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2.1 Review of Related Literature 2.2: Chapter Two
2.1 Review of Related Literature 2.2: Chapter Two
2.2 Introduction
This chapter presents the review of related literature. This is carried out under
graphically, or in narrative form, the main things to be studied, such as, the key
factors, concepts or variables and the presumed relationship among them. According
Teacher Productivity
However, both concepts exhibit similarity, yet they are different economic concepts.
In the formal educational system, both concepts each refer to a different relationship
between inputs and outputs. Inputs are the resources used to produce education, such
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as per-student expenditures; student-teacher ratios; teacher education, experience, and
salary; school facilities; and administrative factors, the teachers’ time; buildings;
learning materials; equipment; students, time, etc. While outputs are the products of
education such as the number of students who are educated, their qualifications, their
cognitive learning, the cultural, sporting and life skills they have obtained, the
Productivity, in its own right, focuses more on output. Productivity can best be
hold input constant while output is allowed to vary. For example, we can hold the
service of a teacher constant while expecting his output to increase, that is, we
vary his or her output. Thus, productivity increases when the same input leads to
physical terms.
labour time (Kendrick, 2015). Thus, when we talk of higher productivity, it enables
us to evaluate the number of products the worker has produced with the given input
available to the workers. School productivity invariably refers to the results that a
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According to Babalola (2012), the general belief is that productivity can be
increased by increasing the labour supply, increasing the hour worked and increasing
wages. However, greater productivity does not come from spending more or from
working harder, but smarter (Ashenden, 2010). The bottom line therefore is that
therefore relates to how many students have we been able to influence positively as
teachers? The greater the number, the greater our productivity in absolute terms.
In this way therefore, we define productivity in terms of the goal satisfaction which
(students) and the broad objectives of the educational system (Tegle, 2014).
Although these concepts and definitions are not exhaustive, the focus of
that teachers are poorly motivated and are dissatisfied with their living and working
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• Low wages when compared with other professionals,
According to the literature, these conditions are responsible for low teachers’
morale and productivity and the difficulty in attracting and retaining quality
personnel into the teaching profession. This has not always been the case. A broad
roles in local communities and acted as role models. However, after independence,
when the demand for educated labour grew rapidly, many teachers left the profession
motivation crisis in Nigeria, as the public began to look down on those teachers who
for school leavers to opt for teaching only if they are unable to find other more
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lowered professional status (Lawal, 2010). According to Owusu (The Punch
Newspapers, 2004), who once led the accreditation team of the National Commission
for Colleges of Education, remarked that the teaching profession in Nigeria had been
relegated to the background and that teaching is not accorded the respect it deserves.
A major finding in a study by Kazeem (2012) is that teachers and other school
workers tend to remain contented and reasonably motivated as long as salaries are
paid on time and they are promoted regularly. Much earlier, Eton (2014) also
identified the payment of salaries, allowances and promotion as the key factors that
shape teachers’ attitudes towards their work. Similarly, Amadi (2015) also concluded
that the irregular payment of salaries is one of the major problems facing the teaching
particularly concerned about the late payment of salaries and the non-payment of
fringe benefits rather than other non-monetary incentives. School principals often
complained about teachers not willing to work because of delays in payment of their
salaries (Ayeni, 2015). Ubom (2012), found that in Nigeria, prompt payment of
in Nigeria arises from disparities between the teaching profession and other profe-
ssions, such as nursing, with respect to the time and mode of payment of salaries,
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exists on the extent to which financial inducements are the really critical motivators.
Research has shown that monetary reward in itself has not improved teachers’ low
esteem and their productivity. Youlonfoun (2012), argues that, although good salaries
and their prompt payment are important motivating factors, there is evidence that
other factors can undermine commitment to teaching. It was therefore not a surprise
when Akinwumi (2010) and Ejiogu (2011) found that what the typical low income
earning teacher yearns for is a sizeable salary increase, and they conclude that
the payment of a living wage would significantly enhance their commitment and
performance.
Next to pay is the social status of teachers which has been identified as an
important factor impacting teachers’ morale and motivation (Baike, 2012; Francis,
2013; and Obanya, 2015). Where teachers feel society is dismissive of the profession,
to de-motivate many teachers in Nigeria (Yisa, 2015; Obilade, 2016; Sanusi, 2017).
School leadership and management style are also important factors, which can
either motivate or lower teachers’ morale and commitment. Nwankwo (2014) found
that teachers feel highly motivated when they are consulted about decisions regarding
their work. Unfortunately, too high a proportion of school managers (principals and
head teachers) are highhanded and autocratic in their dealings with teachers (Ayeni,
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2015). The attitude of inspectors towards teachers in supervising their work is
motivation. The teacher’s working environment in Nigeria has been described as the
Education Cooperative ‘NPEC’, 2016). Facilities in most schools are dilapidated and
student learning. Kazeem (2011) and Akinwumi (2010) found that private school
teachers appear more motivated than teachers in public schools. Regular payment of
salaries and much lower pupil-teacher ratios are key reasons for this. Muheeb (2014)
found that the conditions for teaching are more conducive in private secondary
schools in Lagos State, especially because the maximum class size is only 30 in
productivity and consequently, the learning outcome in schools. This paper attempts
effective classroom interaction and management. This study therefore discusses the
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concepts of productivity (school productivity) as it relates to the teacher, the role of
the teacher and some visible challenges facing the teachers and how these challenges
Frase (2012) identified two sets of factors that affect teachers’ ability to
perform productively: work context factors (the teaching environment, and work
(i) Work Context Factors: Work context factors are those that meet baseline
needs. They include working conditions such as class size, discipline condi-
supervision; and basic psychological needs such as money, status, and security.
In general, context factors clear the road of the debris that block effective
doesn’t pay the mortgage. But these factors may not have an extended motiva-
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faction with teaching as a career. According to Frase (2012), content variables
(ii) Work Content Factors: Work content factors are intrinsic to the work itself.
and authority. Tudo-Craig (2012) argued that teachers who do not feel
supported in these states are less motivated to do their best work in the
classroom. Duflo, Dupas & Kremer (2017) confirmed that staff recognition,
over school policy, and control in the classroom are the factors most strongly
Teacher Motivation
education, motivation has been generally viewed as energy or drive that moves
two aspects of motivation: initiating motivation which was concerned with the
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reasons for doing something and deciding to do something, and sustaining motivation
referring to the effort for sustaining or persisting in doing something. Dörnyei &
motivation specifies the reason why people decide to do something, how long people
are willing to sustain the activity and how hard they are going to pursue the activity.
him or her to act. Robbins and Judge (2011) also believe motivation is concerned
with the strength and direction of behaviour and the factors that influence people to
behave in certain ways. Parley (2014) explained further that the term “motivation”
can refer variously to the goals individuals have, the ways in which individuals
choose their goals and the ways in which others try to change their behaviour.
Bagshawe (2011) defined motivation as the drives within a person that account for
set of courses concerned with a kind of strength that boosts performance and is
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As for teacher motivation, Sinclair (2016) defined it in terms of attraction,
to teaching, how long they remain in their initial teacher education courses and
subsequently the teaching profession, and the extent to which they engage with their
courses and the teaching profession'. Teacher motivation refers to those variables,
factors that influence teachers to do things. In its more technical usage, teacher
organizing behavior in progress and channeling behaviours into specific course. It is
(2010), teacher motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives,
desires, needs, wishes and similar forces initiated for teachers, in order to induce
the needs, wants and desires which exist within an individual; as such influence the
teachers thought which in turn leads to a positive change behavior toward improving
learning. Teacher motivation entails that the teacher is made to satisfy the life
supporting elements of his physical body like food, water, shelter etc. the teacher
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benefits etc. The implication is that school management should be more concerned
advancement as all these, among other motivators drive the teacher to be acting
undesirable way.
include: merit pay and career ladders were intended to provide financial incentives,
varied work, and advancement opportunities for seasoned teachers. These, along with
and grants or sabbaticals for research and study, were expected to improve teacher
boost teacher motivation are based on three theories of motivation and productivity:
i. Expectancy theory: Individuals are more likely to strive in their work if there
there is none.
ii. Equity theory: Individuals are dissatisfied if they are not justly compensated
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iii. Job enrichment theory: Workers are more productive when their work is
The first two theories are justification for merit pay and career ladders, and the
(a) Merit Pay: The idea of merit pay has a straightforward appeal: it provides
financial rewards for meeting established goals and standards. The concern
is that merit pay plans may encourage teachers to adjust their teaching
down to the program goals, setting their sights no higher than the standards
(Coltham 2012). Odden & Kelley (2013) reviewed recent research and
experience and concluded that individual merit and incentive pay programs
do not work and, in fact, are often detrimental. A number of studies have
suggested that merit pay plans often divide faculties, set teachers against
(b) Differentiated Staffing and Career Ladders: While merit pay plans
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compensation, career ladders such as mentor teacher and master teacher
have faltered for largely the same reasons that merit pay plans have failed -
According to Robbins & Judge (2011), extrinsic motivation occurs when things are
done to or for people (employees) to motivate them. These include rewards, increased
by the work itself and is associated greatly with engagement. It may come in the form
Dörnyei & Ushioda (2011) highlighted the two dimensions of teacher motiva-
teach and the motivation to remain in the profession. Their review of literature came
intrinsic motivation which was closely related to inherent interest of teaching; social
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contextual influences relating to the impact of external conditions and constraints;
tative method over qualitative approach in related studies, and a majority of research
presented recursive and unidirectional, and based on the theoretical meaning of the
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above variables, a self-report instrument was developed to test the model. Empirical
support in terms of analyses of path coefficients and the variance of variables was
teachers. Results indicated that several hypotheses derived from the comprehensive
model can account for the recursive and hierarchically sequenced causal relationship
Butler (2012) applied achievement goal theory to formulate and validate a self-report
measure of Goal Orientations for Teaching (GOT) with five factors (mastery goals,
goals). The construct validity of the model has been examined by exploration of
Additionally, the application of GOT was also supported with tertiary teachers in
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with three competence facets of learning goal orientations (pedagogical knowledge,
ionnaire to be applicable to both in-service teachers and teacher trainees, and applied
the questionnaire to studies of the relationship between teachers’ goals and their work
teaching and its correlates in teachers and students. The measurement was arranged
identified and intrinsic. Subsequent study conducted by Hein (2012) proved the
and secondary education, Visser-Wijnveen, Stes & Van Petegem (2012) developed a
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Dutch questionnaire including motivational aspects of efficacy (personal efficacy,
teaching efficacy, and outcome efficacy), interest and effort in response to the lack of
instrument for teacher motivation in higher education, because they believed that
the competition between research and teaching constituted major distinctive features
of the higher education settings. With voluntary university teachers, their 25-item
teacher motivation and other educational practice. However, with voluntary partici-
pants who were supposed to be highly motivated, the author indicated that the
Therefore, there is still a large room for future research to develop instruments for
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Problems facing Teachers’ Motivation in Schools
school teachers are poorly motivated in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The
documented causes of low teacher motivation, what this report referred to as threats
to teacher motivation can be divided into eight interconnected categories which are
mostly applicable in the area of this study too are as highlighted below:
teachers need to face these challenges and demands are decreasing or stagnant.
2. Remuneration and Incentives: Teacher salaries are generally low and irregu-
larly paid.
3. Recognition and Prestige: Social respect for teachers has fallen in many
countries.
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6. Institutional Environment: Teachers face unclear and constantly changing
7. Voice: Teachers rarely have an opportunity for input into school management
The first category, workload, serves as the backdrop against which the seven
remaining categories operate. These seven categories are motivational supports which
give teachers the energy, incentives, purpose, etc. to tackle their workloads with
sincere effort and professionalism. The seven motivational supports are divided
into two types. Those motivational supports that are largely extrinsic, concerning
supports that are largely intrinsic, effecting teachers’ internal feelings of esteem,
(i) Workload and Challenges: Teachers facing heavy workloads need sufficient
all, as many countries are attempting, increases the workload and challenges
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faced by teachers. Education for all, combined with population growth, often
shifts, or multiple grade levels within a single class. Michaelowa (2012) finds
that these challenges are negatively correlated with teacher job satisfaction and
influence and irrational policies, it is the least qualified teachers who are
most often sent to the most challenging and neediest schools – frequently those
located in rural areas (Bennell & Akyeampong, 2017). In addition, safety and
to work on rural or remote areas. Living far from school can also contribute
to absenteeism.
Finally, not only does a heavy workload negatively impact teachers’ effort, it
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(ii) Remuneration and Incentives (Largely Extrinsic): The broad consensus
its own does not increase motivation. However, pecuniary motives are likely to
pay and other material benefits are too low for individual and household
survival needs to be met. Only when these basic needs have been met is it
possible for higher-order needs, which are the basis of true job satisfaction can
teachers require before they can focus on improving their work. When teachers
do not have enough money to live, they often resort to secondary employment
school in order to generate demand for their tutoring services out of school.
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rural areas without sufficient material incentives. Low pay also alters the
profile of those who are most motivated to become teachers, as the opportunity
cost of joining the poorly-paid teaching force is lowest for the unskilled,
inexperienced, women, and those from rural areas (Umansky & Vegas, 2017).
pay increases motivate teachers. Michaelowa (2012) does not find a salary
are able to support themselves and their families, how teachers are paid may
be more important than how much they are paid. Teachers are more motivated
when they are paid on time, when retrieving their pay is easy, and sometimes
many teachers feel the respect for their profession is decreasing – in the eyes of
students, parents, government, and the larger society. Low salaries play a role,
Akyeampong, 2017).
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On the other side, the status of volunteer or community teachers appears to
not have a good relationship with the community surrounding their school, and
this can be especially true in hierarchical societies with large gaps between
teachers and the students and community (Ramachandran & Pal, 2015). Lack
teaching, has been associated with private tutoring (Popa & Acedo, 2016) an
activity where teachers often enjoy more professional status, self-esteem, and
better pay. Many teachers feel that another way to increase societal respect for
public more aware of the actual conditions they face (Tudor-Craig 2002).
weak where there is low remuneration. Systematic controls are inadequate, and
teachers are rarely inspected and difficult to discipline. When salaries are
supervisory with little support or advice for how teachers can improve their
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performance. Bennell & Akyeampong (2017) highlighted the need for greater
Duflo, Dupas & Kremer (2017) find that increased accountability can function
produced larger test score increases than reduced class size alone.
external controls on their teaching decisions and behaviour, nearly all teachers
Bennell & Akyeampong (2017) highlighted the need for more attractive
Teachers do appear to be confident in their own abilities, but feel they need the
external support, tools, and training to allow them to excel in their work, and
when witnessing their effort pay off in the form of improved students’
manage the classroom, and apply new teaching methods can be very
profession, but also makes teaching a job of last resort for the skilled – and an
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Michaelowa (2012) finds that teachers with the highest educational attainment
are the least satisfied with their job, indicating that their preparation is mis-
matched with the reality of their work. When committed, skilled teachers do
enter the system, they face few opportunities for promotion and only infre-
quent, low-quality training that fails to give teachers the tools to overcome
their classroom challenges (Ramachandran & Pal, 2015). Teachers often rely
on and value the opportunity to network with other teachers, and even the
teachers, but these opportunities are scarce. Because criteria for advancement
Teachers often see their work in the classroom as a stepping stone, and desire
promotion, deployment, and pay; but instead, politics and patronage networks
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usually dominate and thus undercut teacher motivation. Teachers have a strong
sense of equality, and become de-motivated when they see other teachers
(frequently math, science, and language teachers) receive what they perceive to
teachers face constantly changing policies, which can confuse and de-motivate.
In addition, constant transfers mean that teachers are often unable to teach in
the same school long enough to witness the change in students’ achievement
(vii) Voice (Largely Intrinsic): Teachers often operate in very hierarchical and
However, unionization also carries risks. Even when teachers want to teach,
they may be pressured by unions to strike, which interrupts their teaching and
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(viii) Learning Materials and Facilities (Largely Extrinsic): Teachers increas-
ingly have to do more with less a small number of textbooks and other learning
materials are spread thin over many students, while physical infrastructure is
increase student test scores. In fact, she concludes that textbooks are the single
Teachers are de-motivated by the fact that the school syllabus assumes that
teachers have access to learning materials when in reality such materials are
scarce. Basic amenities such as water and electricity are also very important for
teacher job satisfaction and motivation. For example, sanitary facilities are
(Ramachandran & Pal, 2015). Other problems include slow textbook develop-
However, like pay, learning materials and facilities are merely a necessary
but insufficient factor in teacher motivation; and once these needs are met
only then can intrinsic factors such as recognition, career development, and
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2.3 Influence of Teachers’ Motivation on Teachers’ Productivity
Butler & Shibaz, 2014; Han, Yin & Wang, 2015; Kunter, 2008; Retelsdorf, Butler,
Inspired by research into students’ goal orientations for learning, for which the
relationship between different personal goals for learning and strategies students used
when learning has been established, the relationships between different goals for
teaching and the teaching behaviours have been explored on the basis of achievement
goal theory. Retelsdorf and his colleagues (2010) proposed that teachers’ goal
orientations for teaching predicted the goals for learning that they emphasized in the
classroom, which in turn influenced students’ goals. However, the links between
teachers’ goal orientations for teaching and their teaching practice were inconsistent
Therefore, Retelsdorf & Günther (2011) opined that 'the degree to which teachers
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taken as an indicator for instructional quality, and proposed a model indicating the
norms and instructional practice. The reference norms were distinguished between
individual reference norms and social reference norm, and the distinction of
instructional practices was made between teachers’ promotion of deep learning and
Results of the study supported the indirect effects of mastery goals through the
the social reference norm on surface learning, and the positive indirect effects of
reference norms. In addition, Hein (2012)’s study with physical education teachers
from five countries examined the relationship between teacher motivation and
teaching styles. The study confirmed the hypothesis that teachers’ autonomous
professional learning activities and teaching practices. The model assumes that
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teacher motivation indirectly influences the quality of teaching practice through
practice improvement.
The three motivational factors (expectancy, value and affective) were found to
of the variance in teacher learning and teaching practices; value component indirectly
great extent; and the affective component in terms of teacher well-being and job
practice.
(i) School Reform: Since the goal of current school reform efforts is to improve
student achievement, these efforts are well-aligned with the primary motivator
of teachers - the power to help children learn. Zemmelman, Daniels & Hyde
(2013) write that teachers’ attitudes are crucial to the success of in-depth
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education reform is reciprocal. Freiberg (2014) showed that when principals
teachers feel energized and motivated and their sense of ownership and
However, Frase & Sorenson (2012) caution that not every teacher will respond
isolation for another; one teacher may welcome feedback, another may see it
reform efforts has also been addressed through the issue of staff development.
mic study at the graduate level; providing funding for conferences and work-
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shops; and developing other training opportunities, including in-service
programs. However, many leading school reformers have called for new
ment that encourages teachers’ growth. She believes that teachers must have
opportunities to try out new practices by new roles and creating a culture of
motivational if they give teachers control by asking them to set their own
Many teachers respond with great energy when they are immersed in new
perspectives on their own teaching and learning abilities and provided with
(iii) Induction and Support of New Teachers: New teachers enter the profession
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(iv) Teacher Evaluation: Recognition and feedback have been cited as important
for using these incentives to direct the teachers on the path towards profess-
evaluation are limited in their capacity to improve teaching, and chiefly serve
new direction in teacher evaluation that will bring better results more allied
education reform.
theory was considered suitable since the study was based on motives that drive
employees to perform tasks in certain ways which was also McClelland’s major
McClelland developed the theory which classified people’s need within the
affiliation, achievement and power. Need for affiliation, was associated with
employees at the lower level of the organizational hierarchy and meant that human
beings need meaningful relationship and places of work are considered to provide the
ground upon which workers seek to strike worthy relationship. Need for achievement
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was associated with middle-level employees and entails workers desire to be seen as
achieving more to the organization. Need for power was associated with the top
management and he observed that employees at this level are driven by strong desire
to alter the course of events or make strong impression on others and events hence
productivity as each of the study variables; teacher’ in- service training, teachers’
promotion, and the working environment, was basically seen as a motivation with
the school administration must be made to feel that their needs are catered for in
order to get motivated for higher performance. Management should also appreciate
that workers ought to be treated on the basis of their needs rather than universally to
The objective of this section is to search and report related empirical studies on
the subject under review. This is to enhance the quality of the study and; also serve as
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Kwapong, Opoku & Donyina (2015) assessed the effect of motivation on the
technique is employed in this study. The target population of the study was teaching
staff who had taught in Ghanaian polytechnics for at least 2 years, had a minimum of
a second degree, and had some level of research experience. Simple and stratified
sampling procedures were used to select 465 respondents. The study confirms a
staff of Ghanaian polytechnics, r (408) = .892, p < .05. In this respect, motivation
attained and the research experience of teaching staff influence both motivation and
performance. This means that teaching staff of polytechnics in Ghana can maximize
experience. It was recommended that Ghana must improve motivation for their
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promotion on teachers’ job performance. The study was grounded on the basic
honestly, data collection instruments would be valid and reliable in measuring the
desired outcomes and that the study sample would represent the target population in
which a 10% sample size of 158 respondents was selected using stratified random
sampling techniques. In this study, data was collected using questionnaire, whose
validity and reliability were ascertained before being administered in the field for
actual data collection. Data was analyzed with the aid of SPSS (Statistical
tables. The study, upon data collection realized a good questionnaire response rate of
The study revealed that motivation was crucial in enhancing teachers’ commitment to
job performance, given that most public secondary schools in Rachuonyo South Sub-
County had qualified teachers and were therefore expected to perform their tasks
well, yet this remained a tall order as a result of the presence of motivation gaps. It
was concluded that motivation strategies such as frequent in-service training, regular
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promotion and the general improvement of the working conditions that formed the
major study variables, were critical in enhancing teacher’s commitment to their tasks
performance. For policy formulation, the study recommended that the administration
extent to which working conditions alone influence teachers job performance, the
Anthony & Abdulai (2017) carried out a study on “The Effects of Motivation
Metropolis”. The research design used was survey. Stratified sampling technique was
used to group all the basic schools in the circuit into four different strata, after which
simple random sampling technique was employed to select a sample size of 120
participants which consisted of 100 teachers and 20 Circuit Education Officials in the
Tamale Metropolis. The researchers used questionnaires to collect data from the
respondents. Data obtained were analyzed using descriptive statistics and frequency
counts. Themes were drawn from the responses of the participants. Findings
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include, the identification of formal performance targets set in the schools;
inadequate motivational packages in the Ghana Education Service for the teachers;
teachers not satisfied with their condition of service; opportunity for further studies as
a very important variable in driving teacher motivation and performance; pay and
fringe benefits as the most important motivators to teachers; and job security as a
pivotal role in motivating the teachers. The outcome of the study would lay bare
some packages available to teachers in the Ghana Education Service, especially those
in the northern region of Ghana. It will also contribute to knowledge and literature on
students, human resource experts, and other stake holders interested in the impact of
Oni, Nwajiuba & Nwosu (2017) investigated the influence of teachers' motiva-
design was used. A self-constructed 25 item questionnaire was used for the research
study. Four hypotheses were tested. The statistical tools used to test the hypotheses
Analysis. The participants in this study were made up of 200 teachers randomly
selected from ten secondary schools in Shomolu Local Government Area of Lagos
State. The results showed that there is a significant relationship between the
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motivation of teachers and their productivity; while management style has a
questions and three hypotheses were drawn for the study. The population of the study
Harcourt metropolis, Rivers State. The sample size consists of 462 respondents. The
(WETPQ). A likert type scale was used and the respondents select one of the four (4)
options: Strongly Agree (SA) Agree (A) Disagreed (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD).
Test-retest method was used for the reliability of the instrument. The instrument was
administered to Twenty (20) respondents outside the sample area of the study. The
first and second scores were analyzed using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation
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Coefficient which resulted to 0.78. Findings indicated that adequate lightening,
Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that adequate lightening in the
teachers, spacious offices and classrooms creates opportunity for special learning
activities hence reducing the risk of distraction. It was recommended that the
temperature of the working environment be made moderate through the use of air
condition that can be controlled based on the capacity needed by the individual.
Sophie & Ernest (2019) studied Strategies for Enhancing the Productivity of
and communication strategies and the extent to which they influence teachers’
productivity. Four research questions and hypotheses guided the study. Questionnaire
was used to collect data from 350 teachers selected from a population of 1400
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teachers for the study. Results showed that, principals’ communication, conflict
recommended that principals should put in strategies that will enhance effective
productivity of teachers.
It is observed from the literatures reviewed above that recent research on the
productivity. There is need for more local researches in the above subject matter
2.7 Summary
This chapter reviewed literatures that are related to the present study. The
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productivity and concept of teacher motivation. The influence of teachers’ motivation
on teachers’ productivity were elicited. Also, the measures for improving teacher
study were discussed. Also, several empirical studies related to this study were
reviewed to show the consistency and the inconsistency of this study and to establish
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