Active and Passive Voice

In a sentence, main verbs can be in active or passive voice. A main verb is Active when the subject of the
sentence is the doer (or the agent) of the action. A main verb is Passive when the subject of the sentence
is the receiver of the action. In passive voice, the verb is composed of a form of “to be” (e.g. is, is being,
was, will be) + the past participle form of the verb (e.g. watched, stolen, made, seen). This is how passive
is formed in different tenses:
Tense Simple Progressive Perfect
Present it is explained it is being explained it has been explained
Past it was explained it was being explained it had been explained
Future it will be explained it will be being explained* it will have been explained*
*These forms as well as the forms in the Perfect Progressive aspect (not included here) are uncommon.
The agent of the action is not usually stated in a passive voice sentence. When it is, it is placed in a “by”
prepositional phrase:
Active Passive
The sports fans are applauding Jess. Jess is being applauded [by the sports fans].
We made mistakes. Mistakes were made [by us].
I will fix the problem. The problem will be fixed [by me].

Not all verbs take passive voice. For example, someone cannot be exercised by somebody else. Such verbs
are called Intransitive (other examples include die, happen, occur, exist, arrive, belong, and depend).
When should Active Voice be used?
Sentences containing Active Voice can be easier to process and understand than Passive Voice sentences.
This is because they provide more information (the agent of the action), and possibly because native English
speakers are accustomed to receiving the information in the order agent-action-receiver. Active Voice
sentences may be more concise than Passive Voice sentences because they eliminate the need for a
helping verb “be” and the preposition “by.” In the example below, note how placing emphasis on the agent
(wealthy business CEOs) makes the sentence more informative and meaningful:
Active: Wealthy business CEOs forced low-income renters to leave their neighborhoods to make room
for large scaled urban development.
Passive: Low-income renters were forced to leave their neighborhoods to make room for large scaled
urban development.
Because readers may experience Active Voice sentences as clearer than Passive Voice sentences,
professional writers are often urged to limit the use of Passive Voice. In Academic Writing, only around 25%
of all verbs are used in Passive Voice.
When should Passive Voice be used?
Passive Voice is frequently used in lab reports and Methods sections of research reports because it puts the
emphasis on the experiment or process being described rather than on the researcher. In the examples
below, note how omitting the agent of the action emphasizes the experiment itself and excludes irrelevant
information:
 Active: The scientist heated the solution to the boiling point.
Passive: The solution was heated to the boiling point. Passive
Voice is also appropriate in the following cases:
- when a writer wants to de-emphasize who or what is responsible for a given action/problem
- when the agent is unknown
- when the recipient is a part of the “known” information, and it should start the sentence (see the handout
“Improving Cohesion: The Known/New Contract”)
Passive Infinitives and Modals
Infinitives, the indefinite form of verbs (e.g. to do, to examine, to identify), can also take passive voice (e.g.
to be done, to be examined, to be identified). As in the case of tensed verbs, passive infinitives are formed
with the help of “be” and past participle:
This topic needs to be examined in more detail.
The research deserves to be sent for publication.
The same principle applies to modal verbs (e.g. can, could, may, might, should, must).
This topic should be examined in more detail.
The research can be sent for publication.
Adjectives in Active and Passive Voice
In some cases, adjectives, formed from verbs, might express active and passive voice through the endings
-ing and -ed. For example:
Active: a boring person – a person makes others bored
Passive: a bored person – someone/something made a person bored
In other words, an adjective with the ending -ing shows that the person/thing causes the action, while the
ending -ed shows that the person/thing is the recipient of the action (i.e. someone/something else made the
person/thing experience a certain emotion/condition).
Other common -ing / -ed adjectives include: annoying-annoyed, confusing-confused, entertaining-entertained,
exciting-excited, interesting-interested, satisfying-satisfied, shocking-shocked, and tiring-tired.
Practice
Identify Passive Voice in this passage and determine the reason for its use.
The parliament is the only institution that answers directly to the European citizens. European wide elections
are held over the course of three days every five years to elect the representatives. While the Parliaments
power was limited in the early years of the Union, its powers increased significantly with the Maastricht,
Amsterdam, and Nice Treaties in an effort to improve the democratic legitimacy of the EU.
The Parliaments powers in the early stages of the union were non-existent. Until the debate over the EU's
democratic legitimacy began, the Parliaments role was to consult with and deliver an opinion to the
Commission and Council of Ministers concerning proposals and legislation. The Commission and Council of
Ministers had to consult with the EP when creating legislation, but were not required to adhere to the
Parliaments recommendations or opinions. Today, the parliament has the right of co-decision. Under this
procedure no text can be adopted without the formal agreement of both the Council and Parliament.
While the EP wields significant power in the EU, its democratic legitimacy is undermined by institutional
loopholes. The first loophole is the policy areas where the Council and Commission do not need to include the
EP in the entire decision-making process. In some key policy areas, the Parliament cannot change or amend
legislation. Instead, the EP only votes to accept or reject legislation, a significant difference in power compared
to the co-decision procedure. Some of the key policy areas that are left out include agriculture policy, taxation,
economic policy, citizenship policy, and the revision of treaties.
Definite & Indefinite Articles
To decide if an Article is needed before a noun or which one to choose, ask yourself the following question:
Proper
(a name of a particular
person, place,
organization etc.)
Examples: Sarah Jones,
Virginia, George Mason
University
No
article
Definite
(referring to a specific thing,
especially if it’s one we’ve
already talked about)
Examples: the girl that I
was telling you about; the
state that we live in; the
school that I decided to go
to
The
Is the noun…
Common
(just a regular word –
not a name)
or Examples: girl, state,
school
Is the common
noun definite
or indefinite? Indefinite
(not any one particular thing)
Examples: A girl walked up
to me. There are lots of
states. School is boring.
Is the indefinite
noun singular
or plural?
Singular Plural or unspecific quantity
(you can count it and there’s (either there’s more than one, or it’s
only 1) something you can’t count)
Examples: I met a new girl. Examples: There are three girls
She’s from a different state. down the hall. They are from
I see a school there. different states. School is important.
No
A, an article
Articles in Academic Writing

The flowchart with questions can be complemented with the classification below, in which more nuanced
explanations of articles are provided.

Articles determine or specify whether a noun is general or specific in its references. The questions we ask to
determine if the noun is general or specific are: is it all things (generic reference), one of many things
(indefinite reference), or this one thing (definite reference)? Below is the detailed explanation of the three types
of references.

Generic Reference
Nouns that describe a class, not an individual person or thing, have generic reference; the meaning of the
noun is all of it / them. Generic reference can often be seen in general statements used to introduce, define,
or summarize ideas.

Explanation
Non-Count Nouns
Use no article for generic reference.
Count Nouns
1. Use a plural noun (with no article). This is the most
common use for generic reference.
2. Use a/an + singular noun, especially in definitions.
3. Use the + singular noun as an alternative with humans,
animals, organs of the body, plants, and complex
inventions. It is used only in formal contexts.
Example
The development of a testable hypothesis
is a key characteristic of good science.
1. The process can be intensely
demoralizing both for students and
teachers.
2. A portfolio is a file containing samples of
a child’s work.
3. The basic structure of the brain is
affected by the sum of the adolescent’s
experiences with his or her environment.

Indefinite Reference
Indefinite reference is appropriate when the reader and/or the writer do not both know the specific identity of
the noun. This might be because:
• it is not important (use a computer = use any computer)
• not known to the writer (a further study is needed)
• new to the reader (we used a new technique = the writer knows exactly which technique, but the
reader does not).

The basic meaning of a noun with indefinite reference is one/some of many.

Explanation
Singular Count Nouns
Use a/an for all singular count nouns with
indefinite reference. Remember to use an when
the next word starts with a vowel sound.
Non-Count Nouns and Plural Nouns
No article is used when the non-count noun or
plural noun is with an indefinite reference.
Special Uses
1. Expression of quantity
2. The meaning of per
Example
Prior to the 1940s, the teaching of ESL was not
regarded as a profession in the United States.
[A profession here means “any profession” so the noun
is indefinite].
The presence of ESL students should be an important
consideration for all teachers and scholars of writing
because ESL students can be found in many writing
courses across the United States.
1. a number of, a piece of, a section of
2. 60 miles an hour, $200 an hour
It is important to mention that there is really difficult to identify the difference with generic reference and
indefinite reference with plural and non-count nouns; however, it is not necessary since they have the same
grammatical rules.
Definite Reference
A definite reference is used when the reader and writer both know or can easily find the exact meaning of
the noun. Academic writers use definite reference extensively to connect ideas within and between
sentences and to establish sheared knowledge with readers. All common nouns (count and non-count,
singular and plural) use the for definite reference. A noun is definite if:
Explanation Example
It has been previously identified in the text. Payne et al. conducted their first cross foster
experiment in 1998: Payne and his colleagues
performed the experiment with Vidua chalybeata, the
village indigobird.
[The experiment is definite because it was introduced
in the first sentence].
It is unique (if there is only one of something, it is Constant littering has a large negative impact on the
fully identified for the reader). environment.

The noun phrase includes a superlative adjective,
which is necessarily unique (the first, the second,
the next, the only, etc.).
The noun is identifiable due to a modifier or
quantifier.
The biggest problem with conducting the study was a
lack of a control group.
the U.S. government, the problem of college, the
people who supported the association

The noun is part of a whole group.
Some proper nouns require definite articles,
including some countries or territories that are or
were comprised of smaller units.
Another rare exception to the general pattern of not
using any articles with proper nouns is to suggest
that a person or organization changed over time.
These nouns must be qualified with a restrictive
relative clause or prepositional phrase.
The agricultural sector accounts for about one-fourth of
the country’s Gross Domestic Product, two-fifths of
the country’s exports, and half of the labor force.
the Atlantic Ocean, the Antarctic, the White House
the United States, the United Kingdom, the Philippines,
the Soviet Union
Europe is not today what it was when President Bush
took office, and it scarcely resembles the Europe that
President Bill Clinton claimed to know. [The writer
distinguishes between Europe today and the Europe of
the past].
 Practice

Read this passage and fill in the blanks with either a, an, the, or no article.

Much has been learned about _____ brain in ____last 150 years. _____ brain, most complicated organ of
______ body, contains _____ ten billion nerve cells and is divided into ____ two cerebral hemispheres, one
on _____right and one on ______left. Interestingly, ____ left hemisphere controls _____ movements on
______right side of ______body, while _____ right hemisphere controls_____ movements on _____ left.

______ researchers also know that______ specific abilities and behaviors are localized; in ____other
words, they are controlled by ______specific areas of _____ brain. _____language, it seems, is highly
localized in ______ left hemisphere. In_____1860s, Dr. Paul Broca discovered that _____damage to
_____front left part of _____brain resulted in_____telegraphic speech similar to that of young children. Soon
thereafter, Karl Wernicke found that _____ damage to _________ back left part of ________ brain resulted in
______speech with_____ little semantic meaning. These two regions in______brain are now referred to as
_____Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area.

Although there is some debate surrounding _____ specialization of the brain, researchers generally
agree that _____ speech is controlled by _____left side. There is no debate that in_______ great majority of
cases, ______ injuries to ______ left side nearly always have ______impact on ____speech.
Infinitive & Gerund: “To do” or “doing”
My asked me to try to avoid eating greasy food.
doctor

main verb infinitive infinitive gerund

The sentence above illustrates the use of Infinitives and Gerunds, but do you know why it is
grammatically correct to use “to avoid” and not “avoiding”? This handout will help you make
the right choice.

Infinitives and Gerunds are verb forms (neither of them can be a Main Verb), which can have
several positions and functions in a sentence:

Infinitive Gerund
to+VERB VERB+-ing
to do doing
Functioning as a To speak three languages is Speaking three languages is
Subject hard. hard.
– used in more formal – used in formal and informal
registers registers.
To show purpose or To achieve their goals, the –
reason officials hired a new manager.
– used as a reduction of in
order to
Following verbs1 The study intends to expand He discussed going to
the research on the topic. Washington, DC, with his
colleague.
Following verbs with no It started to rain. It started raining.
change in meaning + begin, continue, prefer, propose
Following verbs with a The participant stopped to The participant stopped smoking.
change in meaning smoke. Meaning: The participant does not
Meaning: The participant smoke any more.
stopped in order to smoke.
+ remember, forget, go on, quit, regret, remember, try2
Following Prepositions – Thank you for letting me know.

Infinitives and Gerunds follow certain verbs and phrases, and there is no rule or reason why,
for example, a verb attempt is followed by an Infinitive (The paper attempts to address), but not
a Gerund (*The paper attempts addressing). This is simply a matter of memorization.
 Practice
Identify whether an Infinitive or Gerund should be used in the sentences, underlining the
correct forms. Explain your choice.

During the conclusion of the main lesson, students were asked to identify / identifying the
cloud-type depicted in a fourth projection and to explain / explaining why they reached their
particular conclusion. This would achieve learning goal three by to allow / allowing students
to apply / applying what they learned about cloud types as evidence during a formal
assessment. Students were allowed to use / using the information recorded on their
worksheets and resources around the room to reach / reaching a conclusion. Students one,
two, and three reached the conclusion that a cumulus cloud was shown on the projector, which
is correct. However, only student one listed a reason for her answer by to write / writing the
word “puffy”. So, despite to list / listing “cumulus” as their answer, most students failed to
identify / identifying a reason for their response. From this evidence, I would conclude that
students have learned how to apply / applying observations to formulate / formulating
answers, but have not learned how to explain / explaining their answers through use / using
evidence. Such limited explanations could also be due in part to a lack of emphasis on this
task and a limited capacity to put thoughts into words.
Importance, Important, or Importantly?
Choosing the Correct Word Form

The sentence above contains a grammatical problem in regards to word form. In particular, the writer
uses the noun importance when the adjective important should have been used. We can still understand
what this sentence means, but because an incorrect suffix is used, the sentence is ungrammatical. This
handout will go through some common suffixes and strategies to help you improve your knowledge of
word forms.
Background
In English, there are many words that have the same root, but can be changed to be a verb, noun,
adjective, or adverb by adding a suffix. For instance, the root beaut can be used to form a noun beauty,
a verb beautify, an adjective beautiful, and an adverb beautifully. To use a word correctly in a sentence,
it is important to know two things: not only which part of speech to choose (e.g. noun or verb), but also
which suffix creates this part of speech (e.g. -ness or -tion to form a specific noun). This two-stage
process can be quite challenging. The table below shows the most common suffixes that are used to
create four different parts of speech:

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

Function: Function: Function: Function:
Names a person, Expresses an action, Describes or modifies a Modifies a verb,
place, or thing. doing something. noun. adjective, or other
adverb.
Common Suffixes: Common Suffixes: Common Suffixes: Common Suffixes:
-tion: education, -ize: realize, emphasize -al: general, social -ly is the only
information -en: flatten, broaden -ent: independent, common suffix for
-ity: community, -ate: differentiate, confident adverbs:
activity initiate -ant: important, dominant probably
-ty: society, beauty -fy: satisfy, liquefy -ive: positive, active certainly
-er: teacher, reader -ify: exemplify, beautify -ous: courteous exactly
-or: behavior, -ious: various, obvious importantly
professor -ate: accurate, private finally
-ar: seminar, singular -ful: useful, beautiful simply
-r: computer -less: endless, helpless clearly
-ance: importance
-ness: business Note:
-ism: criticism Some adverbs do not
-ment: development, end in -ly (e.g. well,
treatment soon, always, here,
-ent: student, president and hard), while
-ant: assistant some adjectives can
-ship: relationship have the ending -ly
-age: percentage (early, daily, oily,
-ery: discovery lonely, and friendly).
 Strategies for Working on Word Form Issues
- To identify which part of speech should be used in a particular phrase, you could ask yourself whether
you need a word that would name an object (noun), express an action (verb), describe an object
(adjective), or modify an action or description (adverb).
- Use the table above to identify which part of speech is created with the suffix you used.
- Check words you are unsure about in dictionaries.
Before providing a word definition, dictionaries usually note to which part of speech a given word
belongs.
- COCA Word and Phrase can be checked to see how a particular word is used in sentences to make
sure you have selected the right form.
- Sometimes you know which part of speech to use, but you are not sure which suffix to use (e.g. is it
difficultness or difficulty?). Since word suffixes are unpredictable, words can be checked in
dictionaries, corpora, or just Googled.
- It is also a good idea to jot down words with the common endings in a notebook while you read for
school, work, or pleasure. Then you can return to your notes and look up which part of speech these
words are.
Practice
Underline correct word forms.

Over the semester, I worked on (purposefully / purpose) crafting questions to elicit, probe, and
(connective / connect) students' ideas during a (discuss / discussion) . These ideas were presented in
our third (classify / class) meeting and reinforced in our readings from Chapin's Classroom
Discussions . We talked (explicitly / explicit) about asking questions to elicit students' (initial / initially)
thoughts and solutions; asking questions to probe students' answers when the (teacher / teach) does
not understand what the (studious / student) is saying, when he or she wants to (verify / verification)
that right answers are supported by (correct / correctly) understanding, and when he or she wants to
understand the thinking behind an incorrect answer; and supporting students to make (connects /
connections) between solutions, methods, models, or mathematical concepts.
The (discussions / discusses) that transpired in my math lesson (reflect / reflective) my ability to
skillfully ask (purposeful / purpose) questions when leading a whole-class discussion. In Discussion A,
I began by asking students to tell me something they noticed about the Penrose tiling. By asking a
(broadly / broad) question all students could answer, I was able to elicit (initial / initiative) thoughts
from many of my students and attend to the learning of all students. Seven students were (ability / able)
to contribute their ideas about this (designer / design) and many others had their hands raised. I also
used thumbs up or thumbs down and nod your head if… questions to elicit answers from the entire class
at once. This allowed me to get a (sense / sensible) of each student’s thinking, even if he or she was
uncomfortable participating in the whole-group discussion.
Cohesion & Coherence
A well-organized paper uses techniques to build cohesion and coherence between and within paragraphs to
guide the reader through the paper by connecting ideas, building details, and strengthening the argument.
Although transitions are the most obvious way to display the relationship between ideas, consider some of the
following techniques and their examples:

Repetition of Key Terms / Concepts/ Phrases

Repeating Key Terms / Concepts / Phrases will help readers follow the main threads of the paper. The Key
Terms / Concepts / Phrases strengthen the organization and make the paper easier to follow, no matter how
complex the material.
Fragments mix with complete sentences and her voice mingles with collage text while silence
and space surrounds it all. The spaces between lines and around the edges of the pages invite
the reader into her text to discover and explore the multiple readings and meanings.

Synonyms
Using synonyms is similar to repeating key terms/concepts/phrases, except with more diversity in word choice.
They not only help hold the paper together, but they also add variety to the paper.
She interrogates the diagrams extensively; however, she does not address the other visual
images, specifically the photographs, with as much attention. The pictures comprise the
majority of the visual images in Dictee, yet she glosses over them in a couple of sentences.
Sentence Patterns
Repeating and/or using parallel sentence structures can help readers digest complicated ideas and follow the
progression of ideas.
Sterne embodies the tension between fact and fiction by complicating the biography and/or
autobiography. Cha embodies this tension as well in her “autobiography.”
Pronouns
Using pronouns, he, she, it, they, those, this, these, can be useful when referring back to something
previously mentioned in the paper. However, take care to include a referent if necessary for clarity.
He involves his students in framing the conversation that takes place in the classroom.
This framing is based on the idea of reading and writing as conversation
Familiar information first, new information last
Presenting familiar terms or information first allows the ideas to build and makes it easier for the reader to follow.
It helps lay the foundation for more complex or new ideas.
While the Eighteenth Century is known for its rich Augustan tradition and its novels of sensibility
and the gothic, writers did experiment with the blossoming form of the novel.
Modal Verbs
Modals, words like might, may, can, could, will, would, must, and should are helping verbs that
add shades of meaning or “flavor” to the verbs that follow them. This additional meaning may
connote possibility, ability, and permission among others:

Modal Meaning Example

might possibility These responses might be inaccurate.
may possibility The importance of the effects may differ.
permission You may come in.
can ability She can speak several languages.
permission They can start working on this issue now.
could polite request Could we meet tomorrow?
past ability He could run faster when he was a child.
suggestion You could examine this issue in more detail.
possibility This could be the optimal solution.
will future The prices will go down.
polite request Will you help me with this project?
would offering, inviting Would you join us for lunch?
polite request Would you send your slides before the class?
should advising, suggesting Future policies should address this issue.
expectation The weather should improve soon.
must obligation, necessity You must stop at the stop sign.
conclusion The new library is large. It must have many books

As the table shows, modals may have several meanings, and the same meaning can be
expressed by different modals (e.g., may and can both express permission). Although generally
modals with the same meaning can be used interchangeably, they express a slightly different
degree of their meaning. As an example, the modals below are ranked according to the degree of
certainty/probability:
strong degree of certainty/probability

will rain
must rain
should rain
may rain
could/might rain

weak degree of certainty/probability

Grammatical Form
Modals are a special type of verbs; they are followed by the base form of verbs (e.g. I should go,
she must see, he can swim).
In addition to the simple form of Modals, there are also other forms to express:
past time1: modal + have + Past Participle (e.g., may have submitted)
passive voice2: modal + be + Past Participle (e.g., could be explained)
action in progress now: modal + be + ing (e.g., may be working)
action in progress in the past: modal + have been + ing (e.g., might have been studying)
1
Can has two forms when used to express ability in the past:
1) could - for the action happening over a period of time: I could swim fast when I was a child.
2) was able to - if it was a single past action: I was able to submit the English paper on time.
(=managed to do something)
2
See the handout “Active and Passive Voice” for more information on this topic.

Modals in Academic Writing

General use: Research examining multiple papers reveals that modal verbs are commonly
used in academic writing. In fact, they are the third most widely used verb structure after present
simple and past simple tense.

Hedges/Boosters: Modals are often used in academic writing to soften, or “hedge”, claims and
show tentativeness of result interpretations. Writers use hedges to avoid criticism for being
radical or overconfident. Thus, instead of writing “The reason for this change is …”, academic
writers may write “The reason for this change might/may/can/could be…”, showing that they
admit that many other factors could have influenced the change.

On the other hand, “boosters” are used to strengthen statements when writers want to
emphasize their certainty. Thus, must, should, and will can be used to produce such effect:
“This will influence our understanding of…”

Politeness in emails: Certain modals add politeness to speech or writing. This is especially
important for writing emails to professors or colleagues since writers do not want to appear
demanding or pushy. Using modals such as might, may, could, can, and would can help
addressees perceive writers as friendly and polite.
Prepositions
Choosing the right preposition can be challenging for EFL/ESL speakers because prepositions
do not translate well from one language to another. In addition, much preposition use is
not governed by rules. This handout begins with some general rules and explanations, and
then it directs you to online resources that can help you identify correct prepositions.

At/on/in for Place and Time

Generally, at is used with “small”, on with “medium”, and in with “big” places and times.

place time more specific

at McDonald’s at 5pm
at
on Oak street on Monday
on July 14th on
in Fairfax
in Virginia
in the U.S.
in July
in summer
in 2018
in
less specific

Place
at name of a place
- He works at George Mason University.
or address with a number
- Mr. Smith lives at 1001 Willow Street
on streets, roads, etc., when there is no number
- His house is on Willow Street.
Time
clock times
- My class starts at 3:30pm.
- The movie starts at 8 o’clock.
+ at noon/night/midnight/dusk/dawn
days
- I have class on Monday(s) and
Wednesday(s).
- The concert is on July 17th.

in cities, states, countries, and continents months, seasons, and years

- He lives in San Francisco/ California/ the - School will start in September.
U.S.A. - I was born in 1983.
- We love to go camping in the fall.

+ in the morning/afternoon/evening
Adjective/Noun/Verb + Preposition Combinations

Many adjectives, nouns, and verbs are followed by specific prepositions. No rules govern this
use, so these combinations should simply be memorized. The table below illustrates just a few
examples of such combinations.

Adjective+Prep. Verb+Prep. Noun+Prep. Prep.+Noun

accustomed to agree to/with advice on at home
afraid of apologize for answer to at war
committed to be accustomed to application for/to by law
composed of be used to cause of by mistake
dedicated to belong to decision to for/on sale
different from count on demand for in advance
familiar with depend on experience of/with in charge of
important for/to disagree about/ with excuse for in general
interested in explain something to increase in/of in/on time
known for look at/for interest in on a trip
opposed to look forward to lack of on purpose
related to pay attention to need for/of on vacation
similar to think about/of problem with under pressure
responsible for work on request for with reference to

Strategies
If you are unsure of your preposition choice, try one (or several) of the following methods:
1) Dictionary: using a dictionary can be particularly helpful for identifying prepositions in a
combination with an adjective/noun/verb. For example, the search for the verb approve
in the Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries reveals that this verb is followed by the preposition
of.
2) Collocation dictionary: a collocation dictionary shows some common words (including
prepositions) that follow a particular word.
3) Google: search a phrase with a preposition in Google. If the search results show many
entries containing this exact phrase, your preposition choice is correct. Conversely, if
your initial preposition choice is not precise, you will see fewer entries.
4) Corpus: search a phrase with or without a preposition in a corpus.
For example, if you want to check if “at the other hand” is correct, you can either enter
the whole phrase in the search box and then see that the search yields only five
matches in a 560 million-word collection of texts meaning that such phrase is almost
never used. Alternatively, you may enter a part of the phrase without the preposition
“the other hand” or even “other hand” and notice that the only preposition used is on.
Thus, the correct expression is “on the other hand”.
5) Netspea: enter the phrase you are unsure of in the search box
. The tool will show the most common preposition used with the phrase you entered.
Pronouns
A Pronoun is used in place of a noun. Different forms are used to show person, number, gender, and case.
There are Personal, Interrogative, Indefinite, Demonstrative, and Reflexive Pronouns.

v A Personal Pronoun refers to one or more individuals or things. Personal Pronouns may be in the
Nominative, Objective or Possessive case.

Singular Nominative Objective Possessive Possessive

(used in the place (used after (as an adjective) (as a pronoun)
of a subject) verbs)
1st person I me my mine
2nd person you you your yours
3rd person masculine he him his his
3rd person feminine she her her hers
3rd person gender- they* them* theirs theirs*
neutral*
3rd person inanimate it it its its

Plural Nominative Objective Possessive Possessive

(as an adjective) (as a pronoun)
1st person we us our ours
2nd person you you your yours
3rd person they them their theirs

For example: I took my sister to her doctor.

She gave us a new table for our kitchen.

v An Interrogative Pronoun is used to ask a question. Interrogative Pronouns include: who, whom, whose,
what, and which.

For example: Who left the light on? Which

book is yours?

v A Relative Pronoun introduces a Relative Clause, relating groups of words to nouns or other pronouns.

For example: Matt was the one who built the picnic table.
The house, which has a garden in bloom, is very inviting.

v An Indefinite Pronoun refers to a general person or thing. Singular indefinite pronouns include: one, each
either, neither, everyone, no one, anybody, somebody, nobody, everybody, anyone, and someone.
Plural Indefinite Pronouns include: several, both, many, and few.

For example: No one has a good idea for the workshop. (singular)
Many go on vacation in August. (plural)

The Indefinite Pronouns some, none, all, most, and any can be singular or plural depending on the meaning of
the sentence.
 For example: Some of the work is done. (singular)
Some of the marks come off easily. (plural)

v A Demonstrative Pronoun identifies or points out a noun.

The Demonstrative Pronouns include: that, this, these, those, and such.

For example: This is more expensive than that.

These are my favorites, not those.

v A Reflexive Pronoun refers to a noun and provides emphasis or shows distinction from others.
Reflexive Pronouns are formed with the suffixes –self and –selves.

For example: Bianca made the cake by herself.

Erin and Renee tried to occupy themselves when work was slow.

Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement

The guidelines for Standard American Written English dictate that a Pronoun must “agree” in person and number
with its Antecedent, the word that the Pronoun replaces or the word to which it refers.

Incorrect: Students should be careful about checking the grammar in her writing.*
Correct: Students should be careful about checking the grammar in their writing.
A student should be careful about checking grammar in her writing.

A student should be careful about checking grammar in their writing.

As illustrated by the last example, the use of “their” to refer to a third-person, gender-neutral singular noun is
becoming acceptable among readers and writers who are tired of using “he or she” repeatedly or who
acknowledge that many people prefer to be referred to using gender-neutral pronouns. For this reason, the
writing center supports the use of the singular “they” and “them.” We recommend, however, that writers be aware
of their audiences when deciding to use the singular “they” or “them” in their writing. Professors or supervisors
may correct such usage when they see it.

v Antecedents joined by the word and take plural pronouns.

For example: Lisa and Tracy are writing their papers.

v Use a singular pronoun to refer to two or more singular antecedents joined by the words or or nor.

For example: Ben or James will read his essay.

v When there is more than one type of antecedent – a singular and a plural – joined by the words or or nor, the
pronoun agrees with the closest antecedent.

For example: The teacher or the students will have their way.
The students or the teacher will have her way.
Vague Pronoun Reference
In conversation, the words it and they are often used to make vague reference to people and situations. In writing,
more precise identification is needed.

Vague: The history test was made up of multiple choice questions. This disturbed us.
Better: The history test was made up of multiple choice questions. This failure to
evaluate students’ analytic abilities disturbed us.
Subject & Verb Agreement
Subjects and Verbs must “agree” in number (singular or plural) and person. The concept of agreement is
particularly relevant to:
1) the Present Simple Tense: subjects in 3rd person singular (he, she, it) take verbs with the ending -s
2) the verb to be: it can take forms am / is / are and was / were
3) the verb to have: it can take forms have/has
Note: If a sentence contains a Modal Verb (e.g. should, can, could, must, may), this Modal must be followed
by the base form of the verb regardless of the subject’s number and person.
For example: The witness must report to the police (not must reports).
Below are the rules for Subject & Verb Agreement.
v Make sure the verb agrees with its subject, not with a word that comes between the Subject and the Verb
(whether in preposition phrases or adjective clauses).

For example: The samples on the tray in the lab need testing. (prepositional phrases)
The governor, who declared new policies, was applauded. (an adjective clause)

Note: A subject can never be a part of a prepositional phrase (e.g. in the lab is a prepositional
phrase because it starts with the preposition in, so the noun lab cannot be a subject of a sentence).

v Make the verb agree with its subject even when the subject comes after the verb.

For example: There are surprisingly few children in our neighborhood.

v Treat subjects joined with and as plural.

For example: Matt and Lisa often write in the morning.

Sonja’s ability and desire to help are inspiring.

However, when the parts of the subject form a single unit or when they refer to the same person or thing,
treat the subject as singular. In addition, when a compound subject is preceded by each or every, treat the
subject as singular.

For example: Strawberries and cream was a last-minute addition to the menu.
Each tree, shrub, and vine needs to be sprayed.

v With subjects connected by or or nor (or by either … or or neither … nor), make the verb agree with the
part of the subject nearer to the verb.

For example: A driver’s license or credit card is required.

v Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular. Indefinite pronouns refer to nonspecific persons or things, and
include the following: anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody,
none, no one, somebody, someone, and something.

For example: Everyone in the class likes the teacher.

v Treat collective nouns, or nouns that refer to a group of individuals (e.g. family, team, class), as singular
unless the meaning is clearly plural.

For example: The class respects the teacher. (singular)

The classes are debating among themselves. (plural)

v Titles of works, company names, words mentioned as terms, and gerund phrases are singular.

For example: Lost Cities describes the discoveries of many ancient civilizations. (title)
“Controlled substances” is a euphemism for illegal drugs. (term)
Encountering busy signals is troublesome to many people. (gerund phrase)
Thesis Statements
A Thesis Statement is:

• The statement of the author’s position on a topic or subject.

• Clear, concise, and goes beyond fact or observation to become an idea that needs to be supported
(arguable).
• Often a statement of tension, where the author refutes or complicates an existing assumption or claim
(counterargument).
• Often answers WHY or HOW questions related to the topic at hand.

A Thesis Statement is NOT:

• A statement of fact or observation (no matter how astute the observation).

• A statement of personal conviction or opinion.
• A generalization or overly broad claim.

For the writer, the Thesis Statement:

• Helps the writer determine the essay’s real focus. What are you trying to say with the evidence
presented? A thesis provides a theory to be tested by evidence.
• Serves as a planning tool. The component parts of the thesis often correspond with the essay’s topic
sentences.

For the reader, the Thesis Statement:

• Serves as a “map” to guide the reader through the paper. In the same way the thesis helps you
organize your paper, the thesis helps organize the reader’s thinking. Once a solid thesis is presented,
the reader will understand that all of the evidence presented is in service of proving the thesis.
• Creates a reason to keep reading. The reader will want to discover the support behind the thesis.

If you are having trouble writing a Thesis…

…ask yourself a genuine, difficult question about the topic (usually a “how” or “why” question), and state your
response, even if you are not sure why you want to give that answer. Your response may very well be a workable
thesis, and the pursuit of proving that answer may reveal to you more about your sources of evidence.

…think of a strong statement or observation you have made about the subject beginning with the words “In this
essay, I will…” Then ask yourself why this observation is important, or “So What?” 1 Answer the question with “I
believe this is because…” In the draft stage you might phrase a working thesis as the following:
Writing in the Disciplines
Keep in mind that Thesis Statements vary depending on the purpose of the assignment (or type of essay), and
also by discipline. Here are a few notes on the thesis statements and the purpose of writing in a few different
disciplines.2

English: “A thesis is an interpretive argument about a text or an aspect of a text. An interpretive argument is
defined as one that makes a reasonable but contestable claim about a text; in other words, it is an opinion about
a text that can be supported with textual evidence.”

Sciences (Biology) : “A well-written scientific paper explains the scientist’s motivation for doing an experiment,
the experimental design and execution, and the meaning of the results... The last sentences of the introduction
should be a statement of objectives and a statement of hypotheses.”

Business: “When you write in business courses, you will usually write for a specific audience. Your goal will be
to communicate in a straight-forward manner and with a clear purpose.”3

History: “In historical writing, a thesis explains the words or deeds of people in the past. It shows cause and
effect; it answers the question why?... A thesis must change a reader’s mind to be of value. If it presents only
facts or an obvious finding, it will merely confirm what the reader already believes.”
Verb Tenses
The Simple Tenses
Tense Meaning Example
Present Simple a fact that is true now The U.S. has 50 states.
verb a recurring event (happening usually) I go to school every day.
verb+s (for he, she, it) state or condition He feels sick.
a planned future action (with a future time The train leaves in an hour.
word), especially referring to scheduled events
Past Simple a completed action or state in the past Lisa composed a poem
verb+ed yesterday.

the past verb form for an activity that took place regularly in the past In the 1990s, I took the bus to
irregular verbs work almost every day.
Future Simple a prediction about a future event The prices will go up.
will + verb
a decision at the time of speaking (not planned Sure, I will call you.
in advance)

The Progressive (or Continuous) Tenses

Form: be + verb+ing (present participle)
Meaning: These tenses convey that an event is in progress at a particular time.
Tense Meaning Example
Present Progressive an action happening now It’s raining hard now.
am/is/are + verb+ing an action this (week, month, etc.) I am working at the beach this
week.
a future action (with a future time word) They are flying to Texas tomorrow.
Past Progressive an action in the past that was interrupted in I was playing chess when the
was/were + verb+ing the past by another action phone rang.
a repeated past action (an activity took We were planning our wedding for
place long time ago) many months.
Future Progressive an action that will be in progress at a Matt will be writing his novel over
will + be + verb+ing particular time in the future the summer.

The Perfect Tenses

Form: have + past participle
Meaning: These tenses convey that an event took place before now or before another time or event.
Tense Meaning Example
Present Perfect an action that occurred “before now,” at She has already read that book.
have/has + past participle some unspecified time in the past
a recent action that is important to the - What’s wrong? - I have lost my
current situation or conversation keys.

Past Perfect
had + past participle
Future Perfect
will + have + past participle
an action that began in the past but
continues in the present
activities that were repeated several or
many times in the past
an action that occurred before another time
or another action in the past.
a future action that will happen before a
particular time or action in the future.
We have worked here since noon.
They have seen that movie many
times.
Courtney had written several
screenplays by the time she was
accepted to graduate school.
Sonja will have written her lesson
plans before the school year starts.

Note: In speech, the past perfect and future perfect tenses are often substituted by past simple and future simple
correspondingly.

The Perfect Progressive Tenses

Form: have + been + verb+ing
Meaning: These tenses convey that an event is in progress immediately before and up to another time or
event. They expresse the duration of the first event.
Tense Meaning Example
Present Perfect an action that began in the past, has She has been waiting for almost
Progressive continued in the present, and may an hour.
have/has + been + verb+ing continue into the future (when the
duration is emphasized)
an action that began in the past and has I’ve been writing the paper for two
recently ended hours, and now I can rest.
Past Perfect Progressive an action that occurred before another Eve had been writing for two
had + been + verb+ing action in the past (when the duration is years before her novel was
emphasized) published.
Future Perfect Progressive A long action that is taking place in Tracy will have been writing for
will + have + been + verb+ing relation to another future event (when two hours by the time we have to
the duration is emphasized) leave.
Note: In speech, the past perfect progressive and future perfect progressive tenses are often substituted by past
simple and future simple correspondingly.

Practice
Determine the correct tense for the verbs in brackets. In some cases, more than one correct answer is possible.

1. I __________________(drive) to GMU tomorrow.

2. I __________________(cook) dinner when I realized that I _____________(leave) my textbook at school.
3. I __________________ (wear) my favorite sweater to the game last night.
4. She __________________ (not sleep) for two days. She looks tired.
5. They __________________ (date) for seven years, but they are not ready for marriage yet.
6. I __________________ (listen) to my IPod every day on my way to work.
7. I __________________ (won) a lot of money in Las Vegas this month.
8. We __________________ (play) tennis at this time tomorrow.
9. I __________________ (enjoy) my time studying abroad, but I cannot wait to go home.
10. Mike __________________ (email) you by 5 o’clock.
11. I __________________ (work) on my car engine for several hours before the car mechanic comes.
12. I __________________ (not feel) well today.
13. Brian __________________ (hear) about the incident yesterday.
14. He __________________ (practice) his guitar for 10 years before he became a renowned musician.
15. She __________________ (talk) very loudly! I can’t stay in this room any more.
16. My professor __________________ (give) me a ‘B’ on my paper.
17. (The phone rings) Don’t worry, I __________________ (answer) the phone.
18. The assignment __________________(be) due yesterday.
19. She __________________ (write) her book by the end of next year.
20. Tomorrow we __________________ (eat) dinner at Olive Garden.