SW 214-Social Environment and Social Work Final Copy (Alburo, Nikki)

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Arts and Sciences Education

Social Work Program
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning

(SDL)
Course/Subject: SW 214 – Social Environment and Social

Work
Name of Teacher: NIKKI C. ALBURO, MSSW
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY.

STRICTLY NOT FOR SALE, REPRODUCTION, AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. ONLY
STUDENTS OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE CAN
USE THIS MANUAL. EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course Outline 5
Course Outline Policy 5
Course Information 9
Week 1-3
Unit Learning Outcome (ULO-a) 10
Big Picture 10
Metalanguage 10
Essential Knowledge 11
• Systems Theory 11
• Ecological Perspective 14
• Ecological Systems Perspective 15
Self- Help 17
Let’s Check 18
Let’s Analyze 19
In A Nutshell 20
Q & A List 21
Keyword Index 21
Unit Learning Outcome (ULO-b) 22
Big Picture 22
Metalanguage 22
• Contingency Theory 23
• Social Constructionist Perspective 33
Self- Help 38
Let’s Check 39
Let’s Analyze 40
In A Nutshell 41
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Q & A List 42
Keyword Index 42
Week 4-6
Big Picture 43
Metalanguage 43
• Social Functioning 44
Self- Help 49
Let’s Check 50
Let’s Analyze 51
In A Nutshell 52
Q & A List 53
Keyword Index 53
Big Picture 54
Metalanguage 54
• Family Dynamics 55
• Family Structures 57
• Family Classification 59
Self- Help 62
Let’s Check 63
Let’s Analyze 64
In A Nutshell 65
Q & A List 66
Keyword Index 66
Week 7-9
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Big Picture 67
Metalanguage 67
• What is a Group 69
• Group Dynamics 74
• Social Processes 80
• Basic Types of Systems 87
Self- Help 94
Let’s Check 95
Let’s Analyze 96
In A Nutshell 97
Q & A List 98
Keyword Index 98
Big Picture 99
Metalanguage 99
• Challenges and Threats to Filipino Families 100
• Working in Groups- Dealing with Challenges 105
• Analyzing Community Problems 118
Self- Help 129
Let’s Check 130
Let’s Analyze 131
In A Nutshell 132
Q & A List 133
Keyword Index 133
Rubric 134
Course Schedule 135
Online Code of Conduct 139
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Course Outline: SW 214 – Social Environment and Social Work
Course Coordinator: Nikki C. Alburo, MSSW

Email: nikki_alburo@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: By LMS message
Mobile: 0947-2973870
Phone: (082) 2273166 or 3050647 loc. 182
Effectivity Date: June 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 54 Hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: SW 123
Credit: 3
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face to face sessions.
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery with
scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The expected
number of hours will be 54, including the face to face or
virtual sessions. The face to face sessions shall include
the summative assessment tasks (exams) since this
course is crucial in the licensure examination for Social
Workers.
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Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on the 3rd, 5th,
7th, and 9th weeks of the term. The assessment paper
shall be attached with a cover page indicating the title of
the assessment task (if the task is a performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of Submission, and
the name of the student. The document should be
emailed to the course coordinator. It is also expected that
you already paid your tuition and other fees before the
Submission of the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real-time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by
the course coordinator.
Since this course is included in the licensure examination

for Social Workers, you will be required to take the
Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the University.
This should be scheduled ahead of time by your course
coordinator.
This is non-negotiable for all licensure-based programs.
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin with
a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This means
that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the students will
either opt to redo her/his paper or explain in writing
addressed to the course coordinator the reasons for the
similarity. Also, if the document has reached a more than
30% similarity index, the student may be called for
disciplinary action under the University’s OPM on
Intellectual and Academic Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to complete
the task for you have severe punishments (reprimand,
warning, and expulsion).
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Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day or
part-day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late Submission of the assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
pieces of evidence.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the Submission. This will be returned by email or
via the Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment
task. The resubmission is premised on the student’s
failure to comply with the similarity index and other
reasonable grounds such as academic literacy
standards or other reasonable circumstances, e.g.,
illness, accident financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the program
Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score
given to an assessment task. The letter should explicitly
explain the reasons/points to contest the grade. The
program coordinator shall communicate with the
students on the approval and disapproval of the request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will come
from the dean of the college.
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Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional

contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style APA 6th Edition.
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account,

which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the students to
have access to the materials and resources of the
course. All communication formats: chat, Submission of
assessment tasks, requests, etc. shall be through the
portal and other university recognized platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise your
issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program head.
Contact Details of the Dean Khristine Marie D. Concepcion, PhD

Email:artsciences@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 082-3050647 local 118
Contact Details of the Program Helen Q. Omblero, DSD
Head Email: helen_omblero@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 082-3050647 local 182
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Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her special
needs. Depending on the quality of the need, the course
coordinator, with the approval of the program
coordinator, may provide alternative assessment tasks
or extension of the deadline for Submission of
assessment tasks. However, the alternative assessment
tasks should still be in the service of achieving the
desired course learning outcomes.
Instructional Help Desk Dr. Khristine Marie D. Concepcion – Dean
Contact Details Email: artsciences@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
Rosyl S. Matin-ao – College LMS Facilitator
Email: rosyl_matinao@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 149
Library Contact Details Brigida E. Bacani
Phone: 305-0645/227-5456 connect to LIC Head
Well-being Welfare Support Zerdszen Ranises

Held GSTC (Guidance Services and Testing Center)
Desk Contact Details Phone: 082 305-0645/ 082 227-5456 (ask to connect to
the office of the GSTC Facilitator or GSTC Head)
Course Information: see/download course syllabus in the Blackboard LMS
CC’s Voice: Hello, prospective Social Worker! Welcome to this course, SW 214: Social
Environment and Social Work. By now, I am confident that you wanted to
become a Social Worker and that you have visualized yourself already
being in the Social Work field.
CO Before the actual teaching performance, you have to deal with traditional,
alternative, and perspectives for understanding families, groups, and
communities. It includes types, variations, structures, processes, and
dynamics in the Philippine context and its implications and relevance to social
work practice. Thus, in this course, you are expected to utilize different social
environment theories in understanding micro-macro continuum of social
forces affecting social functioning of individuals, families, groups,
communities, national and global context and to make use of different social
structures and processes analyzing individuals, families, groups and
community behavior. Let us begin!
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Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO):
At the end of the unit, you are expected to
a. Explain the nature, terms, typologies, and classification of systems theory and
ecological perspectives.
b. Explain the nature, terms, typologies, and classification of contingency theory
and social constructionist perspective
Big Picture in Focus

ULO-a. Explain the nature, terms, typologies, and classification of systems
theory and ecological perspectives
Metalanguage
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study of the social environment and social work
and to demonstrate ULO a will be operationally defined to establish a standard frame of reference
as to how the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these terms as we go
through the study of the social environment. Please refer to these definitions in case you will face
difficulty in understanding concepts.
ECOSYSTEMS THEORY A systems theory is used to describe and analyze people and
other living systems and their transactions.
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT involves the conditions, circumstances, and human

interactions that encompass human beings, includes actual physical setting, the type of
home a person lives, the kind of work he does, the laws and social rules people live by.
Includes everything that a person interacts with and is affected.
SYSTEM set of elements that are orderly and interrelated to make a functional whole.
These are systems that are composed of people and affect people.
SYSTEMS THEORY involves the interactions and relationships among various systems:
individuals; families; groups, organizations, or communities.
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Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three (3) weeks
of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be
laid down in the succeeding pages. Please know that you are not limited to refer to these
resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles,
and other resources that are available in the University’s library, e.g., ebrary,
search.proquest.com, etc.
Impact of Systems in the Environment
The environment is essential in the analysis and understanding of Human Behaviour.
Social Work Practice is directed at improving the interaction between the clients and
systems.
FOCUS OF SOCIAL WORK- Interaction of the individual and the various systems in his
environment.
SYSTEMS THEORY
SYSTEMS THEORY involves the interactions and relationships among various systems:
individuals; families; groups, organizations, or communities.
SYSTEM THEORY is complex, and social workers are not expected to understand and
use all its concepts. Social workers, however, can apply concepts that relate to human
systems, which are now widely used in the social sciences.
Key Concepts in Systems Theory
• SYSTEM set of elements that are orderly and interrelated to make a functional
whole. These are systems that are composed of people and affect people.
Example: a nation, a social services department, a newly married couple.
• BOUNDARIES These are repeatedly occurring patterns of behavior that

characterize the relationships within a system, giving that system a particular
identity. It will define the appropriate roles that will be enacted by those comprising
the system. Example: Father, mother, son, daughter, student, Professor, etc.
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• SUBSYSTEM a secondary or subordinate system.
Example: Family subsystems are Parental subsystem and sibling subsystem

– Protective service workers in a large social service agency
– Financial assistance workers.
• HOMEOSTASIS The tendency for a system to maintain a relatively stable,

constant state of balance. If something disturbs the balance, the system will
readjust itself and regain stability. Homeostasis means maintaining the status quo.
But sometimes the status quo is ineffective, inefficient, or seriously problematic.
• ROLE A culturally determined pattern of behavior expected of an individual in a

specified social relationship. Everyone involved in a system assumes a Role within
the system.
• RELATIONSHIP Is the mutual emotional exchange; dynamic interaction; affective,

cognitive, and behavioral connection between two or more persons or systems.
One client may have a relationship with an agency; One agency may have a
relationship with another or other agencies.
• INPUT Involves energy, information, or communication flow from other systems.
Example: A parent may receive input from the school principal that their child is
poorly doing in Reading.
An agency may receive an input from a funding agency.
• OUTPUT This refers to what happened to the input after it has been processed by
the system.
Example: The Output of a Social service agency for substance abusers would be;
150 hours of individual counseling, 40 hours of group counseling, 30 hours of
family counseling, 10 hours of drug education sessions, and 30 hours of
coordination/collaboration work with other agencies involved with the client.
OUTPUT is different from OUTCOME.
-The output is a more general term for the result of the process. (what is done)
-Outcomes are specified variables that are measured for evaluation purposes.
(Outcome measures positive effects of a systems process).
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• FEEDBACK A special form of Input where a system receives information about its
own performance.
• Negative feedback - The system can choose to correct any deviation or
mistake and return to a homeostatic state.
• Positive feedback - Involves a system receiving information about what it is
doing correctly to maintain itself.
• INTERFACE a point where two systems meet each other or communicate with
each other.
• DIFFERENTIATION A system’s tendency to move from simple to more

complicated existence.
• ENTROPY Tendency of a system to progress toward disorganization, depletion,

or death.
• EQUIFINALITY Refers to the fact that there are many different means to the same
end. Explore other alternatives.
SYSTEMS THEORY as conceptualized by Allen Pincus & Anne Minahan
There are Six types of social systems with whom the Social Worker interacts during
practice:
• CHANGE AGENT SYSTEM The agency or organization that employs social

workers who will plan and work with the systems toward change.
Example: DSWD, CSWDO, and Non-Government Social welfare organizations
• CLIENT SYSTEM Those who have asked for the worker’s services, those who are
expected to benefit from these services, and those who have entered an explicit
contract with the worker.
• TARGET SYSTEM Those people that the change Agents need to change or
influence to accomplish their goals.
Example: Family, friends, neighbors, or co-workers
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• ACTION SYSTEM Those with whom the social worker interacts cooperatively to
bring about change helpful to the client.
Example: Police, Lawyers, Psychologists, Psychiatrists, etc.
• PROFESSIONAL SYSTEM The professional association of social workers, the

educational system where workers are prepared, and the values & sanctions of
professional practices.
Example: PASWI and NASWEI
• PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM The system that acts to bring a potential

client to the attention of the worker.
ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
An ecological approach provides a more specific view of the world within a social work
perspective.
ECOSYSTEMS THEORY A systems theory is used to describe and analyze people

and other living systems and their transactions.
Important Concept in Ecological Perspective
• SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT involves the conditions, circumstances, and human

interactions that encompass human beings, includes actual physical setting, the
type of home a person lives, the kind of work he does, the laws and social rules
people live by. Includes everything that a person interacts with and is affected.
• TRANSACTION People communicate and interact with others in their environment.

Transactions are active and dynamic because something is communicated or exchanged.
• ENERGY The natural power of active involvement between people and their
environment. Energy can take the form of input and output.
• INTERFACE similar to the systems theory. It is the exact point at which the
interaction between an individual and the environment takes place. ( 3 frames of a
problem)
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• ADAPTATION Refers to the capacity to adjust to surrounding environmental

conditions. It implies change. Social workers often help direct people’s energies so
that they are most productive.
• COPING A form of adaptation that implies a struggle to overcome a problem. It

refers to the way people deal with the negative experiences they encounter.
Example: A wage earner losing a job; Coping up with the death of a loved one.
Types of Coping Skills that are Important to Develop:
▪ People need to solicit & obtain the types of information they need to function
well.
▪ People need coping skills concerning thinking about and planning for the future.
▪ People need coping skills concerning controlling emotions.
▪ People need coping skills to control their needs for immediate gratification.
▪ People need coping skills, which involve identifying alternative ways of
approaching a problematic situation and evaluating the pros & cons of each
alternative.
Reminders:
– Social workers are called upon to help clients develop coping skills.
– The social work helping process involves working with clients to evaluate
alternatives and choose the one that is best for them.
• INTERDEPENDENCE refers to the mutual reliance of each person upon another

person/s. He relies upon other individuals and groups of individuals in the social
environment. People need each other to survive.
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVES
Also known as the bioecological system. This theory is by URIE

BRONFENBRENNER, a Russian born American developmental psychologist
most known for his ecological systems theory of child development.
This theory presents child development within the context of the relationship
system that comprises the child environment.
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The ecological system is composed of:
• MICROSYSTEMS – the layer that is nearest to the child. It comprises of the

structure in which the child directly interacts with. This is called an
immediate environment.
Example: One’s family, school, and neighborhood
Question: Does the child have strong and nurturing relationships with the
parents and the family? Are his or her needs met?
• MESOSYTEM- This layer serves as the relationships between two or more

microsystems, such as what is learned at home culturally. This is called
connections.
Example: Interactions between parents and teachers; parents and health

services; and community and the church
• EXOSYSTEM- The environment that affects how one develops that is out of
their control. This is called an indirect environment.
Example: workplace, mass media, and city government
• MACROSYSTEM- This is a large cultural and social structural element of

the environment that shape human development. This is called social and
cultural values.
Example: marriage ceremonies, the outbreak of CoVid 19
• CHRONOSYSTEM- This is the big events in the world that help psychologist
understands the effect it will impact in a person’s development through time.
This is called Changes over time.
Example: A family through a divorce; A nation going to war
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Please refer to the sources help you further

comprehend the lesson:
1. Kirst-Ashman, Karen K, (2014), Human behavior in the macro social environment: an

empowerment approach to understanding communities, organizations, and groups,4 th,
Australia: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning

3. Wood, Julia T., (2017), Gendered lives: Communication, gender & culture, Australia:
Cengage Learning
4. Zastrow, Charles H., (2016), Understanding human behavior and the social environment,
10th, Australia: Cengage Learning
5. Newstrom, John W. (2015), Organizational behavior: human behavior at work,14th, New

York: McGraw Hill Education
6. Korgen, Kathleen Odell, (2014), Sociologists in action: sociology, social change, and social
justice,2nd, Los Angeles: SAGE
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Activity 1. Now that you know the essential concepts in the study of nature, terms, typologies,
and classification of systems theory and ecological perspectives. Let us try to
check your understanding of these concepts.
I. Match the following terms into its respective categories.
_______________1. The person who went to your agency for help

_______________2. DSWD Home for Girls and Women
_______________3. Family and friends of the client who will be part of the intervention
_______________4. Police, Psychologists, and Psychiatrists
_______________5. Philippine Association of Social Workers, Inc.
Action System Change agent system
Professional system Client System
Target system
II. Encircle the letter of the correct answer
1. The partnership of the parents and the school on providing feedback on the performance of the
child is an example situation on what system in Ecological perspective?
a. Microsystem b. Mesosystem c. Macrosystem d. Exosystem
2. Being a school transferee after your parents were reassigned on their work assignment is an
example situation on what system from an Ecological perspective?
a. Microsystem b. Mesosystem c. Macrosystem d. Exosystem
3. This concept in Systems theory talks about the importance of maintaining the balance of the
system as it connotes the status of the system’s stability.
a. relationship b. Homeostasis c. Subsystem d. Entropy
4. This concept of systems theory is a special form of input where a system receives information
about its own performance- may it be positive or negative.
a. Open system b. Equifinality c. Feedback d. Output
5. A family is a whole system and having subordinate systems- parents and siblings
a. Role b. Relationship c. Subsystem d. Boundaries

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Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms and concepts of nature in Systems
theory, what also matters is you can explain or articulate its views and
perspectives. Now, I will require you to explain your answers to the following
questions thoroughly.
1. State an example situation wherein the importance of Feedback is evident in a system

may it be in your family, friends, groups, or environment
2. Explain the concept of Microsystems and Mesosystems and on how they work
together for the benefit of the person/s involved.
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Activity 1. Based on the definition of the essential terms and concepts in the study of the
nature of systems theory and the learning exercises that you have done, please
state your idea on the following situations.
1. Advantages and disadvantages of an OPEN and CLOSED system
2. The effect of the EXOSYSTEM into a person’s life.
3. The importance of ADAPTATION and COPING and how it is applied.
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Do you have any questions for clarification?
Questions/Issues Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ecosystems Social System Systems Microsystems Mesosystem

theory environment theory
Macrosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem Entropy Equifinality
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ULO-b. Explain the nature, terms, typologies, and classification of
contingency theory and social constructionist perspective
Metalanguage
For you to demonstrate ULO b, you will need to have an operational understanding of
the following terms below. You will also be required to refer to the previous definitions
found in the ULO a section.
CONTINGENCY APPROACH- sometimes called the situational approach, says that

organizations require different ways of managing. The early management theorists came
up with management principles that they generally assumed to be universally applicable.
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM- a theory that people develop knowledge of the world

in a social context, and that much of what we perceive as reality depends on shared
assumptions. From a social constructionist perspective, many things we take for granted
and believe are the objective reality is socially constructed, and thus, can change as
society changes.
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Essential Knowledge
In this section, we must study the nature, terms, typologies, and classification of
contingency theory and social constructionist perspective. As a Social Worker in the
future, this will help you in engaging with complex human behavior and the interplay of
the social environment.
CONTINGENCY THEORY
The focus of the theory:
How the individuals and groups gain power, access to resources and control over their
lives, often through collective action
Like in the systems organizational theory, the contingency theory considers an

organization as a system that consists of several sub-systems.
Further, both these theories lay a lot of emphasis on maintaining and adapting activities
for the growth and survival of the system.
They also deal with patterns of relationships and the interdependence among the
elements of the system. However, there are some differences between the two.
Contemporary approach:
Most of the new approaches focused on managers’ concerns inside the organization. In
the 1960s, management researchers began to look at what was happening in the
external environment outside the boundaries of the organization.
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Two contemporary management perspectives
1. System approach
2. Contingency approach
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System theory
It was not until the 1960s that management researchers began to look more carefully at
systems theory and how it related to organizations.
System – System is a set of interrelated and independent parts arranged in a manner

that produces a unified whole.
The organization is made up of “interdependent factors,” including individuals, groups,

attitudes, motives, formal structure, interactions, goals, status, and authority.
Managers coordinates activities in all the parts of the organization, and they ensure
that all the department work together and achieve their goal.
When a manager takes a decision, he/she must consider its impact on the other
department as well.
Types of Systems
Closed system – do not depend on the environment

Open system – Depend on environment
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For example, the systems approach recognizes that, no matter how efficient the
production department might be, the marketing department better anticipate changes in
customer tastes and work with the product development department in creating products
customers want, or the organization’s overall performance will suffer.
Also, the systems approach implies that decisions and actions in one organizational area
will affect other areas. For example, if the purchasing department does not acquire the
right quantity and quality of inputs, the production department will not be able to do its job.
The systems approach recognizes that organizations are not self- contained. They rely
on their environment for essential inputs and as outlets to absorb their outputs. No
organization can survive for long if it ignores government regulations, suppliers’ relations,
or the varied constituencies on which it depends.
Contingency approach
The contingency approach sometimes called the situational approach, says that
organizations require different ways of managing. The early management theorists came
up with management principles that they generally assumed to be universally applicable.
Later research found exceptions to many of these principles.

For example, the division of labor is valuable and widely used, but jobs can become too
specialized. Bureaucracy is desirable in many situations, but in other circumstances,
other structural designs are more effective. Management is not based on simple
principles to be applied in all situations.
Different and changing situations require managers to use different approaches and
techniques. An excellent way to describe contingency is “If this is the way my situation
is, then this is the best way for me to manage in this situation. Management researchers
continue working to identify these situational variables.
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The primary value of the contingency approach is that it stresses that there are no
universal or straightforward rules for managers.
Four popular contingency variables:

1. Organization size – As size increases, so the problem of coordination.
2. The routine of task technology – e.g., leadership styles, the structure of an
organization.
3. Environmental uncertainty – Customer requirement.
4. Individual differences – e.g., Motivation techniques R. Arun Kumar, AP/Mech, RIT
The contingency approach suggests that the managers do what the situation warrants,
or managers' actions must be contingent upon the organizational situation or
environment.
According to this approach, the task of a manager is to identify which technique will, in
a situation, under circumstances and, at a time, best contribute to attaining the
organizational goal.
Assumption of a contingency approach
• Each organization is unique

• The external environment of each organization is different and unique.
• There cannot be only one best way of doing a task.
• The best approach to management is situational.
• Key to a manager success lies in his ability to perceive and analysis every
situation
Differences between the Systems and Contingency Organizational Theory
The systems theory focuses on the internal dynamics of an organization’s structure and
behavior. On the other hand, the contingency organizational theory focuses on the
external determinants of the organization’s behavior and structure.
The systems theory lays down universal principles for application in all situations. On the
other hand, the contingency organizational theory works on the prescription, which says
that ‘it all depends.’
In other words, the contingency organizational theory spells out the relationship between
an organization and its external environment and endeavors to fill a critical lacuna of the
systems theory.
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Further, it offers a more explicit understanding of the relationship between various

variables of the environment. It is also action-oriented and directed towards the
application of the system theory’s concepts.
Hence, it offers useful and practical insights to managers in turbulent working

environments.
Further, the contingency organizational theory seeks to emphasize the multivariate

nature of an organization. Further, it tries to understand how an organization operates
under varying conditions in specific circumstances.
Also, the theory directs its views towards recommending organizational designs and
managerial actions that are most appropriate for specific situations.
The theory suggests that intelligent organizational design depends on environmental

variables like size, technology, people, etc.
Contingency Theory is a class of behavioral theory that claims that there is no best way
to organize a corporation, to lead a company, or to make decisions. An organizational /
leadership/decision-making style that is effective in some situations, maybe not
successful in other situations. In other words: The optimal
organization/leadership/decision-making style depends upon various internal and
external constraints (factors).
CONTINGENCY THEORY FACTORS
Some examples of such constraints (factors) include:
• The size of the organization.

• How the firm adapts itself to its environment.
• Differences among resources and operations activities.
• Assumptions of managers about employees.
• Strategies.
• Technologies being used. Etc.
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1. CONTINGENCY THEORY ON THE ORGANIZATION
There is no universal way or one best way to manage an organization.

The design of an organization and its subsystems must 'fit' with the environment.
Effective organizations not only have a proper 'fit' with the environment but also between
its subsystems.
The needs of an organization are better satisfied when it is properly designed, and the
management style is appropriate both to the tasks undertaken and the nature of the
workgroup.
Contingency Theory by Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch
Paul R. Lawrence (1922-2011) and Jay W. Lorsch (1932) – “Organization and

Environment: Managing Differentiation and Integration” (1967) –
Question: Why do people seek to build organizations?
Answer: To find better solutions to the environmental problems faced by them.

Therefore:
• It is people who have purposes, not organizations
• People come together to coordinate their different activities into an organization
structure
• The organization’s effectiveness is judged by the extent to which the members’
needs are satisfied through the planned transactions with the environment. To
cope with the environment, organizations develop units and formal structures
suited to the environment(s) they operate in.
Instead of propagating universally applicable organization-management principles, this

theory tries to demonstrate that different circumstances require different organizational
structures. What works for one organization may not work for the other. Managers need
to understand the key contingencies that affect the management practice for a given
situation.
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What you do “depends” on the “situation.”
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Example: COCA-COLA COMPANY
More examples:
EXAMPLE OF A SHOE MANUFACTURING COMPANY:
A shoe manufacturing company is faced with the problem of decreasing profits.
The solution can be: May establish a committee of sales and production personnel to
coordinate the production and distribution of goods under the assumption that large
inventories are responsible for the decline in profits - (Systems theory)
By application of a contingency perspective: It would enable us to examine the situation

and to determine the cause of decreased profits before a new procedure or program is
implemented.
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EXAMPLE OF A SUPERMARKET MANAGER
Problem: Customers are complaining that queuing lines and time for billing are
high.
Solution: Manager identifies that

1)The waiting times and queue lengths are always changing.
2)So a flexible approach is required. Then he observes the customers and assigns the
duty to the workers according to the changing situation.
Studies show that companies that operate in less structured environments are more
successful with a flexible approach to management, while companies in a more stable
environment do better with a more rigid and structured management style of operations.
When the uncertainty of the environment is high, an organic structure (more flexible one)
is suitable. When uncertainty is low, a mechanical structure is suited.
Contingency theory is designed to provide the manager with the capabilities to examine
numerous possible solutions to a problem.
Adapting to changing circumstances- No two situations are identical; therefore, each

situation requires its own unique solution.
To adopt this approach, managers must sample all the past and present ideas; some refer
this to the ‘smorgasbord approach.’
The way you manage should change depending on the circumstances.
Sometimes a bureaucratic organization is most effective, sometimes a more loosely

structured one; sometimes, a more classical approach is best, sometimes a more modern
one.
The most effective management style will vary depending on the type of organization, its
size, its environment, and the situation/problem it faces at the time.
Limitations of Contingency Approach:

• Difficulty in determining all relevant contingency factors and showing the
relationship between them may be complex.
• It is a totally practical approach without the support of the theoretical and
conceptual framework.
• Sometimes the manager finds difficulties in analyzing the situation and discovering
appropriate management techniques in the absence of proper research and lack
of proper understanding of the situation.
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SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
The focus of the theory:
How sociocultural and historical contexts shape individuals and the creation of
knowledge and how individuals create themselves.
Social constructionism is the theory that people develop knowledge of the world in a
social context, and that much of what we perceive as reality depends on shared
assumptions. From a social constructionist perspective, many things we take for granted
and believe are the objective reality is socially constructed, and thus, can change as
society changes.
Key Takeaways: Social Constructionism
The theory of social constructionism states that meaning and knowledge are socially
created. Social constructionists believe that things that are generally viewed as natural
or normal in society, such as understandings of gender, race, class, and disability, are
socially constructed. Consequently, they are not an accurate reflection of reality.
Social constructs are often created within specific institutions and cultures and come to
prominence in certain historical periods. Social constructs’ dependence on historical,
political, and economic conditions can lead them to evolve and change.
Origins
The theory of social constructionism was introduced in the 1966 book The Social
Construction of Reality, by sociologists Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckman. Berger
and Luckman’s ideas were inspired by several thinkers, including Karl Marx, Emile
Durkheim, and George Herbert Mead. Mead’s theory of symbolic interactionism, which
suggests that social interaction is responsible for the construction of identity, was highly
influential.
In the late 1960s, three separate intellectual movements came together to form the
foundation of social constructionism. The first was an ideological movement that
questioned social realities and put a spotlight on the political agenda behind such
realities. The second was a literary/rhetorical drive to deconstruct language and the way
it impacts our knowledge of reality. And the third was a critique of scientific practice, led
by Thomas Kuhn. He argued that scientific findings are influenced by and thus
representative of the specific communities where they are produced—rather than
objective reality.
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Social Constructionism Definition
The theory of social constructionism asserts that all meaning is socially created. Social
constructs might be so ingrained that they feel natural, but they are not. Instead, they
are an invention of a given society and thus do not accurately reflect reality. Social
constructionists typically agree on three key points:
Knowledge Is Socially Constructed
Social constructionists believe that knowledge arises out of human relationships. Thus,
what we take to be true and objective is the result of social processes that take place in
historical and cultural contexts. In the realm of the sciences, this means that although
truth can be achieved within the confines of a given discipline, there is no overarching
truth that is more legitimate than any other.
Language Is Central to Social Construction
Language abides by specific rules and these rules of language shape how we
understand the world. As a result, language is not neutral. It emphasizes certain things
while ignoring others. Thus, language constrains what we can express as well as our
perceptions of what we experience and what we know.
Knowledge Construction Is Politically Driven
The knowledge created in a community has social, cultural, and political consequences.
People in a community accept and sustain the community’s understanding of truths,
values, and realities. When new members of a community accept such knowledge, it
extends even further. When a community’s current knowledge becomes policy, ideas
about power and privilege in the community become codified. These socially constructed
ideas then create social reality, and—if they are not examined—begin to seem fixed and
unchangeable. This can lead to antagonistic relationships between communities that
don’t share the same understanding of social reality.
Social Constructionism vs. Other Theories
Social constructionism is often placed in contrast with biological determinism. Biological

determinism suggests that an individual's traits and behavior are determined exclusively
by biological factors. Social constructionism, on the other hand, emphasizes the
influence of environmental factors on human behavior and suggests that relationships
among people create reality.
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Also, social constructionism should not be confused with constructivism. Social

constructivism is the idea that an individual's interactions with her environment create
the cognitive structures that enable her to understand the world. This idea is often traced
back to developmental psychologist Jean Piaget. While the two terms spring from
different scholarly traditions, they are increasingly used interchangeably.
The social construction of reality
The concept and discussion are credited to Thomas Luckman and Peter Berger
The notion of the social construction of reality is not to say that things in our social world
are not real. They are. But they are constructions—social constructions that we often
take for granted. We have built them from our imaginations.
This is particularly applicable to social institutions - Marriage, education, the economy

come to mind. Think of some more social constructions.
• Religion
• The Polity
• Gender (as opposed to sex)
• Race (as non-biological)
The social construction of reality is part and parcel to the process of socialization itself.
It is in our socialization process that we learn what to consider real, important, valuable,
and necessary.
Two concepts: Primary Socialization and Secondary Socialization
Primary Socialization
The first socialization that is undergone in childhood through which he becomes a

member of society. This is the most important form of socialization.
Secondary Socialization
Any subsequent process that inducts an already socialized individual into new sectors
of the objective world of his society. This process is most critical in cases like the
Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE).
Every individual is born into an objective social structure within which he encounters the
significant others who oversee his socialization.
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Consider Berger and Luckman’s discussion of the child born into a lower-class level of
the social strata. Not only is the child poor materially, but he or she comes to internalize
this as the norm.
Primary Socialization included much more than purely cognitive learning. Thus, consider
the internalization process. The child identifies with the significant other in a variety of
emotional ways. Internalization occurs only as identification occurs.
As the child internalizes the world of his significant others, s/he becomes capable of self-
identification, of acquiring a subjectively coherent and plausible identity.
This is done with the help of what is called “Agents of Socialization. “Such agents could
be members of the family, schoolteachers, mentors, peers, and even the mass media.
The assimilation of the social world occurs as the child’s consciousness grows. Consider
the example of “Mummy is angry with me now,” and “Mummy is angry with me when I
spill the soup.” Eventually, the child discovers that all significant others are angry with
the soup is spilled.
The Generalized Other
According to Berger and Luckman, this means that “the individual now identifies not only
with concrete others but with a generality of others, that is, with a society.” Only with this
generalized identity does his own self-identification attain stability and continuity.
Finally comes the time with the child understands that everybody is against soup spilling,
and the norm is generalized to “one does not spill soup.” This the precursor to Mead’s
notion of “The Generalized Other.”
External and internal realities
This all entails a dialectic between identification by others and self-identification,

between objectively assigned and subjectively appropriated identity.
Additionally, the child is not only taking on the roles and attitudes of others but in the
same process takes on their world. “All identifications take place within horizons that
imply a specific social world.”
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This formation of the generalized other marks a decisive phase in socialization:
• It implies the internalization of society as such and of objective reality while at the
same time, the subjective establishment of a coherent and continuous identity.
• “Society, identity, and reality are subjectively crystallized in the same process of
internalization.”
• “When the generalized other has been crystallized in consciousness, an

asymmetrical relationship is established between objective and subjective reality.
What is real ‘outside’ corresponds to what is real ‘within.’”
This is what gives permanence to the impermanent.
Consider the dollar bill. What is it? Consider that most of us don’t even use money
anymore. Get the debit or credit card out. Now, what is that?
Indeed, where is the money? It only exists because we say it does. Maybe it is in the
Matrix.
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Activity 1. Now that you know the nature, terms, typologies, and classification of
contingency theory and social constructionist perspective . In the space
provided, answer the question being asked:
Given that you are working in a company during this pandemic, write a situation or a
problem and then present a solution both using systems theory and
contingency approach.
SITUATION
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM USING SYSTEMS THEORY
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM USING CONTINGENCY APPROACH
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the nature, terms, typologies, and classification of
contingency theory and social constructionist perspective, you should also
be able to explain or articulate its inter-relationships. Now, I will require you to
explain your answers to the following questions thoroughly.
Based on how you understand the following concepts, provide your own definition on the
following words:
1. LGBTQ
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Political dynasty
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Divorce
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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Activity 1. Based on the definition of the essential terms and concepts in the study of nature,
terms, typologies, and classification of contingency theory and social
constructionist perspective and the learning exercises that you have done,
please briefly explain your ideas on the following situations or notions.
Based on your own experience, give a specific idea which undergone changes in social
construction involving the following concepts:
PRIMARY SOCIALIZATION
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
SECONDARY SOCIALIZATION
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
GENERALIZED OTHER
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Contingency Social Organization Closed system

Approach Constructionism
Open system Primary Secondary Generalized Other
socialization socialization
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Week 4-6: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO)
At the end of the unit, you are expected to:
a. Explain the concept of social functioning in understanding families, groups,

and communities.
b. Determine the types, structures, dynamics, developmental life cycles and
growth processes of families.

ULO-a. Explain the concept of social functioning in understanding
families, groups, and communities
Metalanguage
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study of the social environment and
social work and to demonstrate ULO a will be operationally defined to establish a standard
frame of reference as to how the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will
encounter these terms as we go through the study of the social environment. Please refer
to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in understanding concepts in a
social environment.
SOCIAL FUNCTIONING is what results from the interaction between the two forces- the
individual’s coping capacities and the demands of his situation/environment. The social
worker’s “job assignment” involves “mediating (Schwartz), or “matching” (Gordon), or
striking a balance between people’s coping ability and situational/environmental
demands (Bartlett).
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Essential Knowledge
In this section, we must study the concept of social functioning in understanding families,
groups, and communities. As a future Social Worker, this will help you as a generalist
Social Worker.
SOCIAL FUNCTIONING: SOCIAL WORK’S FOCUS OF CONCERN
William Schwartz states that “Every profession has a particular function to perform in
society: it receives a certain job assignment for which it is held accountable.” Thus, we
know that a person who suffers from a physical ailment seeks help from a doctor, a
person who is accused of having committed a crime consults a lawyer. A person who
needs spiritual guidance sees a religious leader, such as a priest or minister. But what
about Social Workers? What is their particular “job assignment” in society? With so many
individuals, groups and organizations engaged in helping others with all kinds of
problems, can we delineate the responsibility of Social Workers? Do Social Workers
have competencies that these other individuals and groups do not have?
The reality is there is still a lack of clarity about the professional “job assignment” of
Social Workers. This lack of clarity is not only on the part of the public but also on the
part of social workers themselves. Because of the image of the “helpfulness” of social
workers, an image that evolved from the Judeo-Christian roots of the social work
profession, many social workers get exploited by others. Their exploitation is often traced
to some social workers’ own lack of understanding of what ought to be the focus of their
concern. Let us review different writings about social work’s focus of concern:
Wernes Boehm (1958)
Social work seeks to enhance the social functioning of individuals, singularly, and
in groups, by activities focused upon their social relationships which constitute
interaction between individuals and their environments. These activities can be grouped
into three functions: restoration of impaired capacity, provision of individual and social
resources, and prevention of social dysfunction.
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William Schwartz (1961)
The general assignment for the social work profession is to mediate the process
through which the individual and society reach out to each other through a mutual need
for self-fulfillment. This presupposes a relationship between people and their nurturing
group, which we would describe as “symbiotic”- each needing the other for its own life
and growth. Each is reaching out to the other with all the strength it can command at a
given moment. The social worker’s field of an intervention lies at the point where two
forces meet: the individual’s impetus toward health, growth, and belonging, and the
organized efforts of society to integrate its parts into a productive and dynamic whole.
William Gordon (1969)
The central focus of social work traditionally seems to have been on the person-
in-his-life-situation complex – a simultaneous dual focus on man and his environment.
This focus has been concentrated at sometimes on the side of the organism as
interpreted by psychological theory and at the other times on the side of the environment
as interpreted by sociological and economic theory. The mainstream of social work,
however, has become neither applied psychology nor applied sociology.
Emphasis has been on individualizing the person-situation complex to achieve the

best match between each person and his environment, in which either person's behavior
or environmental situation may deviate widely from the typical or normative. We
conclude, therefore, that the central target of technical, social work practice is matching
the person with the situation- that is, intervening by whatever methods and means
necessary to help people be in situations where their capabilities are sufficiently matched
with the demands of the situation enabling them to make a go of it.
Harriet Bartlett (1970)
Social functioning is the relation between the coping activity of people and the
demand from the environment. This dual focus ties them together. Thus, a person and
situation, people, and the environment are encompassed in a single concept, which
requires that they be constantly reviewed together.
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Louise C. Johnson (1989)
Social workers become involved when individuals are having difficulty in

relationship with other people, in growing to maximize their potential, and in meeting the
demand of the environment. Harriet Bartlett has described this situation as “people
coping” and “environmental demands.” The bringing together of these two aspects of
living in society can be termed social functioning. The core of the social work endeavor
is to find the worker and the client interacting about problems in social functioning, which
problems are the reasons for the worker-client interaction. Thus, the ultimate goal of all
social work practice is the enhancement of the social functioning of individuals.
The foregoing descriptions are consistent with the view that the focus of social
work, which is social functioning, means the interaction between the individual and his
situation or environment. Social functioning is the key concept in social work, so its
meaning should be very clear. The different authors’ use of “person and situation” and
“person and environment” makes the use of one or the other acceptable. In any case,
there is a need to clarify the difference between “situation” and “environment.”
The social environment is a network of overlapping social systems and social

situations, including ecological systems, cultures, and institutions. In contrast, a social
situation is an impinging segment of the social environment. A social situation is a
smaller, more immediate environment that “has meaning for the individual and that is
uniquely perceived and interpreted by him, in which he has one or more status- roles or
identities is a group member and a role performer. An example is the “family situation,”
where one functions as a wife, mother, and breadwinner. An aggregate or complex of
social situations (in each of which the individual functions as a group member and has
a role, identity, and role set) constitutes the individual’s entire situation or milieu.
Social work, therefore, has a dual focus- how people cope with their life tasks and
the demands made by situations or environments on people. We know that a person’s
coping capacity is influenced by his/her physical condition, attitudes, values, knowledge,
skills, and perceptions of reality. The worker must understand this because this may
provide an explanation for social functioning problems. On the other hand, it may be a
social situation that is not functional. A social situation is considered functional when it
is experienced as livable and favorable, supportive, and facilitative of well-functioning
human beings and of their environing social and ecological systems. Social workers
must engage in situational assessments when working with their clients. They should
have a framework for analyzing social situations.
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When, therefore, is a social situation dysfunctional? A social situation is considered

dysfunctional “when it is structurally and culturally inadequate or disorganized; is
aimless, unfocused, ambiguous, contradictory, threatening or harmful; lacks needed
resources and opportunities; presents insurmountable barriers; stimulates unacceptable
stress or impulses; generates severe interpersonal role and value conflicts; requires
performance, knowledge, and skills that are beyond and individual’s capacity or ability;
and does not value identity.”
Social functioning is what results from the interaction between the two forces- the
individual’s coping capacities and the demands of his situation/environment. The social
worker’s “job assignment” involves “mediating (Schwartz), or “matching” (Gordon), or
striking a balance between people’s coping ability and situational/environmental
demands (Bartlett).
Simply put, social work intervention is appropriate when a person or group of

persons, out of an overwhelming or stressful situation of need, or great anxiety and
discomfort seeks help from or accepts help offered by a social worker/social agency
because he is not able to cope effectively with his problems or to make a personalized
and/or socially satisfactory adjustment. This inability to cope could be due to factors in
the person (s) (his “can’t help” e.g., values, attitudes, ignorance) and/or in his situation
(lack of opportunities, oppressive social structure, situational demands beyond his
coping capacities). The social worker’s job is to mediate between these two forces- the
person’s coping skills and situational demands- to enable the individual (s) to “make a
go out of it.”
A key concept in our understanding of person-situation interaction is the concept

of a social role (defined as the socially recognized pattern of behaviors and activities
expected from an individual occupying a certain position in society). All human
interactions involve the performance of certain social roles (e.g., child, parent,
employee, patient, etc.), so that it would be correct to say that social functioning is the
result of the individual’s performance of his social roles.
Causes and Responses to Social Functioning Problems
Social functioning (or social role performance) problems may be caused by factors
inherent in the person (e.g., his physical condition, attitudes, values, perceptions of
reality, etc. which affect one’s “coping”), factors in the situation or environment (e.g., lack
individual’s coping capacities), or factors in both the person and the situation or
environment.
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Because of these, social workers’ efforts are aimed at changing the nature of the person-
situation interaction. Specifically, social work intervention is always directed toward
enhancing or improving the individual’s social functioning through any of the following
ways:
1. Chance strategies directed toward the individual if personal inadequacies or

sometimes pathologies make it difficult for the individual to cope with the
demands of his situation or environment.
2. Change strategies directed toward the environment if it is the latter that is beset
with inadequacies, or if the situation is such as to be beyond the coping capacities
of the individual; and
3. Change strategies are directed toward both the individual and the environment.
Social functioning problems are caused by any of the following:
• PERSONAL INADEQUACIES- personal inadequacies may be due to

physiological factors like a poor physical constitution, wrong attitudes, and
values, poor or unrealistic perception of reality, ignorance, and lack of skills.
• SITUATIONAL INADEQUACIES- refer to the lack of resources and

opportunities in society, the existence of resources or opportunities which,
however, are beyond the reach or coping capacities of people (such as
availability of employment, but only for highly skilled or trained workers),
and the existence of an unjust or exploitative situation such as in the
workplace, or in the community.
• BOTH PERSONAL AND SITUATIONAL INADEQUACIES
Several decades ago, there was a big issue about which should be given priority attention
by social work, changing the individual, or changing the environment. The issue of the
“social vs. the pathological” (i.e., responsible for the social reform on the one hand and
giving individual help to persons in trouble, on the other) is an old one which social
workers hardly bother with anymore because of the recognition that personal problems
emanate from relationships with the larger society. It is this person-situation relationship
that most social workers, especially in the country, prefer to address. Indeed, to focus
one’s effort on merely changing the individual or the environment is to disregard social
work’s dual focus on both person and situation.
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Activity 1. Now that you know the essential concepts in the study of social functioning.
Let us try to check your understanding of these perspectives.
I. Match the following concepts of social functioning to the proponents.
_____________1. Social functioning is the relation between the coping activity of people and
the demand from the environment. This dual focus ties them together. Thus, a person and
situation, people, and the environment are encompassed in a single concept, which requires
that they be constantly reviewed together.
______________2. Social work seeks to enhance the social functioning of individuals,

singularly, and in groups, by activities focused upon their social relationships which constitute
interaction between individuals and their environments. These activities can be grouped into
three functions: restoration of impaired capacity, provision of individual and social resources,
and prevention of social dysfunction.
_______________3. The central focus of social work traditionally seems to have been on the
person-in-his-life-situation complex – a simultaneous dual focus on man and his environment.
This focus has been concentrated at sometimes on the side of the organism as interpreted by
psychological theory and at the other times on the side of the environment as interpreted by
sociological and economic theory.
______________4. Social workers become involved when individuals are having difficulty in
relationship with other people, in growing to maximize their potential, and in meeting the demand
of the environment. She has described this situation as “people coping” and “environmental
demands.” The bringing together of these two aspects of living in society can be termed social
functioning.
______________5. The general assignment for the social work profession is to mediate the
process through which the individual and society reach out to each other through a mutual need
for self-fulfillment. This presupposes a relationship between people and their nurturing group,
which we would describe as “symbiotic”- each needing the other for its own life and growth. Each
is reaching out to the other with all the strength it can command at a given moment.
Wernes Boehm William Gordon

William Schwartz Harriet Bartlett
Louise Johnson
_________
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Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms and concepts of the perspectives in
social functioning, what also matters is you should also be able to explain or
articulate its inter-relationships. Now, I will require you to explain your answers to
the following questions thoroughly.
Social work has a dual focus- how people cope with their life tasks and the demands
made by situations or environments on people.
1. Based on your own experience, try to assess yourself on how do you cope
with your life demands given by your environment? Give an example.
2. Try to assess the community that you are currently living in and state the status of
its social situation.
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perspectives in social functioning and the learning exercises that you have done,
please write an example situation on the concepts below.
1. Social functioning problems caused by PERSONAL INADEQUACIES
2. Social functioning problems caused by SITUATIONAL INADEQUACIES
3. Social functioning problems caused by BOTH PERSONAL AND SITUATIONAL

INADEQUACIES
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Social Functioning Personal inadequacies Situational inadequacies
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ULO-b. Determine types, structures, dynamics, developmental life cycles
and growth processes of families.
the following terms below. You will also be required to refer to the previous definitions
found in ULO a section.
Metalanguage
The essential terms below are operationally defined for you to have a better
understanding of this section in the course.
FAMILY- According to functionalist George Murdock, a family is defined as “a social

group characterized by common residence, economic co-operation, and reproduction. It
includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual
relationship and one or more children, own or adopted of the sexually co-habiting adults.”
Please proceed to the next section, the “Essential Knowledge” part since this
lesson consists of a lot of essential terms about family.
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Essential Knowledge
In this section, we must study the different types, structures, dynamics, developmental
life cycles, and growth processes of families. As a future Social Worker, this will help
you in working with families.
FAMILY DYNAMICS
What is a family?
According to functionalist George Murdock, a family is defined as “a social group
characterized by common residence, economic co-operation, and reproduction. It
includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved
sexual relationship and one or more children, own or adopted of the sexually co-
habiting adults.”
Functions of a family:
 Reproduction
 Physical & Environment Needs
 Social Placement of the Child
 Socialization & Control
 Maintenance of Family Morale & Motivation
 Production of Goods & Services
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BASIC AREAS OF FAMILY FUNCTION
I. BIOLOGIC
• Reproduction- within the marriage bond, sex expression is usually sanctioned.

Thus, the perpetuation and continuity of the group are assured
• Care and rearing of children- the human infant is born helpless, and the parents
fill the roles of protectors, providers, and guardians
- From the family, the infant and later the child draws security, affection, and guidance
and learns tenderness sympathy, understanding, and generalized love
• Nutrition
• Health maintenance
• Recreation
II. ECONOMIC
• provide adequate financial resources
• determine the allocation of resources
• ensure the financial security of members
III. EDUCATION- teach skills, attitudes, and knowledge relating to other functions
IV. PSYCHOLOGICAL/AFFECTION
• promote the natural development of personalities
• Offer optimum psychological function
• Promote the ability to form relationships with people outside the family circle
V. SOCIO-CULTURAL OR SOCIALIZATION
• socialization of children
• Promotion of social status and legitimacy
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Family structures:
Various types of family exist today, some of the more common structures include:
• THE NUCLEAR FAMILY- this usually consists of two generations of family,

parents, and their own or adopted children residing in the same household.
– Family of orientation: family to which one was born

– Family of procreation: a person, spouse, and their children
– Blended family: spouses and their children from former marriages live as
a single nuclear family
– Binuclear family: divorced parents form separate households; children
divide their time with each
• THE EXTENDED FAMILY- This is also known

as the three-generation family. Consisting of
grandparents, their children, and their
grandchildren.
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• SINGLE PARENT FAMILY- This type of family is also known as the Lone
Parent Family. It consists of one parent and a child or children residing in
one household.
• RECONSTITUTED FAMILY- This is a family where one or more parents

have been married previously, and they bring with them children from their
previous marriage(s). This introduces various combinations of stepfather,
step-mother, etc.
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FAMILY CLASSIFICATION
Families can be classified according to the various categories:
1. ON THE BASIS OF DECENT or LINEAGE
Patrilineal Family: This type of family occurs when property and title inheritance
pass down through the father’s side.
Matrilineal Family: This is where the property and title inheritance pass through
the mother’s side.
2. ON THE BASIS OF HEADSHIP
Patriarchal Family: In this type of family, the father is considered the head.
Matriarchal Family: In this type of family, authority is held by the mother
Egalitarian- equal headship shared by the mother and father
3. ON THE PATTERN OF RESIDENCE
Patrilocal: When a married couple lives with or near the husband’s family.
Matrilocal: When a couple lives with or near the mother’s family.
Neo-Local: When a married couple sets up a home separate from either side of
their families.
4. ON THE NUMBER OF MATES OR PARTNER
Monogamous Family: In this instance, a husband only has one wife. This is the
western idea of a typical marriage.
Polygamous Family: In this case, the husband has more than one wife at the
same time. This type of family can be found mostly in Saudi Arabia.
Polyandrous Family: This family consists of a wife with more than one husband.
This can be found in the Todas of Southern India.
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(Murdock 1949) - every normal adult in every society belongs to two kinds of nuclear
families:
1. The family of orientation- family into which one is born, and where one is reared
or socialized. It consists of a father, a mother, brothers, and sisters
2. The family of procreation- family, established by the person by his marriage and
consists of a husband, a wife, sons, and daughters
Linton (Murdock, 1939) distinguishes two types of the family structure corresponding to
the nuclear and extended families. He refers to them as:
• Conjugal family- considers spouses and their offspring as of prime importance

and which has a fringe of comparatively unimportant relatives. The marriage bond
is emphasized
• Consanguineal family- considers the nucleus of blood relatives as more

important than the spouses. The relationships of the person with the blood kin
formed during childhood are emphasized.
MAIN POINTS OF INTERACTION IN THE FAMILY:
Husband – wife relation

• Conjugal bond- the internal sense of obligation and privilege, respect, affection,
or sexual attraction existing in mind and heart of each spouse
• Social pressure- the community expects the husband and wife to be loving and
faithful to each other and to have a lasting and permanent marriage
• Economic cooperation- the husband is the main breadwinner while the wife takes
care primarily of the domestic needs of the family
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Parent-child relation
• The very strong filial bond between parents and children
• Parents:
- Loving, caring, and protective of their children
- work hard and even plunge into debt to provide for their children
- train and discipline their children early in life with high hopes for their bright future
- aspire to have their children attain a high level of education
• Children
– Love, respect and obey their parents
• Parents and children are also bound together by the need for economic
cooperation
• Rural areas- the division of labor based on age and sex provides each family
member a special work role
– Sons are trained in farm work so that they may take over the father’s
responsibilities someday
– Daughters help their mother take care of the home
Siblings relations
• Mutual love, protection, and respect
• Brothers are expected to look after their sisters and protect them from harm
• Older siblings are given the responsibility to take care of the younger ones
especially when the parents are away
• Younger siblings are turning to obey their elders and look up to them with respect
• Strength of the sibling bond is seen when an older brother or sister stops schooling
or postpones marriage to be able to help support or educate the younger ones
• Sibling unity is carried over even after everyone is already married
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Please refer to the sources below to help you further



empowerment approach to understanding communities, organizations, and groups,5th,
Cengage Learning

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Activity 1. Now that you know the essential concepts in the study of the types, structures,
developmental life cycles, and growth processes of families. Let us try to check
your understanding of these concepts. In the space provided, write the term/s or
concept/s being asked in the following statements:
______________1. This type of family is established by the person by his marriage and
consists of a husband, a wife, sons, and daughters.
______________2. This type of family considers the nucleus of blood relatives as more important
than the spouses. The relationships of the person with the blood kin formed during childhood are
emphasized.
______________3. Based on the number of mates or partners, what type of family, wherein the
husband has more than one wife at the same time. This type of family can be found mostly in
Saudi Arabia.
______________4. On the pattern of residence, this type of family happens when a married
couple sets up a home separate from either side of their families.
______________5. Based on headship, this type of family happens when there is equal
headship shared by the mother and father.
______________6. Based on decent or lineage, this type of family occurs when property and title
inheritance pass down through the father’s side.
______________7. This type of family where one or more parents have been married previously,
and they bring with them children from their previous marriage(s). This introduces various
combinations of stepfather, stepmother, etc.
______________8. This family usually consists of two generations of family, parents, and their
own or adopted children residing in the same household.
______________9. This family is also known as the three-generation family. Consisting of

grandparents, their children, and their grandchildren.
______________10. Reproduction and care and rearing of children are two classifications
under what areas of family function?
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Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms and concepts of nature in the study of
the types, structures, developmental life cycles and growth processes of families,
what also matters is you should also be able to explain or articulate its inter-
relationships. Now, I will require you to explain your answers to the following
Describe your own family based on the following classifications.
A. Structure
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
B. Decent or Lineage
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
C. Headship
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
D. Residence
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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Activity 1. Based on the definition of the nature in the study of the types, structures,
developmental life cycles and growth processes of families and the learning
exercises that you have completed, please feel free to write your arguments,
opinions, ideas on the statements below.
Give at least two usual problems experienced in family interactions and provide its best
solution.
I. HUSBAND-WIFE RELATION
PROBLEM SOLUTION
II. PARENT-CHILD RELATION

PROBLEM SOLUTION
III. SIBLINGS RELATION

PROBLEM SOLUTION
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Family Nuclear Family Extended Family Family of

Orientation
Family of Conjugal family Consanguineal Reconstituted
procreation family family
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Week 7-9: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO)
At the end of the unit, you are expected to:
a. Determine the different types, structures, processes (basic and derived), and
organizational behavior of social groups & the social forces affecting micro,
mezzo and macro context
b. Analyze the different contemporary and emerging social work practice trends
and issues in working with children, families, social groups, and communities.

ULO-a. Determine the different types, structures, processes (basic and
derived), and organizational behavior of social groups & the social forces
affecting micro, mezzo, and macro context
Metalanguage
GROUP- Groups are aggregate or categories of people who have a consciousness of

membership and of interaction
SOCIAL GROUP- is a unit of interacting personalities with the interdependence of roles

and statuses existing between and among themselves. It is a collection of people who
interact with each other by the position they occupy in society.
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SOCIAL PROCESSES- refers to the recurrent and patterned interactions or responses

of individuals to one another, which have attained stability. It is a repetitive form of social
behavior that is commonly found in social life.
MICRO SYSTEM- refers to an individual. Part of social work practice which focuses on
the individual’s needs, problems, & strength to enhance his/her social functioning.
MEZZO SYSTEM- refers to any small group, including family, workgroup, and other social
groups.
MACRO SYSTEM- refers to systems larger than small groups.
MICRO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE- is defined as working closely with individuals,

families, and small groups to counsel and provide one-on-one support as clients navigate
complex challenges and systems.
MEZZO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE- primarily focused on helping vulnerable

populations at the large group, organizational, and small community levels. A key part of
mezzo social work is taking a step back and identifying factors negatively impacting the
well-being of the constituents.
MACRO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE- work is founded upon helping large groups of
people indirectly (but in no less impactful ways) through research, political advocacy, and
far-reaching programs that address prevalent social problems.
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Essential Knowledge
In this section, we must study and understand the different types, structures, processes
(basic and derived), and organizational behavior of social groups & the social forces
affecting micro, mezzo, and macro context. You must have a deep understanding of this
topic so you will know how to handle and work with groups in the field.
WHAT IS A GROUP?
 A Social System
 Collection of 2 or more individual who interacts with each other
 The plurality of persons who have a common identity.
 Share a sense of belonging
 Accomplish goals and fulfill needs
 Influenced by rules and norms
 Its members have something in common and that they believe what they have in
common makes a difference.
What is a Social Group?
William – Social group is a given aggregate of people playing inter-related roles and
recognized by themselves or others as a unit of interactions.
Horton and Hunt – “Groups are aggregate or categories of people who have a
consciousness of membership and of interaction.”
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Ogburn and Nimkoff – “Whenever two or more individuals come together and
influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social group.”
A social group is a unit of interacting personalities with the interdependence of roles and
statuses existing between and among themselves. It is a collection of people who interact
with each other by the position they occupy in society.
The social group has been defined as two or more people who interact with one another,
share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity.
STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
o FORMING - people join the group either because of a work assignment or for some
other benefit
– begin to define the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership
– stage marked by much uncertainty
o STORMING - acceptance of the group’s existence

– conflict over who will control the group
o NORMING - relationships and a sense of group identity develop

– group assimilates a common set of expectations of what defines
correct member behavior
o PERFORMING - group structure is functional and accepted

– group energy has moved to task performance
o ADJOURNING - group prepares to disband

– the attention devoted to wrapping up activities
– the group does not necessarily become more effective as it moves
through the first four stages
– group effectiveness is a complex issue that is affected by factors
other than developmental stage
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TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUP
1. According to social ties:
a. The primary group – the fundamental unit of human society. Long-lasting, intimate,
personal, continuous face-to-face relationships.
b. Secondary group – individual comes in contact later in life. Impersonal, business-

like, contractual, formal, and casual relationship.
Primary Secondary
A small group characterized by intimate, Contrast to primary group relationships

face-to-face association and cooperation
Personal relationships More casual, less frequent, more special interest
directed
Interested in each other over and beyond More compartmental
the mere selfish implementation of goals.
Informal More formal in nature
e.g., family, local fraternity or sorority, e.g., Professional organizations, trade unions,
neighborhood corporations
2. According to self-identification:
a. In-group – it is a social unit in which individuals feel at home and with which they
identify. Members of the in-group have the “we” feeling.
b. Out-group – it is a social unit to which individuals do not belong due to

differences in certain categories and which they do not identify.
c. Reference group or psychological group – refers to the groups to w/c we

consciously or unconsciously refer to when we try to evaluate our own life
situations and behavior, but to w/c we do not necessarily belong.
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3. According to purpose:
a. Special interest groups –groups that are organized to meet the special
interest of the members.
b. Task group –groups assigned to accomplish jobs w/c cannot be done by one
person.
c. Influence or pressure groups – refers to groups organized to support or

influence social actions.
4. According to geographical location and degree or quality of relationship:
a. Gemeinschaft – refers to a social system in which most relationships are personal

or traditional. It is a community of intimate, private, and exclusive living and
familism.
b. Gesellschaft – refers to a social system in w/c most relationships are impersonal,

formal, contractual, or bargain-like. The relationship is individualistic, business-
like, secondary, and rationalized.
5. According to the form of organization:
a. Formal groups - also called social organizations. They are deliberately formed,
and their purpose and objectives are explicitly defined. Their goals are clearly
stated, and the division of labor is based on the member’s ability to merit.
Ex. Bureaucracy – administrative structure
b. Informal Group- occur naturally in the workplace in response to the need for social
contact
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FORMATIONS OF GROUP
• Deliberate Formation – to accomplish some objectives
Work/Task Group – to perform some tasks efficiently through the pooling and
coordination of the behavior and resources or a collection of individuals.
Ex. Expedition group of a mayor
Problem-solving groups – ex. Commissions, task forces, and committees formed

on the belief that a group can form a solution more efficiently than a single
individual
Social action groups – formed from the desire to influence the course of events
in society. Ex. Parties, trade associations, civil rights groups, etc.
Mediating groups – ex. Coordinating councils, interdepartmental committees,

arbitration boards, etc.
Legislative groups – to formulate rules, regulations, laws, policies. Ex. Board of

directors, government legislative bodies.
Client – groups – formed based on the assumption that the performance of certain
service is more efficient to the clients are treated as groups rather than as
individuals.
• Spontaneous formation – many groups arise because people expect to derive

satisfaction from associating together (ex. Social Clubs, juvenile gangs, and
friendship cliques).
• External Designation – a collection of individuals may become groups because all

people treat them in a homogenous way. People may be placed into categories on
the basis of color, sex, age, heights, weights, ability, education, religion, ethnic group,
etc.
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DIMENSIONS OF GROUP DYNAMICS
 Group Structure
 Group Standards
 Group Cohesion
 Group Conformity
 Group Conflict
 Group Leadership
A. Group Structure
The underlying pattern of roles, norms, and networks of the relation among members
that define and organize the group.
• Size
– Refer to the number of persons in the group
– Affects the amount and quality of communication that can take place among
group members which affect their interpersonal relations
– Smaller the size of the group, the easier it is for the worker to get to know
the individual members and to observe and intervene in their interactions
when necessary
– Large groups are consistently better at problem-solving (advocacy-oriented
groups)
– Social Loafing – tendency to expend less effort working in a group than as
an individual
• Functional roles/ Role structure – refers to the socially recognized pattern of

expectations of behavior on the part of the member of the group in a certain
position which he/she occupies.
 TASK ROLE- refers to the behaviors if members that are directed

towards helping the group does it work and achieves its goal.
Examples:
a. Initiating- suggesting new ideas or a changed way of looking at the
group problem or goal, proposing new activities.
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b. Information seeking- asking for relevant facts or authoritative

information or relating personal experience pertinently to the group task.
c. Information giving- providing relevant facts or authoritative information
or relating personal experience pertinently to the group task.
d. Opinion Giving- stating a pertinent belief or opinion about something
the group is considering.
e. Clarifying- probing for meaning and understanding, restating something
the group is considering.
f. Elaborating- building on a previous comment, enlarging on it, giving
examples.
g. Coordinating- showing or clarifying the relationship among various
ideas, trying to pull ideas and suggestions together.
h. Orienting- defining the progress of the discussion in terms of the
group’s goals, raising questions about the direction the discussion is
taking.
i. Testing- checking with the group to see if it is ready to decide or to take
some action.
j. Summarizing- reviewing the content of past discussions
o BUILDING OR MAINTENANCE ROLE- refers to the behaviors of members

directed towards helping the group, building maintenance relationships, and
cohesiveness among members.
Examples:
a. Encouraging- being friendly, warm, responsive to others, praising others,
and their ideas, agreeing with and accepting the contributions of others.
b. Mediating- harmonizing, conciliating differences in points of view, making
compromises.
c. Gatekeeping- trying to make it possible for another member to make a
contribution by saying, “We haven’t heard from Sister yet” or suggesting
limited talking time for everyone so that all will have a chance to be heard.
d. Standard-setting- expressing standards or the group to use in choosing its
subject matter or procedures, rules of conduct, and ethical values.
e. Following- going along with the group, somewhat passively accepting the
ideas of others, serving as an audience during group discussion, being a
good listener.
f. Relieving Tension- draining off negative feelings by diverting attention
from unpleasant to pleasant matters.
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o PERSONAL ROLE- refers to the behavior of members directed towards

satisfying one’s personal needs without regard for the needs of the group.
Examples:
a. Blocking- interfering with the progress of the group by going off on a
tangent, citing personal experiences unrelated to the group’s problem,
arguing too much on a point the rest of the group has revolved, rejecting
ideas without consideration, presenting a vote.
b. Aggression- criticizing or blaming others, showing hostility toward the
group or some individuals without relation to what has happened in the
group, attacking the motives of others, deflating the ego or status of others.
c. Seeking recognition- attempting to call attention to one’s self by excessive
talking, extreme ideas, boasting, boisterousness.
d. Special pleading- introducing or supporting ideas related to one’s own
philosophies beyond reason, attempting to speak for the “grassroots.”
e. Withdrawing- acting indifferent or passive, resorting to excessive formality,
doodling, whispering to others.
f. Dominating- trying to assert authority in manipulating the group or certain
members of it by pulling the rank.
• Communication structure – verbal, non-verbal, one way, two way,

multidirectional
- refers to the process of transferring and sharing messages and learning using
symbols, lie words, movements, and gestures, and sounds.
– Encompasses who interacts with whom about what and this interaction may
be verbal or non-verbal
– Communication networks – top-down, bottom-up
– Important to consider people who dominate discussions, who communicate
a contradictory message, who distort communication which creates conflict
and tension, who control the form and content of communication to gain or
maintain their power in the group
Example:
a. Maypole- the leader, is the central figure, and communication occurs from
leader to members or from member to leader.
b. Round Robin- members take responsibility for communicating according
to what is being said in the group.
c. Hot Seat- there is an extended back and forth exchange between the leader
and a member as the other members watch.
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• Affection Structure
– Evident in the process of interaction (the process of acting and reacting):

some people are drawn to each other and develop liking each other. In
contrast, others are repulsed and develop a dislike for each other.
– Natural Attraction – can result from having similar or complementary qualities
and values, positive feelings out of some previous relationships with similar
persons.
– Unconscious needs of members – include unfulfilled love from a parent
(figure), sibling conflict, competition or rivalry, and other typologies of
transference.
Patterns of Interpersonal Relations
o Pairs – dyads, mutual friendships, courtship pairs, pairs of enemies

o Triads – mediator and 2 rivals; coalition and one; three-person alliance,
harmonious threesome
o Foursome – 2 pairs; 3 and 1, 4-person alliance
o Isolates – people who hang on the fringes of the group with little acceptance
from anyone
o Sociometry or sociogram – techniques for studying the affective relations
among group members.
▪ Members are asked who they like and dislike or more specifically,
who they would like to be with (eat with, work with, sit with, etc.)
▪ Response from this technique provides a picture of the group’s
informal structure, its cliques, loyalties, and leadership
• Power structure
– In group functioning, some form of power or influence facilitates the group’s

organization, its control and goal attainment
– Power is not a negative factor but depending on how it is used:

o May create or cause adverse effects on human interaction
o May enhance or promote positive and meaningful human interaction
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Types of Power
1. Legitimate Power – is that based on an individual job position within the

organization (e.g., status and skills)
2. Reward Power – is based on one’s ability to provide positive outcomes and
prevent negative outcomes.
3. Coercive Power – is that resulting from “the use of punishment and threat.”
4. Referent Power – is simply that derived from being well-liked by others.
5. Expert Power – is that based on having social information or expertise that
is valued by an organization.
B. Group Standards
• Norms for work and interactions.

• Standards apply to behaviors, attitudes, beliefs of all members.
• Members act and behave according to expectations of them from others.
• Leaders enforce norms.
• Standards define group purpose, boundaries, and statuses and roles
• Code of ethics
C. Group Cohesion
• Feeling of “belonging:”
• Indicates positive interactions of members.
• Shows consensus on goals and activities.
• Feeling of loyalty, enthusiasm, and devotion to a group.
• Individual needs met by the group as group goals are met.
• Component forces arise from the attractiveness of the group & attractiveness
of membership:
a. incentive properties of the group – goals, program, operations style,
prestige
D. Group Conformity
• The tendency of members to change opinion to conform to views of others.
• The tendency of the member to change the views of others.
• The tendency to define or redefine group boundaries to include or exclude
deviates or outsiders
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E. Group Conflict
• Inevitable.
• Caused by competition of values, statuses, roles.
• Some members raise or reduce tension in the group.
• Conflict can clear the air.
F. Group Leadership
• Interrelated with concepts of authority and power.
• The person who senses and articulates norms of the group.
• Enforcer of group norms.
• Why is the leader a leader?
Approaches to Leadership:
a. The Trait Approach– asserts that leaders are born, not made, and emerge
naturally instead of being trained. It has also been called the “great man” or
“great woman” theory of leadership. Ex. Charismatic leader
b. The Position Approach– defines leadership in terms of the authority of a

position. It focuses on studying the behavior, training, and personal background
of leaders in high-level positions.
c. The Leadership-Style Approach
Authoritarian - leaders have more absolute power; they set goals and
policies as well as major plans, dictate the activities of the members, are
the purveyor of rewards and punishments, and are the only ones who know
the succession of future steps in the group’s activities.
Democratic – seeks maximum involvement and participation from
members in all decisions affecting the group which brings about strong
cooperation
Laissez-faire - is characterized by minimum input or participation from the
leader; the members are left to function or struggle by themselves.
d. The Distributed-Functions Approach – disagrees with the “great man” or trait

theory of leadership and asserts that every member of a group will be a leader at
times by taking actions that serve group functions. The demands of leadership
are viewed as being specific to a group in a particular situation
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SOCIAL PROCESSES
Society is rooted in interactions. Interaction is the basic ingredient of social

relationships. Without interaction, there would be no social life.
As a socio-cultural being, man lives in society. Society is a network of social

relationships. Men cannot live in isolation. They always live in groups.
Man plays many roles in society. He also performs many and varied social activities
as per his nature, needs, and roles. Interaction refers to an action done in response
to another action.
Society is rooted in interactions. Without interaction, there would be no social life.
Social Processes
- refers to the recurrent and patterned interactions or responses of individuals
to one another, which have attained stability. It is a repetitive form of social
behavior that is commonly found in social life.
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- Social processes refer to any mutual interaction experienced by an

individual or a group on each other in their attempt to solve problems and
to achieve their desired goals.
Horton & Hunt (1968)

- Social processes consist of repetitive forms of behavior that are commonly
found in social life.
Cole (1968)
- It also refers to a consistent pattern of social interaction that can be
identified in society.
Elements of Social Process
Social Process has the following essential elements:
(i) Sequence of events

(ii) Repetition of events
(iii) Relationship between events
(iv) Continuity of events
(v) Special Social results
CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL PROCESS
Based on Formation:
o Universal or basic processes
A. Competition
- The most important fundamental dissociative social process is competitive.
It is a contest among individuals or groups to acquire something which has
limited supply or insufficient in quantity and not easily available. It is
characterized by non-co-operation. Here the competitors focus their
attention on the goal or the reward they are struggling to achieve but not on
themselves. They try to achieve the goal by methods other than force or
fraud.
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Features of Competition:
 (1) Universal Process:

It is the most universal social process present in all societies, whether
civilized or uncivilized, rural or urban, traditional or modern in all periods of
history and among all classes of people like doctors, engineers, workers,
students, and farmers, etc.
 (2) Continuous Process:

Competition is a continuous process as it never comes to an end. If one
process of competition ends, then another process of competition stands there.
The desire for status, power, and wealth in an ever-increasing degree makes
competition a continuous process.
 (3) Unconscious Process:

The individuals or the groups who are involved in the process of competition
do not bother about themselves. Still, they are primarily concerned with the
achievement of goals or rewards. Hence competition takes place on an
unconscious level.
 (4) Impersonal Process:

Those who take part in the competition do not know one another at all. They
do not compete on a personal level. They focus their attention on the goal or
reward which they are trying to achieve. They do not have any contact
whatsoever. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Struggle is personal
competition.”
 (5) Always governed by norms:

Nowhere competition is unregulated. It is always and everywhere governed
by norms. Competitors are expected to use fair means to achieve success.
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Forms of Competition:
 (i) Political Competition – e.g., political parties

 (ii) Social Competition – e.g., individual talents, capacity, ability
 (iii) Economic Competition - e.g., job, salaries, promotions
 (iv) Cultural Competition – e.g., superiority over other cultures
 (v) Racial Competition – e.g., supremacy over other races
B. Conflict
- It is a competition in its more hostile and personal forms. It is a process of seeking

to obtain rewards by eliminating or weakening competitors. It is seen that conflict
makes an individual or group try to frustrate the effort of another individual or group
who are seeking the same object. It implies a struggle or fights among individuals or
groups for a particular purpose or several purposes.
Features of Conflict:
 Universal process – found in all societies in all periods.

 Conscious process – awareness of the effects
 Personal process – they know each other
 Intermittent process – constant, irregular
 Conflict is based on violence - Sometimes, conflict takes the form of violence.
o Derived social processes

A. Accommodation
– adjustment of hostile individuals or groups
– process of establishing temporary agreements, compromises, or
negotiations among group members to be able to work for a period
without friction.
– The actual act of working together among individuals or groups despite
differences or latent hostility.
– The end of conflict directs the way for accommodation
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Different forms of accommodation:
▪ Yielding to Coercion - Most of hostile individuals or groups yield to

physical or power exhibit the spirit of accommodation to end a
conflict.
For example-the weaker party submits to the stronger one out of

fear and the stronger party can pressurize the weaker party by its
superior strength
▪ Compromise - This is based on the principle of giving and take.

Here the involved parties must make some sacrifices voluntarily for
each other.
▪ Tolerance - a method of accommodation in which two or more

contesting parties tolerate each other with sympathy and try to
understand the viewpoint of others. They patiently bear the
differences that exist between them.
▪ Arbitration - When the hostile individuals or groups have equal

strength and are determined to stick to their viewpoint, there is an
intervention of the third party, who acts as their arbitrator or
mediator
B. Assimilation
– Is when people, usually minorities, assume the dominant culture

habits over time.
– Is the merging of cultural traits from previously distinct cultural
groups.
– It is a process whereby persons and groups acquire the culture of
other groups in which they come to live, by adopting its attitudes
and values, its patterns of thinking and behaving, in short, its way of
life. It is more permanent than accommodation.
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C. Amalgamation
– biological interbreeding of two peoples of distinct

physical appearance until became one stock (Horton & Hunt,
1984)
– When individuals or groups come into close contact with one
another, amalgamation takes place.
– Biological fusion (e.g. FilAm, Japino)
–
D. Acculturation
– a process and effect of significant changes through mutual
borrowings and adaptations by people or different cultures in
contract w/ some continuity (Reynolds,1971)
– process of acquiring the culture of another ethnic group
(Shibutani & Kwan,1965)
Based on Unity or Opposition:

o Conjunctive social processes
- refers to a group’s effort to maintain and practice consensus, cooperation,
unification, and integration in the group.
A. Cooperation
- Co-operation is the most fundamental associative social process. The
term “Co-operation” has been derived from two Latin words: ‘Co’ means
‘together’ and ‘Operari’ meaning ‘to work.’ Hence cooperation means
working together or joint activity for the achievement of common goals or
goals.
- Sharing the responsibility or the act of working together to achieve a
common goal or vision.
- It is a social process where people work together to achieve a group’s
common objectives and share some benefits from it.
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Cooperation can be classified into three major types:

Informal Cooperation- this is a casual give-and-take relationship. It
is commonly known in primary groups or in Gemeinschaft societies.
Example:
Boholanos Dayong (cooperation in times of death and gala during
wedding ceremonies)
Bayanihan (cooperation in times of need).
Formal Cooperation
- This type sets formal goals and objectives in social interaction.
Working together as a team.
Symbiotic Cooperation
- type of cooperation where one or two members of society live
together harmoniously and support one another for mutual interest.
Functions of Cooperation
– It creates social cohesion and integration among the members of the
group.
– It contributes to social stability and order.
– Its posters consensus and compromise in various social, economic, and
political issues.
o Disjunctive social processes

- refers to a process where the members’ efforts are directed towards
disunity, disintegration, opposition, and disorganization.
- These are processes in which people have pushed farther apart and
become less solidarity.
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BASIC TYPES OF SYSTEMS
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What is Microsystem?
- This refers to an individual. Part of social work practice which focuses on

the individual’s needs, problems, & strength to enhance his/her social
functioning.
What is a mezzo system?
- This refers to any small group, including family, workgroup, and other social
groups.
What is a macro system?

- This refers to systems larger than small groups.
• Macro Orientation involves focusing on the social, political, and economic

conditions and policies that affect people’s overall access to resources and quality
of life.
• Macro practice in social work, then, involves striving to improve the social and
economic situation in which people live.
MICRO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
Micro-Level Social Work is what is often considered the most “traditional” type of social
work. It is rooted in the longstanding history of the profession, micro-social work is
defined as working closely with individuals, families, and small groups to counsel and
provide one-on-one support as clients navigate complex challenges and systems.
Clinical social work is generally considered a type of micro social work, as it concerns
individualized work with clients in a therapeutic capacity; however, micro-social work
also includes non-clinical social work services, such as helping clients access
important resources.
Examples of micro social work include but are not limited to, the following:
• A clinical social worker who supports clients through a combination of

therapeutic modalities in an outpatient mental health care setting. This social
worker might see individuals and/or work with clients in small group therapy
settings.
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• A military social worker who helps soldiers and veterans cope with potentially
traumatic experiences during their job, and who may also provide counseling
and support to families of soldiers and veterans. Military social workers may also
assist their clients in applying for or accessing benefits exclusively available to
them, such as government-funded educational or health care benefits.
• A medical social worker who works with patients and their families in a hospital
setting to help them apply for health insurance benefits and cope with the life
changes and trauma that can occur from chronic or acute injuries and illness.
• A school social worker who counsels students experiencing anxiety, depression,

bullying, and other social challenges, or family issues that are impacting their
mental and physical health. School social workers may also work closely with
students’ families.
Jobs that are considered micro social work include:
• City social services caseworker

• Crime victim advocate
• Family therapist
• School counselor
• Substance abuse counselor
Most jobs that involve micro social work require education at the master’s level because
those jobs are considered clinical work.
MEZZO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
Mezzo-Level Social Work is like micro social work in that it still seeks to directly support
people experiencing a variety of challenges, from mental/emotional and physical health
issues to socioeconomic, familial, or cultural hardships. In fact, both social workers who
work at the micro-level and those who work at the mezzo level can work closely with
individuals or groups of clients at a time.
However, unlike micro social work, mezzo social work is primarily focused on helping
vulnerable populations at the large group, organizational, and small community levels.
A key part of mezzo social work is taking a step back and identifying factors negatively
impacting the well-being of the constituents within either
1) an organization, such as a business, non-profit, or medical center, or
2) within a small community, such as the students and family within a school district or
an inner-city neighborhood in need of better community health or literacy programs.
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Examples of mezzo social work include but are not limited to, the following:
• A social worker who develops and implements an on-site behavioral health

program for a corporation whose employees are experiencing difficulties or
lowered morale due to organizational changes or other factors.
• A health care social worker at a community health center who works with the
center’s staff and/or local government agencies to develop a nutrition program
that is implemented across one or more neighborhoods.
• A substance abuse social worker who designs and implements a harm reduction-
focused needle exchange program and/or a drug prevention and counseling
program for a local community.
• A social worker who works at a women’s advocacy center and who designs a
program aimed at encouraging and supporting girls and young women in
participating in social justice politics at the grassroots level.
• A geriatric social worker who seeks to address age discrimination in a hospital

setting by creating a training program for health care providers that helps them
to engage more effectively with elderly patients and their families.
Jobs that are considered mezzo social work include:
• Business social worker

• Community service manager
• Group therapist
• Parenthood educator
• Support group counselor
As with macro social work, whether you can obtain a job with a BSW depends on the
employer and the population with which you work. Some therapist positions, for
example, are clinical and require a license, which necessitates a master’s degree and
experience in the field. Other positions, such as a community service manager, typically
require a BSW.
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MACRO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
Macro-Level Social Work involves taking a broad view of the systemic causes of social
injustice at the large-scale community, state, national, and international levels, and
developing interventions that address these systemic causes. In this way, it is distinct
from both micro and mezzo social work. While micro (and at times mezzo) social work
focuses on engaging with individuals and groups in a therapeutic capacity, macro social
work is founded upon helping large groups of people indirectly (but in no less impactful
ways) through research, political advocacy, and far-reaching programs that address
prevalent social problems.
Examples of macro social work include but are not limited to:
• A social work scholar who studies the factors contributing to substance abuse
amongst youth, and who publishes his or her findings in a scholarly journal.
Social work practitioners can then use this scholar’s insights to inform their
development of effective interventions, which is known as an evidence-based
practice.
• A political, the social worker who works with government agencies and non-profit
organizations to design and implement targeted campaigns against large-scale
social issues such as socioeconomic inequalities, gender or racial discrimination,
or injustices in the criminal justice system.
• A social worker who co-founded and/or manages a non-profit organization aimed

at smoking prevention and cessation across all demographics. This social worker
may apply for federal or state government grants to conduct research on smoking
behaviors or develop a state-wide anti-smoking campaign.
• An international justice social worker who works for a non-profit that supports
women’s rights to reproductive health care, education, and political
empowerment. This social worker may design and oversee the implementation
of programs that fund female entrepreneurs in economically vulnerable
countries, or which build education centers or domestic violence shelters for girls
and women.
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Jobs that are considered macro social work include:
• Community organizer
• Lobbyist
• Professor of social policy
• Program developer
• Researcher
There are jobs in macro social work that can be acquired with a Bachelor of Social Work
(BSW) degree. Still, others, like a professor or most lobbyist positions, require education
beyond the bachelor’s level.
INTEGRATING MICRO, MEZZO AND MACRO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
While micro, mezzo, and macro social work can be considered distinct sub-disciplines
of social work, it is important to keep in mind that social workers can integrate two or
more of these types of social work in their careers.
For example, a school social worker whose responsibilities are primarily at the micro-
level may also engage in educational programming at the school or school district level
(ex. drug prevention programs, anti-bullying campaigns, or reproductive health
seminars), which qualifies as mezzo-level social work.
Similarly, a social work researcher who may teach and conduct research at a university
may also maintain a small private practice wherein he or she provides individual therapy
to a few clients; in this case, this social worker’s career combines macro and micro
social work.
Also, it is not unusual for social workers to shift from primarily one type of social work to
another throughout their career. For instance, a social worker who devotes several
years to working individually with clients in the criminal justice system may then move
to a non-profit organization that seeks to address disparities in the criminal justice
system or develops programs that assist recently released inmates in re-integrating into
society.
As the examples mentioned above illustrate, social work is a very complex, dynamic,
and interdisciplinary profession that supports human society and well-being at every
level, from the individual to the international, and in a diversity of contexts.
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SOCIAL FORCES AFFECTING THE ENVIRONMENT
• POLITICAL forces - the current government structure, laws to which people are
subject, & the overall distribution of power among the population.
• ECONOMIC forces . . . Include available resources, how they are distributed, and
how they are spent.
• ENVIRONMENTAL forces . . . This is concerned with the status of the

environment because of the exploding population and endless industrialization.
• IDEOLOGICAL forces . . . Involve the values and beliefs to which people in the
social environment adhere to.
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Cengage Learning

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Activity 1. Now that you know the essential concepts in the study of the different types,
structures, processes (basic and derived), and organizational behavior of social
groups & the social forces affecting micro, mezzo, and macro context. Let us try
to check your understanding of these concepts. In the space provided, write the
term/s or concept/s being asked in the following statements:
________________1. This refers to a social system in which most relationships are

personal or traditional. It is a community of intimate, private, and exclusive living and familism.
________________2. A form of organization is also called social organizations. They are

deliberately formed, and their purpose and objectives are explicitly defined. Their goals are clearly
stated, and the division of labor is based on the member’s ability to merit.
________________3. A leadership style approach in which the leaders have more absolute
power; they set goals and policies as well as major plans, dictate the activities of the members,
are the purveyor of rewards and punishments and are the only ones who know the succession of
future steps in the group’s activities.
________________4. An approach to leadership which asserts that leaders are born, not made,
and emerge naturally instead of being trained. It has also been called the “great man” or “great
woman” theory of leadership.
________________5. One type of functional role which refers to the behaviors if members that
are directed towards helping the group does it work and achieves its goal.
________________6. An example of a building or maintenance role which refers to the behaviors

if members that are directed towards helping the group does it work and achieves its goal.
________________7. An example of a task role which involves showing or clarifying the

relationship among various ideas, trying to pull ideas and suggestion together.
________________8. This type of group is formed based on the assumption that the performance
of certain service is more efficient to the clients are treated as groups rather than as individuals.
________________9. According to social ties, this is the fundamental unit of human society.
Long-lasting, intimate, personal, continuous face-to-face relationships.
________________10. An example of a personal role which involves introducing or supporting

ideas related to one’s own philosophies beyond reason, attempting to speak for the “grassroots.”
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Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms and concepts in the study of the
different types, structures, processes (basic and derived), and organizational
behavior of social groups & the social forces affecting micro, mezzo and macro
context, what also matters is you should also be able to explain or articulate its
inter-relationships. Now, I will require you to explain your answers to the following
1. Among the four forms of accommodation, what form do you think is the most
effective? Why?
2. Give the importance of Competition in the formation of the social process.
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different types, structures, processes (basic and derived), and organizational
behavior of social groups & the social forces affecting micro, mezzo and macro
context and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free to write
your arguments or lessons learned below.
As an aspiring Social Worker, on the three types of practices in Social Work, state the job that
you want to do in each practice and what interventions you would like to do:
1. Micro Social Work practice
2. Mezzo Social Work practice
3. Macro Social Work practice
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Group Social Group Social Processes Microsystem

Mezzo system Macrosystem Micro SW Practice Mezzo SW Practice
Macro SW practice Primary Group Secondary Group Conformity
Assimilation Amalgamation Acculturation Accommodation
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ULO-b. Analyze the different contemporary and emerging social work
practice trends and issues in working with children, families, social
groups, and communities.
the following terms below. You are also required to refer to the previous definitions found
in the ULO a section.
Metalanguage
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE – takes place when the victim and the perpetrator are either
related to each other by blood or affinity, or live in the same household
SUBSTANCE ABUSE- refers to the continued use of substances that affect the way a
user function physically and socially. It results in social or occupational impairment.
ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR- Being able to express ourselves clearly, without becoming

aggressive
AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR – when we are aggressive, we stand up for our personal

rights and express our thoughts and feelings. Still, we do this in ways that are usually not
helpful and almost always step on the personal rights of others.
COMMUNITY PROBLEMS- Problems that arise in any part of a community and come
from any aspect of community life.
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Essential Knowledge
In this section, we must study, understand, and analyze the different contemporary and
emerging social work practice trends and issues in working with children, families, social
groups, and communities. You must be knowledgeable on this topic so you will know
how to handle this type of issue and problems in the future.
CHALLENGES AND THREATS TO FILIPINO FAMILIES

By: Grace M. Mabasa
WHAT DO YOU THINK ARE THE CURRENT PROBLEMS OF FILIPINO FAMILIES?
Filipino Families today are more exposed to a growing number of different life-threatening
problems than any other generation has ever been. The forces that undermine family
stability are likened to “D SPEARS” that may kill and wound the goals and dreams of
every family. These threats and risks can undermine the safety, health, well-being, and
future of Filipino families.
D SPEARS can threaten families. These threats are the following:
• Disintegration of family
• Substance abuse
• Parental absenteeism
• Economic difficulties
• Absence of family goals and deteriorating values
• Rising incidence of early sexual involvement and teenage pregnancies
• The strong negative influence of media on the family
❖ DISINTEGRATION OF FAMILY (Increasing fragility of marriage.)
Among the many factors which contribute to the fragility of urban Filipino families is the
loosening control of the young. Today young people are more independent and are
allowed greater freedom. The increased mobility of young people for recreation and
leisure purposes has made it difficult for parents to monitor them.
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❖ DELINQUENCY AMONG ADOLESCENTS
Juvenile Delinquency- can be explained by the failure of social control which is one
of the responsibilities of the family
❖ DOMESTIC VIOLENCE- PHYSICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND VERBAL ABUSE
Domestic Violence – takes place when the victim and the perpetrator are either related
to each other by blood or affinity, or live in the same household
Types of Domestic Violence

•Rape
•Incest
•Spouse Battering
•Sexual harassment
•Physical, verbal, psychological and economic abuse
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❖ SUBSTANCE ABUSE
Substance Abuse- refers to the continued use of substances that affect the way a user
function physically and socially. It results in social or occupational impairment.
The dangers of drug abuse

Once a person starts using drugs and succumbs to repeated use, it becomes hard and
painful to quit on his or her own volition. The most frightening effect of drug use is
dependence.
Why do children and young adults use drugs?

The most common reason given by children and young adults is that these prohibited
drugs are relatively easy to get. Pushers roam neighborhoods where children could be
easily lured and victimized.
Other reasons which are more serious and should be given immediate attention
are:
1. Abusive parents
2. Family problems
3. Peer pressure
4. insecurity
5. The feeling that parents have given up on the child
6. Accessibility or visibility of inhalant in the home, such as rugby of thinner.
Parents should maintain a mix of firmness and kindness in paying attention to their
children. They should be able to detect the slightest changes in their kids. Cold or
headache medicine should be kept away from children.
Ways to help children say, “NO TO DRUGS.”

1. Educate about drugs
2. Listen intently to your children
3. Make them feel good about themselves
4. Never use put-down words
5. Praise them for their efforts & accomplishments
6. Do not dwell on failures
7. Be a model for your kids by being vice-free
8. Support your kids especially when they are faced with peer pressure
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When your children are into drugs, the following are advisable:
1. Calm down. Berating your child only makes the problem worse
2. Go beyond telling your child to stop drugs now.
3. Think together with your child and ask why. Listen and try to understand your child’s
reasons for taking drugs.
4. Make the issue a family matter.
5. Encourage your child to get help.
6. Go through family counseling
7. Contact a medical specialist and your nearest rehabilitation center.
❖ PARENTAL ABSENTEEISM
How many parents in your community are working abroad? How many among them are
planning to live their families for greener pasture?
Today, the family is broken because of the diminishing opportunities for them to be one.
The real meaning of family has been distorted. The family is equated with material
possessions. Many parents leave their young children to seek better economic
opportunities. Many parents replace their presence with the latest gadgets. The absence
of parents destroys solidarity in the family.
❖ ECONOMIC DIFFICULTIES
Although it has been acknowledged that money is not the most important thing in the
family, we must admit that economic difficulties are one of the biggest challenges being
faced by many families today. As a result of this, children are malnourished, cannot go to
school, and instead work to augment family income at a very young age. Children and
young people in the streets are exposed to all kinds of hazards (addiction, exposure to
toxic substances, and pollution) with a negative impact on their health and overall
development.
❖ ABSENCE OF FAMILY GOALS AND DETERIORATING VALUES

Families who do not have goals to live in a day to day existence. The absence of values
and goals to guide family decisions and activities can cause members to lose sight of
what is truly worthwhile. Values are strong feelings or beliefs about issues, ideas, or things
that are considered important by the person.
Individuals and families have different values. It influences a person’s most important
decisions about friends, sexual relationships, family education, work, and money. Failure
of parents to recognize higher meaning and purpose of the family can lead to materialism,
instant gratification, and pleasure as life’s chief goals.
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❖ RISING INCIDENCE OF EARLY SEXUAL INVOLVEMENT AND TEENAGE

PREGNANCIES/MARRIAGES
Too Early Sexual Involvement

This refers to engaging in some form of sexual encounter or sexual intercourse at an early
age. Too early sexual involvement often leads to WASTED lives.
W eak self-image
A dolescent or teenage pregnancy
S exually transmitted infections
T een marriage
E motional wounds
D isrupted goals
❖ STRONG NEGATIVE INFLUENCE OF MEDIA
Media has a negative influence on the family, especially on the youth. Too much exposure
to violent crimes and sex in the media brings damage to the upbringing of children.
Because of media, the interpersonal relationship in the family seems to have been
neglected. Family ties that used to be very close are being threatened.
Media has become the babysitter, taking the place of busy parents.
THE FOLLOWING OVERCOMES FAMILY THREATS AND CHALLENGES

• O pen and honest communication between spouses and children should
always be encouraged
• V iolence or any form of abuse should not be tolerated
• E mpowerment of family members
• R elationship of family members must be strengthened
• C ommunication, relationship, decision- making and problem-solving skills of
family members should be developed and harnessed
• O utings or get–together with the family should be done regularly
• M edia exposures of the children should be closely monitored
• E conomic activities that contribute to family welfare should be ensured
• S pirituality of family members should be nurtured.
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WORKING IN GROUPS – DEALING WITH CHALLENGES

Published - 28 May 2019 | By Gavin Beever
Just as people are a group’s greatest asset, often a group’s greatest challenges are
people related. This article explores some suggestions that can help deal with
challenging situations when dealing with groups.
Assertive Communication
When helping a group deal with challenges, assertive communication is often required.
As well as listening effectively, you will need to be able to express your own feelings and
ideas in a non-threatening way for successful two-way communication within groups.
When things are difficult in groups, all group members need to be encouraged to
communicate well and not in ways that will promote conflict.
Being able to express ourselves clearly, without becoming aggressive, is called assertive
behavior.
“If there is a problem in a group, it will show. A key step is to acknowledge there is a
problem in the first place and not avoid it. By first acknowledging there is a problem, you
can then help a group discuss what behaviors are being projected around the problem.
Once they have confidence in you and themselves, they can then shift to working out a
solution and agreeing on who needs to do what.”
Assertive communication is often required to get a group to acknowledge there is a

problem and to then facilitate them in addressing it. One important aspect of
assertiveness is the relationship between self-assertion and self-esteem.
Low self-esteem can lead to aggressive or submissive (passive) behaviors. At the same
time, high self-esteem means people are often more comfortable with themselves and
can have effective assertive behavior.
A facilitator can help people feel more comfortable by demonstrating and encouraging
assertive behaviors and helping build self-esteem in individual group members. They can
also reflect on their own self-esteem when working with a group and the influence this
may be having on how they deal with the challenges that may arise in their role.
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Aggressive Behaviour – when we are aggressive, we stand up for our personal rights
and express our thoughts and feelings. Still, we do this in ways that are usually not helpful
and almost always step on the personal rights of others.
Examples of this behavior are blaming, threatening, and fighting with others. We usually
act angrily, frustrated, or self- righteous. We often feel bitter, guilty, or lonely afterward.
This behavior is often about trying to dominate, protect, win, humiliate, and force other
people to lose. Aggressive behavior in groups must be dealt with quickly and effectively.
Dealing with Aggressive Behaviour
It is first important to acknowledge that if this occurs in a group, it can be very challenging
and confronting a facilitator, as well as for the group.
Helping people deal with aggressive behavior or anger, can begin with assisting group
members ‘own’ the feeling. For example, people stating assertively “I am angry right now”
is an appropriate response, rather than “you make me angry,” which is a blaming
statement and will only fuel aggression on “both sides.”
As a facilitator, pointing out and encouraging good use of language can help diffuse
things. For example, acknowledging people’s feelings, “I can see that you are very angry”
helps. If you ignore or do not encourage acknowledgment of their feelings and their
cause, they are likely to intensify, and conflict is likely to be the end result.
All group members need to realize that aggression in groups can be very disruptive and
damaging to group processes, relationships, and harmony. They all need to realize that
effectively dealing with aggressive behavior, if it occurs, is very important to the group
and an individual success.
If people are feeling upset, it is good if group members or you as the facilitator, help others
see that they know how they are feeling and encourage them to use language that helps,
before things escalate into anger. For instance, you might say for them, or they might
say, “I feel very upset right now, and I don’t think I can talk to you in this state.” Or you
might say, “Others are getting upset now as well, and to proceed is not going to be
effective. We all need to take some time out now or consider another way forward. Right
now, this isn’t working and is not going to get us to where we all would like to go.”
When people with opposing points of view are encouraged to calm down and talk
rationally, then at that point, you may ask the instigator what issue has upset them. At
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that point, you could also ask what the other person or people need, want, or expect going
forward. This will give some action steps while being careful not to reignite things.
If relationships are breaking down, they need to be renegotiated in terms of how the group
is to function, regardless of the issues at hand that may have triggered things. At this
point, it may be important to separate out the relationships from the issues and make
relationship preservation the primary outcome. If misunderstandings have occurred, they
need to be acknowledged and dealt with. Compromise and effective negotiation skills
are important in this situation, click here for further information.
Depending upon the situation and how important the issue and relationship preservation
is, it may come to a point where a facilitator needs to organize for some professional
mediation to “save” the situation.
If things have gone too far and an effective resolution is not coming easily, it is good to
acknowledge regret. If appropriate, get parties to apologize and tell each other person
what they have learned from the experience. It may be at the point where a person or
people are no longer able to be effective group members, and it is better if they are to
leave.
We behave passively when we do what we are told, regardless of how we feel about it.
When we act passively, we often feel helpless, anxious, resentful, and disappointed with
ourselves. The goal of passivity is usually to please others and to avoid conflict or
rejection.
A facilitator needs to recognize such behaviors and use tactics to encourage and enable
equal contribution.
Characteristics of Assertive Behaviour
Assertiveness is a communication technique designed to demonstrate respect towards

oneself and others and to allow the expression of a full range of behaviors. Assertiveness
is self-expression through which one stands up for one’s own basic human rights, without
violating the basic human rights of others. It is an open, honest, direct, and appropriate
expression of what a person thinks feels and needs.
Assertiveness is one aspect of communication. Being assertive and self-directed in a

situation means knowing what you want and communicating it directly and clearly without
putting others down.
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Six Important Qualities Needed to be Assertive
• Self-awareness – Knowledge of your own goals and behavior and the reasons for
valuing them.
• Self-acceptance – Positive self-regard in the face of your natural human
weaknesses and mistakes.
• Honesty – Congruent and truthful verbal and non-verbal expression of thoughts,
feelings, and intentions.
• Empathy – Understanding, and acceptance of other’s experiences and feelings as
valid from their points of view.
• Responsibility – Assuming ownership of your feelings, desires, needs, and
expectations.
• Mutuality – Accepting another person as equal and demonstrating a willingness to
negotiate issues from a win-win stance.
Tips for Enhancing Self-Esteem
This list provides specific ways to inspire motivation and enhance self-esteem. At first
glance, some of the suggestions may seem trite. However, if they are used consistently,
they will have a positive impact on motivation.
• Praise the specific task or job.

• Give special assignments or projects.
• Actively listen.
• Write down other people’s ideas.
• Take ideas seriously.
• Accept other’s opinions.
• Accept differences in others.
• Recognize feelings.
• Express feelings.
• Give tangible rewards.
• Recognize important events in other’s lives.
• Point out the good consequences of another’s actions.
• Support other’s actions.
• Ask for opinions on how to solve problems.
• Delegate.
• Ask for help.
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• Share experiences.
• Admit when you are wrong.
• Say, “You are right.”
• Repeat compliments from others.
• Show constructive concern about performance problems.
• Smile ask about other’s interests.
• Inquire with empathy about someone’s family or other non-group problems.
• Provide a new piece of equipment.
• Ask a person to lead the whole meeting or part of it.
• Give a “teaching” assignment.
• Use people’s names.
• Establish and keep follow-up dates.
• Share information.
• Explain any directions fully.
• Self Esteem and Dealing with Criticism
Being aware of how group members deal with real or perceived criticism is important
when working with groups. People’s reaction to real or perceived criticism is a key
challenge when dealing with groups, and different people will react differently. Also, they
will react differently depending on the source of the criticism. People tend to respond in
five basic ways:
Accept the criticism – when criticism is realistic, your most powerful and assertive
response may be a simple acceptance of the criticism. An acceptance response is not
apologetic, does not defend, and should not put yourself down.
Disagree with the criticism – often criticism does not fit, or the criticism is based on
false information. If this is the case, it is important to NOT to accept the criticism but to
simply disagree. Sometimes, however, we have difficulty in disagreeing with criticism,
because many people equate disagreeing with attacking another person or being
argumentative.
Set limits – setting limits involves teaching another person how we expect to be treated.
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For example:
• Criticism
• Disagreement and self-affirmation
• You spend too much time on your work.
• I cannot accept that. I feel that I am doing something important to me.
• You are selfish.
• I disagree. I am just trying to take care of myself.
• You are overly concerned.
• No. I feel I devote my full attention only to issues that need that amount of concern.
• You are never organized.
• I find I am very organized with important activities.
By setting limits, we let another person know, “This is where I draw the line.” Setting limits
involves saying “no” to the external demands of other people when those demands go
against our internal needs. Common areas of limit setting concern time, privacy, energy,
and money. Another important feature of a limit setting is that I teach other people how to
treat me.
Fogging – Fogging is a response to criticism that does not say “yes” or “no”’. If I am
fogging, I briefly acknowledge that a person has criticized me and then quickly move to
another subject.
Basic expressions which may help you in this area are: “You may be right.” “I can see
how you might think that.” “Sometimes, I may be selfish.” “That may be true.”
Fogging is useful when criticism does not evoke a strong emotional reaction and is not
important.
Delaying – Criticism can take a person completely by surprise. You may then feel
confused, and you may not know what to say. A positive response to such a situation is
simply to indicate the confusion, surprise, or disappointment that the criticism creates. At
that moment, you do not respond to the content of the criticism. Rather, you might say,
“I’m really confused about that criticism. Let me think about it for a few minutes and get
back to you.”
Giving yourself permission not to respond immediately to criticism, does not contradict
the goal of being spontaneous.
Another spontaneous reaction maybe, “I don’t know how to respond to that. Let me
consider it and get back to you.
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Difficult Behaviors and Dealing with Conflict
Being able to recognize difficult behaviors and managing them effectively is one of the
best ways to reduce conflict in a group.
The person who is exhibiting the difficult behavior may be trying to be helpful from their
perspective and get across what they consider to be useful input. It may only be difficult
for you as the facilitator, or only some of the group and not the rest of the group.
Seven Basic Rules for Dealing with People, When They Become Difficult
These are some guidelines you can use to develop a plan of action:
• Remember that we are all difficult people to someone at some point in time, so we should
monitor our own behavior, make changes if necessary.
• Acknowledge that while some people are deliberately difficult, others have no deliberate
intent. So, keep cool and professional and remember that they too may welcome a
chance to change.
• Work always towards creating a win-win situation, in which there are gains for both sides
if possible. Conflict can often be made to pay dividends in the long-term.
• Remember that we all have choices. We can evade, avoid, turn aggressive, and suffer
the energy drains and frustrations inherent in ‘difficult people’ problems, or we can act
constructively to create productive win-win outcomes.
• Never take the easy option of saying, “If you can’t beat them, better join them.” You are
likely to lose out in the end.
• Analyze your vulnerability. Try to understand why difficulties are arising. Be honest with
yourself.
• Plan your own coping strategies and strategies to use with the group. Be positive. Do
not continue on a path of frustration and anger; that’s the unproductive way. Remember,
if you cannot be there for yourself, you can’t be there for others.
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Some Group Member Profiles to Be Aware Of:
These are generalizations about challenging group members who may fit with one or
more of them. If you are having trouble with some group members, the list below can
help you identify what sort of people you may be dealing with and some thoughts on
coping strategies. The list of profiles can be depressing to go over. Still, thankfully in
most groups, these profiles do not appear that often or in multiple numbers at once.
Schemers or Under miners – these people are the plotters, who may not be upfront
about things, but are ready to put a knife in the back or a spanner in the works. For
whatever motive, whether for malice or just for fun, they are out to sabotage you, the
group, or group members.
Flatterers – these people will pat people on the back, make them feel wonderful, praise
them to the skies. But somehow, when support is really needed, all the good feeling tends
to evaporate, and they are not there for people.
Gossips – these people know all the scandal, and they have advance news of everything
that is going to happen. Usually, though, all their news is bad, and their rumors can be
malicious.
Procrastinators – these people spend more time avoiding work and inventing reasons
why they are not getting a job completed. They always seem overloaded, or just busy
somewhere else.
Pessimists – these people are the spreaders of doom and gloom, ever ready with
reasons why the schemes or ideas can never work. They can see a flaw in every plan, a
dark cloud in every silver lining.
Exhibitionists – these people love to boast about their know-how and wisdom, which
somehow always seems to be superior to yours or others in the group. They talk loudly
about what they will do, but does it ever get done?
Time bombs – these people are the emotional ones, ticking like a time bomb on a short
fuse, liable to erupt at any time. Every issue is a dramatic one. They deal in pressure
and emotional blackmail.
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Parents – these people are the father and mother figures, just like over-critical parents
from childhood. They can make us feel guilty as easily as they can make us feel
inadequate. All for our own good.
Wafflers – you know the sort of person who prattles and waffles and talks around in
circles and paints word pictures and explores every possible blind alley until you think
they are never going to get to the point. You and fellow group members then try not to
ask any more questions in the hope that they will stop and not waste any more time.
Control freaks – these people can be very difficult to handle. They like to attend
delegations and negotiate on their own. Control freaks limit the flow of information to
individuals so that they, and only they, have all the information.
Managing Conflict
When we differ with someone about the ideas and goals that we want to pursue, don’t
agree on priorities or issues and outcomes, or how to allocate resources such as time,
labor, and money; there is the potential for conflict. If handled well, this potential conflict
can have positive results. If handled poorly, the outcomes can be a disaster.
“Conflict is necessary because it tells us something really needs attention. It can actually
be an opportunity!”
It is Important to Identify the Levels of Conflict
Discomfort – perhaps nothing is said yet. Things do not feel right. It may be difficult to
identify what the problem is. You may feel uncomfortable about the situation but are not
quite sure why.
Incident – here, a short, sharp exchange occurs without any lasting internal reaction.
Something has occurred between you and someone else, or between group members,
that has left people upset, irritated, or with the result that was not wanted.
Misunderstandings – here, motives and facts are often confused or misperceived.

People’s thoughts keep frequently returning to the problem.
Tension – here, relationships are weighed down by negative attitudes and fixed opinions.
The way you feel about and regard the other person, significant changes for the worse.
The relationship is a source of constant worry and concern.
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Crisis – behavior is affected. Normal functioning becomes difficult. Extreme gestures or

actions are contemplated or executed. You may be dealing with a major event like a
possible rupture in a relationship, leaving a job, threats of violence.
Resistance- When responding to resistance from others, it is sometimes possible to buy

some time and not have things escalate to conflict. When faced with a statement that has
the potential to create conflict, ask open questions to reframe the resistance you are
getting. Explore the difficulties and then re-direct the discussion to focus on positive
possibilities.
Reframing- Sometimes, how we present or look at things can have a very different
outcome. The following shows some principles that you can use. On the left side are the
options we could use less often, and on the right side are the alternatives that we could
try to adopt more often.
Six Action Strategies for Dealing with Problem People
Think – think of one particularly difficult person you know with whom you tend to have
problems (Don’t worry. We all have a few.) Ask yourself what exactly are the problems?
What’s going wrong? Is there a pattern?
Feel – choose one recent situation in which you found it difficult to cope with this particular
person. Describe the situation to yourself. What affected you? Was it a look, a tone of
voice, body language, the words used? Be fair and objective.
Question – now ask yourself: How often does this happen with this particular person? Is
it happening only to me or are other people having problems too? Turning the situation
around, how do I think this person is viewing me? What might I be doing to affect or
perhaps provoke or encourage them in their behavior?
Choose – work on an action plan. Ask yourself: What can I realistically do to change the
situation? What options are open? Do I choose a win-win option or just work on getting
my own back? Am I prepared to carry through the option I select, and perhaps pay the
price of failure if necessary? Do I have a potential outcome that makes a win-win really
attractive to me?
Plan – begin your action plan by identifying the profiles of this particular person. Jot down
some notes on paper. Turn now to consider ways of dealing effectively with the problem.
What are the coping strategies for handling the profile or profiles this particular person
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shows? Again, be clear and specific. What is the outcome you want to achieve, what is
the win-win, this can then become the focus, rather than your reaction to their problem
behaviors?
Rehearse – having decided what strategies you will use, rehearse what you will say, and
the steps you are going to take. Practice before a mirror, maybe. Or role plays with a
friend or make a recording. Try to anticipate what may go wrong. Now, follow through
and re-evaluate!
Mapping Out Conflict to Help Plan
In the center circle, briefly define the issue, the problem area, or conflict in neutral terms
that all would agree on, and that does not invite a yes or no answer. For example,
“succession for the farming business” or “the future of the farm.” Do not write it as “should
Mary get the farm” because it is a closed question that invites a yes or a no response.
In the sectors of the large circle, write the name of each important person or group. Write
down each person’s or group’s needs. What motivates each person?
Also, write down each person’s or group’s concerns, fears, or anxieties. Hear in your own
mind, the language, or phrases that the person would say to us and write them down.
Be prepared to change the statement of the issue, as your understanding of it evolves

through discussion and be prepared to draw up other maps of related issues that arise.
Difficult Group Behaviors
There are several distinct types of 'difficult behavior,' which can occur in group situations.
This page examines some of the most common: Conflict, Non-Participation or
Withdrawal, Monopolizing, and Scapegoating.
The level of success of a group will, ultimately, depend on the level of cohesiveness within
the group - how well the group members interact and get along with each other.
By recognizing, understanding, and minimizing disruptive group, behaviors group work

becomes more effective and productive.
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Conflict
Disagreements within groups are common, and often a healthy way of building
cohesiveness. This is because if people disagree on a particular point, they will have the
opportunity to explain why and perhaps offer alternative solutions to the problems of the
group.
Conflict and further discussion can be a good way of reflecting and clarifying the aims
and objectives of the group. They can enhance understanding by taking in the viewpoints
of all group members. Conflict only becomes a problem when comments become
personal, towards an individual or sub-group of individuals, or discussion takes up too
much time to the detriment of the group’s purpose.
Strong group leadership and cohesiveness will enable disagreements to become positive
for the group and the individuals within it. The following example describes how to prevent
disagreement leading to more serious problems that may be disruptive to the group.
An individual in a group may challenge what is being said by the leader or by other group
members. This can lead to disruption within the group, affecting the progress and overall
emotional state of the other members. Any sort of challenge or disagreement needs to
be discussed openly, especially if there seems to be a valid reason for it. The person in
disagreement should be encouraged to express their views positively with the rest of the
group. If the situation cannot be resolved in the group setting, the leader or facilitator may
wish to discuss the issues which concern the individual away from the rest of the group.
Alternatively, the disagreement could be dealt with at a specific time and discussed by
the group, so that the group negotiates some form of resolution.
Conflict resolution in groups will depend, in part, on the leadership style and team roles
of the group members.
Everyone has the right not to participate in the group, although it is usually preferable for
all members to contribute.
Some members will prefer to observe rather than to participate vocally, and others may
wish to contribute but feel too shy, fear self-disclosure, or lack confidence. To overcome
a lack of self-confidence, where members wish to contribute but fear to do so, their non-
participation needs an encouraging, positive approach. However, they should not be
embarrassed or pressured to participate.
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Some group members who are withdrawn may just take longer to warm to the group
situation and to open. Over time, group members who were initially quite extroverted may
listen more and say less, while those who said little initially may begin to say more, which
will lead to more balanced contributions.
Monopolizing
There may be times when one person in the group has a lot more to say than others.
This may be the case, for example, if one member has a focused area of expertise that
needs to be shared with others. Monopolizing, however, refers to one or two members
dominating the group at the expense of other members' contributions.
Monopolizing can lead to resentment from others in the group, feeling that they do not
have the opportunity to make their points.
The leader or facilitator may reduce this problem by first acknowledging what the person
must contribute and then diverting the discussion to other people, asking their opinions,
and moving on. In situations that cannot be resolved in a group situation, the best strategy
may be to discuss the problem with the individual concerned, in a way that is sensitive
and positive and does not dampen their spirits and future contributions altogether.
Scapegoating
When things go wrong in a group situation, it is sometimes easy to direct blame at one or
more individuals within the group; this is known as 'scapegoating' and can be very
damaging for the individual concerned and also for the group as a whole.
The person may be rejected by the group and become a target for anger, frustration, and
ridicule by other members. Such behavior may lead that member to withdraw, especially
if they are unwilling or unable to defend themselves. Everybody makes mistakes, and we
all fail sometimes; scapegoating can be comparable to bullying and most detrimental to
the self-confidence of the victim.
If the group has failed because of one person, then a more appropriate way of handling
the situation would be for the person concerned to have a private discussion with the
group leader. Often the point of a group is to pull together and support each other – the
whole group may be to blame for assigning inappropriate tasks to an individual or not
providing adequate support.
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In cases of scapegoating, the group leader or facilitator could restructure the group into
sub-groups for a period, to reduce the effect of the whole group scapegoating one
individual. Interpersonal interactions may be structured differently in a smaller unit and
may help to rebuild the confidence of members. The restructuring may also alter the
dynamics within the group as a whole once it has been fully reformed at a later time.
Additional Problem Areas

Many other issues may arise within groups, ranging from general negativity to specific
problems such as irregular attendance, aggressive behavior, or arguments.
The coping strategies of the facilitator or leader will depend largely on the composition of
the characteristics of the group, e.g., their age, abilities, motivation, and emotional state.
Problems can often be resolved by:
Clear guidelines as to the 'rules' or ‘norms’ of the group. Many formal groups will
negotiate and agree on these rules at an early stage.
Positive feedback is given to individual contributions, both from the group leader and other
group members.
Where problems do arise, their cause needs to be clearly understood.
Overcoming problems within a group can improve the group's overall cohesiveness and
mutual trust.
ANALYZING COMMUNITY PROBLEMS
COMMUNITIES HAVE PROBLEMS, JUST LIKE PEOPLE
Problems are part of life. We all deal with individual problems, families have family issues,
and communities have community problems. Communities must come together to solve
their problems, just like families.
When communities try to solve problems, they start just like individuals do. They must
reflect and analyze the issue to help come to a solution. But, before discussing solutions,
problems must be identified.
So, after discussing a little bit about what problems look like, this section will explain what
analyzing community problems is about, why it can be helpful, and then how to do it.
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WHAT IS A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?
Problems can arise in any part of a community and come from any aspect of community
life. There's a long list of nominees, and you probably know some of the main contenders.
Can you name the leading problems in your community? Chances are you can at least
start the list.
Below are examples of community problems:
Example Community Problems: Adolescent pregnancy, access to clean drinking water,

child abuse and neglect, crime, domestic violence, drug use, pollution, mismanagement
of resources, lack of funding for schools and services, ethnic conflict, health disparities,
HIV/ AIDS, hunger, inadequate emergency services, inequality, jobs, lack of affordable
housing, poverty, transportation, violence, racism and police brutality.
WHAT OTHERS WOULD YOU ADD?

Rather than aim for a complete problem list, here are some criteria you may consider
when identifying community problems:
The problem occurs too frequently (frequency)

The problem has lasted for a while (duration)
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The problem affects many people (scope, or range)

The problem is disrupting to personal or community life, and possibly intense (severity)
The problem deprives people of legal or moral rights (equity)
The issue is perceived as a problem (perception)
This last criterion, perception, is an important one, and can also help indicate readiness
for addressing the issue within the community.
What is seen as a problem can vary from place to place and group to group in the same
community? Although there is no official definition of a community problem, the above
examples and criteria above should help you begin to name and analyze community
problems.
WHY SHOULD I ANALYZE A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?

Analyzing community problems is a way of thinking carefully about a problem or issue
before acting on a solution. It first involves identifying reasons a problem exists and then,
identifying possible solutions and an improvement plan.
Example: The downtown area of a community is declining. Stores are closing, and moving
out; no new stores are moving in. We want to revitalize that downtown. How should we
do it?
Our thinking here is simple:
We should start by analyzing why the decline is taking place, that is, why the problem is
occurring. Without knowing the causes, we cannot fix the problem. Jumping in and trying
to fix it without analysis can cause a bigger problem and waste resources.
An in-depth analysis will lead to better long-run solutions.
STARTING WITH AN ANALYSIS CAN HELP…
To better identify what the problem or issue is.
Kids gather on the street. Sometimes they drink, and sometimes, they get rowdy. What
is the problem here? The drinking, the rowdiness, the gathering itself. Or is it possible
that kids have nowhere else to go and few positive alternatives for engagement? Before
looking for solutions, you would want to clarify just what is the problem (or problems) here.
Unless you are clear, it is hard to move forward.
Problems are usually symptoms of something else. What is that something? We should
find out.
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To determine the barriers and resources associated with addressing the problem.
It is good practice and planning to anticipate barriers and obstacles before they might
arise. By doing so, you can mitigate them. Analyzing community problems can also help
you understand the resources you need. The better equipped you are with the right
resources and support, the higher your chances of success.
To develop the best action steps for addressing the problem.
Having a plan of action is always better than taking a few random shots at the problem.
If you know where you are going, you are more likely to get there.
Having a deeper understanding of a problem before you start trying to solve it helps you
cover all your bases. There is nothing worse for member involvement and morale than
beginning to work on a problem, and running up against lots of obstacles, especially when
they are avoidable.
When you take a little time to examine a problem first, you can anticipate some of these
obstacles before they come up and give yourself and your members better odds of coming
up with a successful solution.
WHEN SHOULD I ANALYZE A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?
Every community problem benefits from the analysis. The only possible exception is when
the problem is an immediate crisis that requires action at this very moment. And even
then, reviews should be conducted after to help plan for the next crisis.
However, there are conditions when an analysis is especially critical:
When the community problem is not defined clearly

When little is known about the community problem or its possible consequences
When you want to find causes that may improve the chance of successfully addressing
the problem
When people are jumping to conclusions and solutions much too soon
When you need to find collaborative partners to help act.
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HOW SHOULD I ANALYZE A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?

The ultimate goal is to understand the problem better and to deal with it more effectively,
so the method you choose should accomplish that goal.
We will offer some step-by-step guidelines here and go over a couple of specific ways to
determine the causes of the problem.
1. Justify the choice of the problem.

Apply the criteria we’ve listed above – frequency, duration, range, severity, equity,
perception – as well as asking yourself whether your organization or another can address
it effectively, to decide whether the problem is one that you should focus on.
Let’s take the problem we used as an example earlier: The percentage of overweight and
obese children in the community has been steadily increasing, and now approaches 25%.
Since we know that childhood obesity tends to lead to adult obesity and that obesity and
being overweight are linked to chronic conditions – diabetes, heart disease, stroke – this
is a problem that needs to be addressed now. Our organization has the will and the ability
to do it.
2. Frame the problem.
State the problem without implying a solution or blaming anyone, so that you can analyze
it without any assumptions and build consensus around whatever solution you arrive at.
One way is to state it in terms of a lack of positive behavior, condition, or other factors, or
the presence or size of negative behavior, condition, or other factors. There are too many
children in the community who are overweight or obese. The problem is particularly
serious among low-income families.
3. Identify whose behavior and/or what and how environmental factors need to
change for the problem to begin to be solved.
This can be as straightforward as individuals changing their behavior from smoking to not
smoking or as complex as persuading legislators to change laws and policies (e.g., non-
smoking ordinances) to change others’ behavior (smokers don’t smoke in buildings or
enclosed spaces used by the public) to benefit yet another group by changing the
environment (children are protected from secondhand smoke in public.)
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All, and particularly low-income, children should have the opportunity and the motivation
to eat more healthily and exercise more. Parents may need to change their children’s –
and perhaps their own – diets, and schools may need to adjust their lunch programs and
exercise schedules. In low-income neighborhoods, there needs to be greater access to
healthy food and more safe places for children to play or participate in sports, both
outdoors and indoors.
4. Analyze the root causes of the problem.
The real cause of a problem may not be immediately apparent. It may be a function of a
social or political system or may be rooted in behavior or situation that may at first glance
seem unrelated to it. To find the underlying cause, you may have to use one or more
analytical methods, including critical thinking and the “But Why?” technique.
Very briefly, the latter consists of stating the problem as you perceive it and asking, “But
why?” The next step is to answer that question as well as you can and then asking again,
“But why?” By continuing this process until you get an answer that can’t be reduced
further, you can often get to the underlying cause of the problem, which will tell you where
to direct your efforts to solve it.
The difference between recognizing a problem and finding its root cause is similar to the
difference between a doctor’s treating the symptoms of a disease and actually curing the
disease. Once a disease is understood well enough to cure, it is often also understood
well enough to prevent or eliminate. Similarly, once you understand the root causes of a
community problem, you may be able not only to solve it but to establish systems or
policies that prevent its return.
There are too many children in the community who are overweight or obese. The problem
is particularly serious among low-income families. (But why?)
Because many low-income children don’t eat a healthy diet and don’t exercise enough.
(But why?)
Because their parents, in many cases, don’t have the knowledge of what a healthy diet
consists of, and because, even if they did, they lack access in their neighborhoods to
healthy foods – no supermarkets, produce markets, farmers’ markets, or restaurants
serving healthy food – and therefore shop at convenience stores and eat out at fast food
places. Kids don’t play outside because it’s too dangerous – gang activity and drug
dealing make the street no place for children. (But why?)
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Parents may never have been exposed to information about healthy food – they simply
don’t have the knowledge. Market owners view low-income neighborhoods as
unprofitable and dangerous places to do business. The streets are dangerous because
there are few job opportunities in the community, and young men turn to make money in
any way possible.
By this point, you should have a fair understanding of why kids don’t eat healthily or get
enough exercise. As you continue to question, you may begin to think about advocacy
with local officials for incentives to bring supermarkets to low-income neighborhoods, or
for after-school programs that involve physical exercise, or for parent nutrition education
or for anti-gang programs…or for all of these and other efforts besides. Or continued
questioning may reveal deeper causes that you feel your organization can tackle.
5. Identify the restraining and driving forces that affect the problem.
This is called a force field analysis. It means looking at the restraining forces that act to
keep the problem from changing (social structures, cultural traditions, ideology, politics,
lack of knowledge, lack of access to health conditions, etc.) and the driving forces that
push it toward change (dissatisfaction with the way things are, public opinion, policy
change, ongoing public education efforts, existing alternatives to an unhealthy or
unacceptable activity or conditions, etc.) Consider how you can use your understanding
of these forces in devising solutions to the problem.
Forces restraining change here include:
The desirability and availability of junk food – kids like it because it tastes good (we’re
programmed as a species to like fat, salt, and sugar), and you can get it on every corner
in practically any neighborhood.
The reluctance of supermarket chains to open stores in low-income neighborhoods.
The domination of the streets by gangs and drug dealers.
Some forces driving change might be:
Parents’ concern about their children’s weight.

Children’s desire to participate in sports or simply to be outdoors.
Media stories about the problem of childhood obesity and its consequences for children,
both now and in their later lives.
A full force field analysis probably would include many more forces in each category.
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6. Find any relationships that exist among the problem you are concerned with and
others in the community.
In analyzing root causes, you may have already completed this step. It may be that other
problems stem from the same root cause and that there are other organizations with
whom you could partner. Understanding the relationships among community issues can
be an important step toward resolving them.
We’ve already seen connections to lack of education, unemployment, lack of after-school

programs, and gang violence and crime, among other issues. Other organizations may
be working on one or more of these, and collaboration might help both of you to reach
your goals.
7. Identify personal factors that may contribute to the problem.
Whether the problem involves individual behavior or community conditions, each

individual affected by it brings a whole collection of knowledge (some perhaps accurate,
some perhaps not), beliefs, skills, education, background, experience, culture, and
assumptions about the world and others, as well as biological and genetic traits. Any or
all of these might contribute to the problem or to its solution…or both.
A few examples:
The genetic predisposition for diabetes and other conditions.

Lack of knowledge about healthy nutrition.
Lack of knowledge/ skills for preparing healthy foods.
8. Identify environmental factors that may contribute to the problem.
Just as there are factors relating to individuals that may contribute to or help to solve the
problem you’re concerned with, there are also factors within the community environment
that may do the same. These might include the availability or lack of services, information,
and other support; the degree of accessibility and barriers to, and opportunities for
services, information, and other support; the social, financial, and other costs and benefits
of change; and such overarching factors as poverty, living conditions, official policy, and
economic conditions.
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Sample environmental factors:
Poverty
Lack of employment and hope for young men in low-income neighborhoods
Lack of availability of healthy food in low-income neighborhoods
General availability – at school as well as elsewhere – of snack foods high in salt, sugar,
and fat
Constant media bombardment of advertising of unhealthy snacks, drinks, and fast food
9. Identify targets and agents of change for addressing the problem.
Whom should you focus your efforts on, and who has the power to improve the situation?
Often, these may be the same people. The best solution to a particular problem may be
policy change of some sort, for instance, and the best route to that may be to mount an
advocacy effort aimed at officials who can make it happen. People who are suffering from
a lack of skills or services may be the ones who can do the most to change their situation.
In other cases, your targets maybe people whose behavior or circumstances need to
change, and you may want to recruit agents of change to work with you in your effort. The
point of this step is to understand where and how to direct your work most effectively.
Targets of change might include:
Parents of children in low-income neighborhoods (or all parents in the community) for
education purposes
The children themselves
Elementary and middle school teachers
School officials responsible for school food programs
Executives and Public Relations officers of supermarket chains
Gang members and youth at risk of becoming gang members
A shortlist of potential agents of change:
Parents of children in low-income neighborhoods (or all parents in the community) as

controllers of their children’s diets
The Superintendent of Schools, School Committee, and school administrators, as well as
those directly responsible for school food programs
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Local public officials who could create incentives for markets to move into underserved
neighborhoods
Community Recreation Commissions, school officials, YMCAs, and other entities that
might create safe outdoor and indoor physical activity programs for children
Community hospitals, clinics, and private medical practices
Public relations offices of national or regional fast food restaurant chains
With your analysis complete, you can develop a strategic plan that speaks to the real
causes of the problem and focuses on those targets and/or agents of change that are
most likely to contribute to improving the situation.
GOING BEYOND THE BASICS -- DOES ANALYSIS REALLY WORK?

Try this analysis out with a current problem in your own community setting.
What do you conclude? We hope you'll find some value in the analysis. We do know that
when we have tried this method with real problems in our own communities, we have
drawn some additional conclusions of our own, going beyond the basics:
Analyzing community problems can be hard work. It takes real mental effort. We're not
used to sitting down and thinking deeply about a problem. (We're too busy!) Real
community problems are likely to be complex. Economic development may depend on
the global economy, a force you can't have much effect on. You may have opposition,
either from within the community itself or from powerful forces trying to protect their own
interests.
When you go looking for reasons and underlying causes for significant problems, you are
likely to find more than one. Several different reasons may be influencing the problem, in
different amounts, all at the same time. It may not be an easy task to untangle all the
reasons and their relative strengths. Still, it may be necessary to reach a solution.
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The problem may not only have more than one reason; it may have more than one
solution too. Problems often call for multi-pronged solutions. That is, difficult problems
often must be approached from more than one direction. So in revitalizing the downtown,
you might want to
(a) beautify the streets;
(b) expand the staff of the chamber of commerce;
(c) run sidewalk sales;
(d) look for outside loans; and
(e) recruit new businesses.
These are all parts of the solution. Many different types of actions might be necessary for
revitalization.
When analyzing real community problems, the analysis may show multiple reasons
behind the problem. The analysis may not always be easy. The solution may be more
difficult still.
But that's why problems are problems. Community problems exist precisely because they
often resist clear analysis and solutions. They persist despite our efforts. They can be
real challenges.
Yet this doesn't mean we are helpless. Analysis, including the analytic methods we have
described, can take you a long way. With good analysis, some resources, and enough
determination, we believe even the most troublesome problems can be addressed, and
ultimately, solved.
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Cengage Learning

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Activity 1. Now that you know the essential concepts in the study of different contemporary
and emerging social work practice trends and issues in working with children,
families, social groups, and communities. What do you think are the reasons why
the following occurs? Provide your brief answer.
1. Family problem- PARENTAL ABSENTEEISM
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. Group problem- AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. Community problem- Lack of job opportunities
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
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Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms and concepts of the different
contemporary and emerging social work practice trends and issues in working
with children, families, social groups, and communities, what also matters is you
should also be able to explain or articulate its inter-relationships. Now, I will
require you to explain your answers to the following questions thoroughly.
1. Do you agree on the belief that by recognizing, understanding, and minimizing disruptive
group behaviors, group work becomes more effective and productive? Why or why not?
2. Explain your thoughts on this line – “Although it has been acknowledged that money is not
the most important thing in the family, we have to admit that economic difficulties are one
of the biggest challenges being faced by many families today.”
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Activity 1. Based on the definition of the essential terms and concepts in the different
contemporary and emerging social work practice trends and issues in working
with children, families, social groups, and communities., please feel free to write
your answer on the given situations below.
1. Give one issue experienced by families today. Provide your interventions also as
a Social Worker
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Give one issue experienced by groups today. Provide your interventions also as a
Social Worker
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. Give one issue experienced by communities today. Provide your interventions

also as a Social Worker
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Domestic Violence Substance Abuse Assertive behavior Aggressive

behavior
Community Parental Assertive Self-esteem
problems absenteeism Communication
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Rubric for Essay
Read the item. Discuss extensively. Follow the KISS rule (Keep It Short and Simple.)
CRITERIA 100-95 Exceeds 94-89 Meets 88-83 Needs 82-78 Inadequate

Expectations Expectations Improvement
Structure • Paper is logically • Paper has a clear • Some level of • No apparent
• Organization organized organizational organization organization to the
• Flow of thought • • Easily followed structure with some through digressions, paper.
Transitions • Effective, smooth, digressions, ambiguities, • Difficult to follow
• Format and logical ambiguities or irrelevances are too • No or poor
transitions • irrelevances many transitions
Professional format • Easily followed • • Difficult to follow • No format
Basic transitions • • Rambling format
Structured format
Grammar/ • Manipulates • Uses complex • Uses compound • Uses simple
mechanics complex sentences sentences sentences sentences
• Sentence structure for effect/impact • Few punctuation • Too many
• Punctuation/ • No punctuation or or mechanical errors punctuation and/or
mechanics mechanical errors mechanical errors
Language • Vocabulary is • Vocabulary is • The Vocabulary is • Vocabulary is
• Use of Vocabulary sophisticated and varied, specific and used properly unsophisticated, not
•Tone correct appropriate though sentences appropriately used
•Sentences vary in • Frequently uses may be simple in straightforward
structure and length subject-specific •Infrequently uses sentences.
• Uses and vocabulary correctly subject-specific • Uses subject-
manipulates subject- vocabulary correctly specific vocabulary
specific vocabulary too sparingly
for effect
Content •The Central idea is • central idea and • central idea is •Central idea and
/information well developed, and clarity purpose are expressed though it clarity purpose are
• Clarity of purpose clarity purpose is generally evident may be vague or too absent
• Critical and exhibited • The Evidence of broad; • Little or no
original thought throughout the the critical, careful A •Some sense of evidence of critical,
• Use of examples paper thought and analysis purpose is seen careful thought
• Abundance of and insight • Some evidence of analysis and insight
evidence of critical, • There are good, critic careful •There are too few,
careful thought and relevant supporting thought and analysis no examples
analysis examples and insight
•Examples are vivid •Some examples
and specific
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Activity Date Where to submit

Week 1 – 3
Big Picture A: Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture A: Let’s Analyze Activities CF’s email
Big Picture A: In a Nutshell Activities BB’s forum feature
Big Picture A: QA List BB’s discussion feature
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture B: Let’s Analyze Activities CF’s email
Big Picture B: In a Nutshell Activities BB’s forum feature
Big Picture B: QA List BB’s discussion feature
First Examination CF’s email
Week 4 – 5
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities 1 CF’s email
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities 2 CF’s email
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities 1 CF’s email
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities 2 CF’s email
Big Picture C: Let’s Analyze Activities CF’s email
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Big Picture C: In a Nutshell Activities BB’s forum feature

Big Picture C: QA List BB’s discussion feature
Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities 1 CF’s email
Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities 2 CF’s email
Big Picture D: Let’s Analyze Activities CF’s email
Big Picture D: In a Nutshell Activities BB’s forum feature
Big Picture D: QA List BB’s discussion feature
Second Examination CF’s email
Activity Date Where to submit
Week 6 – 7
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture E: Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture E: Let’s Analyze Activities CF’s email
Big Picture E: In a Nutshell Activities BB’s forum feature
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Big Picture E: QA List BB’s discussion feature

Big Picture F: Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture F: Let’s Analyze Activities CF’s email
Big Picture F: In a Nutshell Activities BB’s forum feature
Big Picture F: QA List BB’s discussion feature
Big Picture G: Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture G: Let’s Analyze Activities CF’s email
Big Picture G: In a Nutshell Activities BB’s forum feature
Big Picture G: QA List BB’s discussion feature
Third Examination CF’s email
Week 8 – 9
Big Picture A Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture E: Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture E: Let’s Analyze Activities CF’s email
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Big Picture E: In a Nutshell Activities BB’s forum feature

Big Picture E: QA List BB’s discussion feature
Big Picture F: Let’s Check Activities CF’s email
Big Picture F: Let’s Analyze Activities CF’s email
Big Picture F: In a Nutshell Activities BB’s forum feature
Big Picture F: QA List BB’s discussion feature
Big Picture G: Let’s Analyze Activities CF’s email
Big Picture G: In a Nutshell Activities BB’s forum feature
Big Picture G: QA List BB’s discussion feature
Big Picture H: Let’s Analyze Activities CF’s email
Big Picture H: In a Nutshell Activities BB’s forum feature
Big Picture H: QA List BB’s discussion feature
Final Examination CF’s email
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1) All teachers/Course Facilitators and students are expected to abide by an honor code of
conduct, and thus everyone and all are exhorted to exercise self-management and self-
regulation.
2) Faculty members are guided by utmost professional conduct as learning facilitators in
holding OBD and DED conduct. Any breach and violation shall be dealt with properly
under existing guidelines, specifically on social media conduct (OPM 21.15) and
personnel discipline (OPM 21.11).
3) All students are likewise guided by professional conduct as learners in attending OBD or
DED courses. Any breach and violation shall be dealt with properly under existing
guidelines, specifically in Section 7 (Student Discipline) in the Student Handbook.
4) Professional conduct refers to the embodiment and exercise of the University’s Core
Values, specifically in the adherence to intellectual honesty and integrity; academic
excellence by giving due diligence in virtual class participation in all lectures and
activities, as well as fidelity in doing and submitting performance tasks and assignments;
personal discipline in complying with all deadlines; and observance of data privacy.
5) Plagiarism is a serious intellectual crime and shall be dealt with accordingly. The
University shall institute monitoring mechanisms online to detect and penalize
plagiarism.
6) All borrowed materials uploaded by the teachers/Course Facilitators shall be properly

acknowledged and cited; the teachers/Course Facilitators shall be professionally and
personally responsible for all the materials uploaded in the online classes or published in
SIM/SDL manuals.
7) Teachers/Course Facilitators shall devote time to handle OBD or DED courses and shall
honestly exercise due assessment of student performance.
8) Teachers/Course Facilitators shall never engage in quarrels with students online. While
contentions intellectual discussions are allowed, the teachers/Course Facilitators shall
take the higher ground in facilitating and moderating these discussions. Foul, lewd,
vulgar and discriminatory languages are absolutely prohibited.
9) Students shall independently and honestly take examinations and do assignments,

unless collaboration is clearly required or permitted. Students shall not resort to
dishonesty to improve the result of their assessments (e.g. examinations, assignments).
10) Students shall not allow anyone else to access their personal LMS account. Students
shall not post or share their answers, assignment or examinations to others to further
academic fraudulence online.
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11) By handling OBD or DED courses, teachers/Course Facilitators agree and abide by all
the provisions of the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the requirements and
protocols in handling online courses.
12) By enrolling in OBD or DED courses, students agree and abide by all the provisions of
the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the requirements and protocols in handling
online courses.
Course prepared by:
NIKKI C. ALBURO, MSSW

SW Faculty
Course reviewed by:
HELEN Q. OMBLERO, DSD

Program Head
Approved by:
KHRISTINE MARIE D. CONCEPCION, Ph.D.

Dean
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UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Arts and Sciences Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning

Course/Subject: SW 214 – Social Environment and Social

Name of Teacher: NIKKI C. ALBURO, MSSW

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY.

Course Outline: SW 214 – Social Environment and Social Work

Course Coordinator: Nikki C. Alburo, MSSW

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

If the assessment task is done in real-time through the

Since this course is included in the licensure examination

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

However, if the late Submission of the assessment paper

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

Preferred Referencing Style APA 6th Edition.

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account,

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

For students who have not created their student email,

Contact Details of the Dean Khristine Marie D. Concepcion, PhD

Well-being Welfare Support Zerdszen Ranises

Course Information: see/download course syllabus in the Blackboard LMS

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO):

At the end of the unit, you are expected to

Big Picture in Focus

SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT involves the conditions, circumstances, and human

Impact of Systems in the Environment

The environment is essential in the analysis and understanding of Human Behaviour.

Key Concepts in Systems Theory

Example: a nation, a social services department, a newly married couple.

• BOUNDARIES These are repeatedly occurring patterns of behavior that

• SUBSYSTEM a secondary or subordinate system.

Example: Family subsystems are Parental subsystem and sibling subsystem

• HOMEOSTASIS The tendency for a system to maintain a relatively stable,

• ROLE A culturally determined pattern of behavior expected of an individual in a

• RELATIONSHIP Is the mutual emotional exchange; dynamic interaction; affective,

• INPUT Involves energy, information, or communication flow from other systems.

OUTPUT is different from OUTCOME.

• DIFFERENTIATION A system’s tendency to move from simple to more

• ENTROPY Tendency of a system to progress toward disorganization, depletion,

SYSTEMS THEORY as conceptualized by Allen Pincus & Anne Minahan

• CHANGE AGENT SYSTEM The agency or organization that employs social

Example: DSWD, CSWDO, and Non-Government Social welfare organizations

Example: Family, friends, neighbors, or co-workers

Example: Police, Lawyers, Psychologists, Psychiatrists, etc.

• PROFESSIONAL SYSTEM The professional association of social workers, the

Example: PASWI and NASWEI

• PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM The system that acts to bring a potential

ECOSYSTEMS THEORY A systems theory is used to describe and analyze people

Important Concept in Ecological Perspective

• SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT involves the conditions, circumstances, and human

• TRANSACTION People communicate and interact with others in their environment.

• ADAPTATION Refers to the capacity to adjust to surrounding environmental

• COPING A form of adaptation that implies a struggle to overcome a problem. It

Types of Coping Skills that are Important to Develop:

• INTERDEPENDENCE refers to the mutual reliance of each person upon another

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVES