lots.
Not only that the pollutant concentration of wash off generated
due to impermeable roads and parking surfaces are significant
compared to other impervious surfaces and it vary with traffic
density, wind drift and duration and intensity of stormwater
events. (Nagasinghe, et al., 2015)
Again in cited to past literature, stormwater quality has a
significant impact on receiving water bodies. Many impacts
can be identified stormwater quality on receiving water
bodies. Two of major impacts are to the aquatic life on the
receiving water bodies and for the downstream water uses who
use raw water for drinking purposes. (Makepeace, et al., 2016)
Still, urbanization significantly impacts water
environments by increment of the runoff and degradation of
the water quality. Though the management of quantity
impacts are straight forward, quality impacts are more
complex. As for the past literature current approached that
practices to safeguard the water quality are largely ineffective
and they are guided by ingrained misconceptions where the
primary focus was on the end solutions, not on the cause.
(Goonetillekea, et al., 2005)
Stormwater runoff is not a problem, if it is able to
discharge into water bodies with no obstructions. But due to
urbanization, lot of impervious layers created hence
obstructing the path of stormwater runoff and hence resulting
in quantity issues such as floods. Furthermore due to the
increase in pollutant levels, there is a direct impact in the
quality of the runoff which will directly affect health related
issues as well. This research is based on identifying the quality
of stormwater runoff which is accelerated due to the
urbanization taking place in the area.
Many researches have been conducted across the world in
determining the factors affecting the quality and quantity of
stormwater. For the contamination of the impervious areas is
highly tied to the contribution of traffic (like copper, chrome,
lead and nickel), solid and liquid waste, salt spillages in the
water periods, oil and fuel spillages, vehicle derived waste
including those from tire and brake lining wear, paint residual
(such as roofs, building surfaces and road marking) and road –
surfacing products like bitumen and asphalt. (Barco, et al.,
2005)
Domestic sewage will affect the characteristics of
stormwater. It is one of the main source of heavy metals,
organic and nitrogenous pollution. Biochemical demand and
nutrient contents are lower in stormwater than in raw sanitary
wastewater. The infrastructure in urbanized areas have
different development levels. Discharge of stormwater into
water bodies which will result in discharge volume and quality
of the water. Urban areas produce higher discharge peaks and
runoff volumes. (Barbosa, et al., 2012)
Uncontrolled urbanization results a significant increase
of impervious surfaces such as roads, roofs and parking
lots. Stormwater wash off is originated when rain flows
over the impervious surfaces which prevent the
infiltration. Various types of pollutants which have been
deposited and accumulated on these impervious surfaces
receive to the water bodies. (Nagasinghe, et al., 2015)
Urbanization with its uncontrolled impervious surfaces
increases stormwater runoff and transports pollutants to the
receiving water bodies. These pollutants not only have an
adverse effect on human health but also to indigenous plants
and animals. The urban runoff load has made a substantial
contribution towards raising nutrient levels in water bodies.
(Maharjan, et al., 2013)
According to past researchers, urban and agricultural lands
used in a country also differentially influence water quality as
well. This in turn can influence the benthic macro-invertebrate
and periophyton community structure. Higher levels of total
phosphorous, total suspended solids, biological oxygen
demand and conductivity were observed for urban sites and as
were higher in summer temperatures. These indicated water
quality parameters, together with habitat alterations resulting
from flow regulation downstream of the impoundments and
the clearing of land for development, have had fundamental
effects on the benthic community of the creek, profoundly
influencing community structure and function. (Winter &
Duthie, 1998)
In citation to Skinner (1997) the effect of agricultural land
use on streams include the runoff of chemicals, sediment
loading due to increased erosion, and alterations in channel
morphology. Thus, urbanization in stream watersheds reduces
soil permeability, altering stream hydrology. (Winter &
Duthie, 1998)
As for the study carried out in Galle area, to find out the
quality of stormwater washoff it was concluded that the
turbidity, COD, BOD5, alkalinity and fecal coliform have
been exceeded the required standards. Hence, the stormwater
should be treated upto ‘acceptable limits’ before releasing it to
the natural water bodies as there is a higher concentration of
organic matter leads to cyclic cause and effects on the water
bodies. This has been measured according to the standards of
inland water quality published by the central environment
authority. The study has been carried out, collecting samples
form three road surfaces in each land used and maintaining the
minimum antecedent dry period of five days between each
event while ensuring that not to mix with other waste water.
 Considering those studies that have been carried out and
other past researches, it was apparent that a study to measure
the quality of the stormwater with the effect of the
urbanization in Colombo area and Colombo suburbs is a need.
Not only that, the past researches have stated that this study
can be carried out to the other cities of Sri Lanka as well.
Since, Malabe is a rapidly developing city and it has the
highest increment in the urbanization within 10 years, Malabe
is suitable to carry out the study to find effect of the
urbanization in quality of the stormwater.
II. METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the study is to analyze the water quality
parameters of different impervious surfaces which were
generated by urbanization in the area of Malabe which was the
study area of this research project.
A. Collection of Stormwater
Collection of Stormwater runoff was the first step in
analysis procedure. In order to get accurate results, standard
accepted method of collection were adhered. Samples were
collected during the first flush. That is within 05 to 10 minutes
of the start of a rainfall event. This was done to collect the
impurities and other particles in different impervious surfaces
before they get washed away. The study is based on the quality
of the runoff, therefore making sure the impurities had not been
washed away is a key factor. So all the samples were taken as
soon as a runoff is generated (roughly 5mins after a rainfall).
The method of collection was the sheet flow sampling
which is one of the accepted method of collection of runoff
samples. Sheet flow sampling is used in dispersed runoff flows
(e.g., through a grassy area or across a parking lot) where the
runoff is too shallow (like a sheet) to collect the water through
a bottle. Basically sheet flow sampling is the ideal method to
collect runoff water.
This sheet flow sampling uses five basic steps;
1. Preparing for sampling
2. Assembling the proper equipment
3. Selecting the best sampling location
4. Collecting the sample
5. Sending the samples to a laboratory
B. Study Area
The sample locations were chosen covering the two
impervious surfaces and a pervious surface covering a
significant area of Malabe. The following are the sites chosen
to take the runoff water for measure the quality.
1. Impervious Pavement Surface in SLIIT Malabe campus
(Location A)
2. Impervious Road Surface Malabe Town (Location B)
3. Impervious Pavement Surface in Malabe Town
(Location C)
4. Impervious Road Surface- Walivita Road, Malabe
(Location D)
These locations were chosen as for convenience of
collection of water and as to get an evenly distribution of the
main study area, Malabe. And these locations had a significant
runoff flow so that it was easy for collection
C. Collecting the sample
Samples of approximately 1 liter each were collected in a
re-sealable plastic bags and 3 samples were taken from one site
location in order to increase the accuracy of the study. Because
of the high runoff rate in the selected site areas, collection of
water sample could be achieved with ease. After the samples
were collected, re-sealed the samples well and were put into a
refrigerator in order to preserve the quality of water collected.
Furthermore the rainwater was also collected and tested in
order to compare the runoff water. Thereby a proper idea can
be obtained about the quality of the runoff water and the
impervious surfaces.
D. Analyzed Parameters
pH- It is an indicator of concentration of either hydrogen or
hydroxyl ions in a aqueous solution. pH affects the taste and
the level of acidity or basicity of water depending on the
concentration of ions present.
Turbidity- Turbidity is the parameter which affects the
aesthetics of water where it affects the appearance basically.
Turbidity is mainly due to colloidal and suspended matter in
water.
Conductivity- Conductivity is a measure and capacity to pass
an electric current through a solution such as water in a
stream. This gives an indicator for the concentration of
electrolyte ions dissolved in the water. Even though it doesn't
identify the specific ions in the medium, significant increases
in conductivity may be an indicator that polluting discharges
have entered the water.
Furthermore the following Parameters were also analyzed to
obtain the quality of runoff.
• Nitrate
• Nitrite
• Total Solids
The parameters mentioned above were only measured as the
facilities in the laboratory was not sufficient and it would
incur a great cost to carry out other parameters like oil and
grease which is another quality affecting parameter. (Barlow,
et al., 2006).
 III. RESULTS processing. It can harm fish and other aquatic life by reducing
food supplies, degrading spawning beds, and affecting gill
Variation of measured parameters with different Impervious
function. Elevated turbidity will also raise water temperature,
Surfaces lower dissolved oxygen, prevent light from reaching aquatic
A) pH plants. This will reduces their ability to photosynthesize, and
harm fish gills and eggs. The desired level of turbidity should
be less as 10 (mainly for drinking purposes). The overall
variation of turbidity of the impervious surfaces, range from
371NTU to 16.2NTU.
The abnormal increment in the level of turbidity in the runoff
water collected at location A (Pavement in SLIIT car park)
can be due to the heavy dust accumulation in the interlock
pavement. Furthermore as there is a construction site nearby,
frequent exposure to dust is commonly seen in the parking
area.

Even though the average pH variation is around 7, from the

analyzed data samples the pH variation of different
impervious surfaces are in the range of 5.7 to 7.8. This may
feel a significant difference but most aquatic biota are
sensitive to pH variations. Most pH impacts in urban waters
are caused by runoff of rainwater with low pH levels (acid
precipitation). In fact, urban areas tend to have more acidic
runoff than less developed areas. Some buffering of low pH
rainwater occurs during contact with buildings, parking lots,
roads and collection systems, and during overland flow. pH in
the collected rainwater was also in the desirable range of pH.
Color is a numeric computation of the color observed in a
B) Turbidity and Colour water quality sample, as measured in cobalt-platinum units
(APHA, 1998). Suspended and dissolved particles in water
influence color. Suspended material in water bodies may be a
result of natural causes and/or human activity. Highly colored
water has significant effects on aquatic plants and algal
growth. Light is very critical for the growth of aquatic plants
and colored water can limit the penetration of light. Thus
highly a colored body of water could not sustain aquatic life
which could lead to the long term impairment of the
ecosystem.
C) Conductivity

There was an increment in the turbidity levels of rainwater

samples and the corresponding runoff samples. It is mainly
due to the accumulated waste and dust in the impervious
layers. Elevated levels of solids increase turbidity, reduce the
penetration of light at depth within the water column, and limit
the growth of desirable aquatic plants. High turbidity can Electrical Conductivity is a measure of the capability of a
significantly reduce the aesthetic quality of lakes and streams, solution such as water in a stream to pass an electric current.
having a harmful impact on recreation and tourism. It can This is an indicator of the concentration of dissolved
increase the cost of water treatment for drinking and food electrolyte ions in the water. It doesn't identify the specific
ions in the water. However, significant increases in
conductivity may be an indicator that polluting discharges
have entered the water.
The low conductivities in the runoff indicated that there is
less metals and ions in the water. This can be due to less
industries situated in the area. As expected there were low
conductivities in the rainwater samples as well.
D) Nitrate and Nitrite
Nitrate is measured in mg/L. Natural levels of nitrate are
usually less than 1 mg/L. Concentrations over 10 mg/L will
have an effect on the freshwater aquatic environment. 10 mg/L
is also the maximum concentration allowed in human drinking
water by the U.S. Public Health Service. For a sensitive fish
such as salmon the recommended concentration is 0.06 mg/L.
From the above results, the desired Nitrate level of the runoff
is on the higher side (or on the upper reach of the desired
level) which can affect the aquatic and human lifestyle. The
collected rainwater samples also had minute amounts of
nitrates.
Nitrite is also have a similar effect as Nitrates. But it is far
worse if exceed the desired values. The measured run off
contains more nitrite levels than the permissible limit. This
will pollute the water and the water bodies which these runoff
will lead to creating more adverse effect to the environment.
The increment of Nitrite in location D can be as the area is
subjected to agricultural development. Therefore fertilization
is a commonly seen. This can affect the amount of Nitrites in
the runoff.
It is highly unlikely to have such levels of nitrites as nitrite
is highly unstable and it will convert to nitrates with time. It
can be mostly an instrumental error or a methodical error that
resulted in the high values of nitrite obtained in the samples.
E) Total Solids
One of the main parameter that contribute to the majority
of water quality problems in urban catchments is the total
solids concentration because it is a general indicator of
pollution. High concentrations of solids in water can lower
water quality by absorbing light. Waters then become warmer
and lessen the ability of the water to hold oxygen necessary
for aquatic life. Because aquatic plants also receive less light,
photosynthesis decreases and less oxygen is produced. The
combination of warmer water, less light and less oxygen
makes it impossible for some forms of life to exist.
Total solids affect life in other ways. They can clog fish
gills, reduce growth rates, decrease resistance to disease, and
prevent egg and larval development. Particles that settle out
can smother fish eggs and those of aquatic insects, as well as
suffocate newly-hatched larvae. The material that settles also
fills the spaces between rocks and makes these microhabitats
unsuitable for various aquatic insects, such as mayfly nymphs,
stonefly nymphs and caddisfly larva.
The total solids in the rainwater is 0 mg/L and all the solids
in the runoff were gained by the impervious surfaces and this
shows the quality of the surface and the runoff. Higher level of
solid concentrations can seriously affect the eco system and
aesthetic beauty as well.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Due to rapid urbanization level in the area, the generation of
impervious layers increase day by day which will result in
more and more generation of runoff. The collected runoff
sample parameters clearly shows that some of the parameters
are on or above the desired maximum range. Solids
concentration and turbidity levels in the runoff generated in
the area are mostly above the desired values. This indicated
that there are particles and other waste matter in the
impervious surfaces which accumulate in the runoff. The
impacts of this polluted runoff is severe even though the
general public do not know the depth.
From the analyzed parameters, Nitrite, Turbidity and total
solids are significantly higher than the accepted standard
values specified by the Central Environmental authority.
(CEA, 2008). Due to the increase in these parameters, runoff
water entering the streams and lakes will pollute the water
bodies hence result in loss of aquatic life. The runoff
generated in Malabe area will flow directly or indirectly to
river Kalani and the Thalangama canal which is a habitat to a
wide range of species and has diverse range of eco systems
and aquatic life.
Furthermore polluted runoff with high level of impurities
helps to spread of diseases which will affect the human
lifestyle as well. Most of the diseases are water born.
Infiltration of these runoff water will also pollute the
groundwater and causes to a change in the water in the ground
in an adverse way.
The major reasons for this increase of desired parameters
specially Nitrite, turbidity and Solids concentrations are the
rapid development of the area. The urbanization results in
generation of impervious surfaces which acts as a pollutant
accumulator. The resulting runoff from these impervious
surfaces are also there by polluted creating above mentioned
negative effects to the surrounding.
Analyzing the quality parameters of the runoff water, it can be
concluded that the stormwater quality is not the best in the
region and this is due to the increased impervious surfaces
created which are pollutant accumulators.
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