Nervous System Spinal Cord

• Extends from the medulla

Central Nervous System
oblongata of the brain to the
-Brain and Spinal Cord
area around the first lumbar
Brainstem
vertebra in the lower back
-Made up of the midbrain, pons
• Protected by:
and the medulla oblongata
- vertebral column
-Regulates heart rate, breathing,
- cerebrospinal fluid
sleep cycles and emotions
- meninges
Midbrain
Diencephalon
• Visual reflexes
Contains: thalamus,
Pons
hypothalamus, Epithalamus,
• Located between the midbrain
ventral thalamus
and the medulla oblongata
• control of Heart rate, Blood
• Controls certain respiratory
pressure, Temperature,
Medulla Oblongata
Behavioral responses
• regulate heart and lung
functioning.
• heart rate, breathing,
swallowing, coughing, sneezing
Cerebral cortex
-planning; reasoning; language;
recognizing sounds and images;
memory.
Cerebellum
- coordination, precision and
timing of movement
 • carry messages to and from
the CNS
• CNS and PNS work together in
order to respond to stimuli.

1. Sensory (afferent) division

– Somatic (skin, muscle, joints)
and visceral (organs) sensory
neurons
– Conducts impulses from
receptors to the CNS
2. Motor (efferent) division
– Motor neurons
– Conducts impulses from the
CNS to effectors (muscles and
glands)

Meninges

Dura mater -Outer tough Autonomic Nervous System

fibrous (ANS)

membrane • Stimulates organs, glands, and

Arachnoid mater -Middle web- senses.

like membrane containing CSF • Operates when under stress

Pia mater- Innermost layer Somatic Nervous System

containing (SNS)

several blood vessels •homeostasis or balance under

normal conditions.

Three Types of Neurons

Efferent (motor)
- Conveys information from the
Peripheral Nervous System CNS to muscles and glands
- Carry impulses away from the
brain and The Neurons
spinal cord.
Afferent (sensory)
-Carry information from sensory
receptors to the CNS
-Carry impulses from inside and
outside the body to the brain
and spinal cord.
Interneurons
Cell Body
-Carry and process sensory
• The main processing center of
information
the cell
-Found within brain and spinal
Dendrites
cord
• Thin branching extensions of
-Process incoming impulses and
the cell body that conduct nerve
pass them
impulses toward the cell body.
on to motor neurons
Axon
Other Cells (Neuroglia)
• A single branch that conducts
- Support, protect, connect and
nerve impulses away from the
remove debris from the nervous
cell body.
system
• Protected by Myelin sheath and
neurilemma.
Myelin Sheath
-protecting nerves from
electrical impulses

Degenerative Conditions

Alzheimer’s Disease
• Progressive degeneration of
neurons in the brain, eventually
leading to death.
 Amyotrophic Lateral
Sclerosis (ALS)
• loss of muscular control and
death.
Huntington’s Chorea
• Hereditary disease with
uncontrollable, jerking
movements
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
• Destruction of the myelin
sheath leading to muscle
weakness, unsteady gait,
paresthesia, extreme fatigue,
and some paralysis.
Myasthenia Gravis
• muscle weakness due to an
overproduction of antibodies that
block neurotransmitters.
Parkinson’s Disease
• nerves in the brain causes
tremors, weakness of muscles,
and difficulty walking.
Shingles
• A viral disease caused by the
herpes zoster virus and bacteria
Gliomas
• Tumors that arise from
neuroglia
Meningiomas
• Tumors that arise from the
meninges
Medicine
Analgesics
• Relieve pain
Narcotics
• Relieve pain by inducing a
stuporous or euphoric state
Anticonvulsant
• Treat epilepsy
Sedatives & Hypnotics
• Relax the nerves and induces
sleep
Anesthetics
• Numb the body locally or the
entire body
Endocrine System
• Regulates long term ongoing
metabolic activity
• Hormones are transported by
the blood vessels regulates,
coordinates and controls:
growth and male and female
development.
Endocrine Glands
• Regulates body functions via
hormones secreted into the
bloodstream.
•Located all over your body.
2 kinds of glands
Exocrine – ducted glands; tubes
to carry the secretion (salivary,
tears)
Endocrine – ductless glands;
transport hormones in the blood
Hormones -chemical
messengers
Glands → secrete hormones
→ into bloodstream→ to
target tissues
1. Hypothalamus “gate-
keeper”
secrets regulatory hormones
that control the activity of the
pituitary gland
2. Pituitary Gland
Indirectly controls :
• Growth
• Metabolism
• Sexual reproduction
• Lactation
• Location: Posterior to the
hypothalamus
• Primary Hormones: 9 primary
hormones including GH, ACTH,
TSH, FSH, LH, ADH and Oxytocin
3. Thyroid Gland
• Metabolism,
• Produces Thyroxine (T4) &
Triiodothyronine (T3)
• Calcitonin
Major Disorders: Goiter;
Thyroid, Cancer
4. Parathyroid Gland
Produces Parathyroid hormone
(PTH)
Controls homeostasis of calcium
& phosphate in blood by
activating Vitamin D
Major Disorders: Osteoporosis;
Hyper- and Hypo-parathyroidism
5. Thymus
Produces thymosin
Major Disorders: Cancers
(lymphomas)
6. Adrenal Gland
• Located superior to the kidney
• Divided into:
(i) cortex - outer
Hormones: Glococorticoids,
Mineralcorticoids, and
Aldosterone
(ii) medulla – inner
Hormones:Epinephrine
(a.k.a. Adrenaline) and
Norepinephrine
7. Pancreas
Regulates the body's glucose or
sugar level
Major Disorders: Diabetes
mellitus types I and II
8. Pineal Gland
Primary Hormones: Melatonin
Regulates sleep patterns; mating
patterns; migration patterns;
day and night rhythms
Major Disorder: Insomnia
9. Testes
• Produce testosterone
• Development of male sexual
characteristics
• Location: Within the scrotum
Ovary
• Produce estrogen &
progesterone
• Responsible for development &
maintenance of female
characteristics & menstrual cycle
• Located in pelvic cavity
Target Cells
- special receptors that
“recognize” the hormones and
allow them to influence that cell.
-Down-regulation
-Up-regulation
Mechanisms of hormone
release
a)Humoral: in response to
changing levels of ions or
nutrients in the blood
b)Neural: stimulation by nerves
c) Hormonal: stimulation
received from other hormones
THREE TYPES OF
HORMONES
1. Protein hormones – its
effects are the most rapid of all
the hormones
i. Oxytocin - development of
relationships
ii. Adrenocorticotrophin – Parathyroid Gland
chains of amino acids Overactive
2. Amine hormones – same • Kidney Stones
relatively fast receptor response • Osteoporosis
as protein hormones Underactive
i. Epinepherine • Tetany
ii. Norepinepherine Pancreas
iii. Thyroid hormones Hormone: Insulin
iv. Melatonin Overactivity
3. Steroid hormones – binds - Low blood sugar level ( ↓BSL)
to the intercellular receptors; Underactivity
slow actions - High blood sugar level ( ↑BSL)
DISORDERS OF THE - Diabetes

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Hormone: Glucagon

Thyroid Gland Overactivity

Hormone: Thyroxine – increases - High blood sugar level ( ↑BSL)

metabolic rate - Diabetes

Overactive Underactivity

Goiter - Low blood sugar level ( ↓BSL)

- Hyperthyroidism, Iodine - Hyper insulinism

deficiency and feedback

causes the thyroid to enlarge Anterior Pituitary Gland

Cretinism Hormone: Growth Hormone

• Results from thyroid hormone

insufficiency in infancy Overactive

• Obesity - Gigantism (children - very tall)

Myxoedema - Acromegaly (adults - bones &

• Puffiness (swelling) skin thicken)

Underactivity Underactive

- Osteoporosis (brittle bones) -Dwarfism, very short in supply

- Kidney stones of GH in childhood.

Adrenal Cortex
Hormone: Corticoids – inc. blood HOMEOSTASIS
pressure, inc. food metabolism exists when there is a balance of
and dec. inflammation substances.
Overactive
- Down-regulation
CUSHING’S SYNDROME - Up-regulation
Underactive
• Decreased cortisol and/or Negative Feedback
aldosterone production ● Response to changed
body condition
• Results from hypersecretion of ◦ if the body is high or low from
glucocorticoids normal level
Causes: Positive Feedback

- infection, trauma, hemorrhage ◦ the opposite of negative feedback

that encourages a physiological

Pineal Gland process or amplifies the action of a

system.
Hormone – causes color cells
(melanocytes) in skin to darken
Overactive
• Skin darkens
Under active
• Skin will not darken (albinism)
Reproductive
Hormones: sperm or egg
(gamete) production

Overactive
• Unknown
Underactive
• Sterility
 Testes

- produce sperm cells developed from

germ cells in seminiferous tubule
- secret testosterone
- Testes are located in the scrotum,
outside the body cavity.
● This keeps testicular
temperature cooler than the
body cavity.
Scrotum

- protect testes and maintain the

temperature of the testes 2
degrees lower than body
Human Reproductive temperature.

System Epididymis
● DNA determines baby’s gender
The storage site of sperm cells.
● XX = Female
Semen
● XY = Male
● Contains
● 300-500 million sperm
Male Reproductive System
● Sperm food
● pH buffers
● External:
- penis
● Allows sperm to survive for a
- scrotum
couple of days inside females
● Internal:
body
- gonads
- accessory sex glands and
● Seminal fluid is thick, yellowish,
ducts.
and alkaline.
● Testes
● Produce 2-4 million
Major Constituents of Semen
sperm every day
● Outside the body – why?
Fructose
● Sperm likes temps
- produced by the seminal vesicles
1-2° cooler than
- provides a source of energy for the
body temp
sperm.
● Vas Deferens
● Tube where sperm travel
through
ACCESSORY GLANDS
● Vasectomy
● Cut/tie off tube – sperm Seminal vesicle:
can’t get out!
 • Contains fructose, asorbic acid,
coagulating enzyme,
prostaglandin
Prostate gland:
• surrounds and opens into the
urethra where it leaves the
bladder.
• slightly alkaline fluid that
activates sperm and prevents
them from sticking together
● Prostate cancer is one of
the most common
cancers in men.
Bulbourethral gland (Cowper’s
gland):
• paired glands that lie beneath
the prostate
• Function- It acts to wash
residual urine out of the urethra
when ejaculating semen--
raises pH; neutralizes acidity of
urine.
Ejaculation
● A male usually ejaculates about
2 – 5 mL of semen; each
milliliter containing about 50 –
130 million sperm.
● < 20-25 million/ml = infertility
(sterility)
Fate of sperm cells
viable for 2 days (egg: 12-24 hr)
Only ~ 100 reach the destination.
Only one sperm fertilizes the egg.
Female Reproductive System
● Ovaries (2 pouches)
Born with all of her eggs
(~ 400,000)
Use up ~500
Won’t run out!
● Ovulation
• Vagina
• Cervix
• Fallopian tube (uterian
tube/oviducts)
• Fimbrae
• Ovary
• Uterus
- Endometrium
- Myometrium
- Perimetrium
Ovary
• The site of oogenesis and
female sex hormone production.
It responds to follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) that
signals the maturation of an
ovum.
- this is where the eggs are produced
through cell division (MEIOSIS)
1. Estrogen is responsible for the
appearance of secondary sex
characteristics of females
 
2. Progesterone regulates
menstruation
The Uterus
• harbors the embryo
• provides nutrients
• expels the fetus at the end of
its
development
Vagina
- The mucosa is made up of
stratified squamous epithelium.
- It secretes glycogen to maintain
healthy beneficial bacteria that
produce lactic acid. This creates
an acidic environment that is
not beneficial to other bacteria
or sperm.
Oogenesis
Ovary- contains 400,000 oocytes;
release about 500 in a lifetime
1. Egg production is called ● No baby = breaks down lining
oogenesis. of uterus
● 5-7 days of blood/tissue exits
2. Most primary oocytes undergo a body
process of degeneration called
atresia. 2) Proliferative Phase (Day 6-14)
Only 2 million remain at the ● Estrogen stimulates mitosis, the
time of birth, and by puberty, only prolific growth of blood vessels
400,000 remain. ● Ovulation = Egg released
● Temp spikes slightly
A. The Sexual Cycle ● Most fertile in next few days!
● Able to get pregnant
- A 28-day cycle of sequential changes 3) Secretory Phase (Day 15-28)
caused by shifting patterns of Chemicals (hormones)
hormone secretion. ● Regulate events in the body
- starts at the first day of ● Estrogen
menstruation ● Progesterone
● LH (luteinizing hormone)
Ovarian Cycle ● FSH (follicle stimulating
hormone)
3phases: the follicular phase, ● Many others
ovulation, and luteal phase. ● Amnion
● Membrane
surrounding baby
● Contains amniotic
fluid
● Breaks just before
birth = “water
broke”
● Amniotic Fluid
● The “water” –
Menstrual Cycle surrounding baby
● Buoyant cradle for baby
3 phases: menstruation, ● Protection
proliferative phase, and secretory ● Free movement
phase.
Umbilical Cord
● Blood vessels from the
placenta to baby
Birth Control Pills
● “Trick” body into thinking it’s
pregnant
● Extra hormones
● No ovulation occurs
Menopause
1) Menstruation (Day 1-5)
- the cessation of menstruation
-First menstrual blood & tissue
(45-55 yr)
Menopause effects:
● changes in sexual desire
● triggers mood swings
● causes hot flashes
● may lead to bone and heart
problems
● short-term memory loss
● Insomnia
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
(STDs)
● STD’s are infections that are
spread from person to person
through intimate sexual
contact.
Chlamydia
● Chlamydia- (bacteria) 3 million
new cases per year- 75% have
no symptoms.
● Caused by a bacteria called
Chlamydia Trachomatis.
● curable
Gonorrhea
● Caused by a bacteria known as
Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
● antibiotics for treatment.
Genital Herpes (HSV-2)
● HSV-2 is caused by the herpes
virus.
● antiviral medication to control
recurring outbreaks
Genital Warts (HPV)
● Genital warts are caused by
human papillomavirus (HPV).
● There is NO cure for the virus.
● Some warts can be dissolved by
“freezing” them off with a
special chemical.
HIV and AIDS (no cure)
● AIDS (Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome) is one of
the most deadly diseases in
history.
● AIDS is caused by HIV (Human
immunodeficiency virus).
● HIV destroys the immune.
● HIV can be transmitted from an
infected person to another
person through blood, semen,
vaginal fluids, and breast milk.
Syphilis
● Caused by bacteria called
Treponema pallidum.
● Treat with antibiotics
Trichomoniasis
● Sometimes called “trich”, it is a
parasite that can be passed
from person to person during
sexual intercourse.
● It can be passed on via damp
towels, washcloths, and bathing
suits if someone has the
parasite.
● Treatable via antibiotics.
Pubic Lice (Crabs)
● Pubic lice are tiny insects that
can crawl from the pubic hair of
one person to the pubic hair of
another person during sex.
● Pubic lice can be spread even
when one uses a condom.
Untreated may cause
● Infertility (Unable to have
babies)
● Cancer
● Long-term pain
● Heredity
Heredity: Inheritance and
Variation

Gregor Mendel

- traits were passed from

generation to generation

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) Cytosine pairs with Guanine

● DNA is the genetic code
● heredity C=G
● Code for protein Adenine pairs with Uracil
● Consists of sugar
● Missing oxygen A=U
● In the nucleus of eukaryotic
organisms
● Nucleic acid Types of RNA
-Containing 1. Messenger(mRNA)
- C, H, N, O, P
Cytosine pairs with -Blueprint for protein

Guanine 2. Transfer (tRNA)

C=G -Brings amino acids to the

Adenine pairs with Thymine ribosome (truck)

A=T 3. Ribosomal (rRNA)
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
● Acts as a code for protein -Makes up ribosome along with
synthesis proteins (construction site)
● Made out of monomers that
consists of nucleotides,
phosphate, sugar (ribose), and
nitrogen base
● Both found inside and outside of
the nucleus
 Evolution
Goldilocks Planet
● Each species play a role in
the ecosystem
● Water exists in 3 phases
Origins of Life
1. Chemical Evolution
● Forming of
molecules from
smaller forms
2. Biological
● Genetic change
1. DNA Replication ● Diversification of
● DNA copies itself (occurs species
inside the nucleus) Tree of Life
2. TRANSCRIPTION ● Species share a common
● mRNA copies the template ancestor
strand
● Requires the enzyme RNA
Polymerase
3. TRANSLATION Unifying Principles of
● Decodes the mRNA into Evolution
polypeptide chain 1. Perpetual Change
● All species continue
to change
2. Nature
● Combined
Chromosome Mutation influences of
● Deletion physical and
● Inversion biological limiting
● Nondisjunction factors
● Duplication 3. Limiting Factors
● Translocation ● Environmental
Gene Mutations conditions that limit
● Point Mutations the growth
● Substitutions Discovery
● Frameshift Discovery 1: Fixed Species
● Deletions & Insertions ● Species were considered
to be special, fixed for all
the time
Discovery 2: Transmutation
● Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
● Acquiring a characteristic and
passing into offspring
Discover 3: Fossils and Strata
● William Smith
● Mapping rocks and fossils of
Britain showed that species in
the past are different
Discovery 4: Darwin’s Voyage
● Charles Darwin toured the world
with HMS Beagle
● Diversity of life and how it
originated
Discovery 5: Survival of the Fittest
● Charles Darwin
● Natural selection
● Only the fit and adaptive will
survive
Discovery 6: Huxley v. Wilberforce
● Bishop Wilberforce and Thomas
Henry Huxley
● Darwin’s Natural Selection vs
Creation
Discovery 7: Genetics
● Gregor Mendel
● Characteristics were passed
down generations
● Dominant trait is expressed
Discovery 8: Making Sense
● Julian Huxley
● Modern Synthesis brought
Darwin’s natural selection back
to evolution theory
Discovery 9: Opposition
● Christian groups opposing
evolution
● Scopes Monkey Trial
Mechanism
Mechanism 1: All in the Genes
● Genotype- genetic make-up
● Phenotype- characteristics
Mechanism 2: DNA
● Watson and Crick
● DNA’s double helix structure
Mechanism 3: Mutation
● Changes in the structure of DNA
Mechanism 4: Variation
● Genetic variation
● Dominant alleles will be
expressed
Mechanism 5: Natural
Selection
● Mutant alleles spread
through sexual
reproduction
Types of Natural Selection
1. Stabilization
● Population looks
more similar over
time
2. Disruptive
● Population split into
two groups
3. Directional
● Population looks
different over time
Mechanism 6: Peppered Moth
● Example of Natural
Selection - Haldane
● Directional Selection
● Camouflage of moths
Mechanism 7: Microevolution
● Change in population’s
gene pool
● Dogs are wolves
Mechanism 8: Macroevoution
● Evolutionary changes
through which new
species are formed and
others are lost through
extinction
● Darwin’s Galapago’s
finches
Mechanism 9: Speciation
● Formation of species from
one existing species
● Arctic and gray foxes
Evidence
Evidence 1: Biochemistry
● Living things pass on DNA
● Living things use ATP to
carry energy around the
organism
Evidence 2: Similar Genes
● Genetic code of chimps
and humans are almost
identical
Evidence 3: Comparative
Anatomy
● Similar anatomical
structures between a
human skeleton and a
gorilla skeleton
Evidence 4: Homology
● Homologous- One origin,
different function
● Analogous - Different
origin, same function
Evidence 5: Vestigial
Structures
● Some structures get side-
lined and no longer used
Example: Coccyx
Evidence 6: Fossil Record
● Bacteria to complex
organisms
● Physical evidence of
organisms
Evidence 7: Transitional
fossils
● Transition from one
species or group to
another
● Example: Birds arose from
dinosaurs
Evidence 8: Geography
 Ecosystem and
● Spread of organisms
● A Group of organisms
evolved before continents
drifted apart
Evidence 9: Antibiotic
resistance
Biodiversity
● Natural Selection
● Bacteria w/ low resistance
= dies
● Bacteria w/ high ● Population
resistance -A group of organisms of the
=survives same kind living in the same
place
● Community
FACTORS OF EXTINCTION -All the population that live in an
ecosystem at the same time
● Natural Extinctions
- Climate Change ● Habitat
- Calamities - Plants and animals lives

● Human Activities THREE MAJOR PRINCIPLES

- Habitat OF ECOSYSTEM
Loss/Fragmentation ● Nutrient Cycling:
- Introducing -Movement of chemical elements
Invasive species ● Energy flow:
- Urbanization -Transform inorganic nutrients
- Agricultural into organic tissues of an
conversion organism
- Damming/Flooding ● Structure
- Pollution -Inter-relationships that exists
- Accidental killing between organisms in an
ecosystem

Abiotic (non-living)
-Sunlight, nutrients
-Types of ecosystems

1. Tropical rainforests,
Desert, tundra, Grassland

Biotic (living)
 ● Producers (Autotrophs) Species Diversity - refers to
-Plants the variety of species within a
● Consumers(Heterotrop region
hs) Ecosystem Diversity
-They consume the organic - Ecosystem structure:
compounds in plants and physical patterns of life
animals by eating forms
1. Herbivores - Ecosystem functions:
- Primary consumers Create landscapes and
2. Carnivores diverse environmental
- Secondary conditions
consumers Genetic Diversity - refers to
3. Omnivores the variation of genes within
- General feeders species

● Decomposers DIVERSITY = STABILITY

-Tiny organisms includes
bacteria and fungi
-Nutrient Cycle
BIODIVERSITY
- Natural Selection
Key Point #1
● Ecosystem stability
- Stable = things stay the
same
Key Point #2
● High diversity = stable
ecosystem, Low diversity
= unstable ecosystem
Key Point #3
● The one that CHANGES
LESS is the one with
higher biodiversity
- Low biodiversity
may cause
Extinction of
species

● Variety and variability INVASIVE SPECIES

among living organisms ● Are non-native species of
● Low biodiversity organisms and few natural
- Few species predators
● High biodiversity ● Decreases biodiversity and
- Many species native species
 ● Demography
- Statistical study of
populations
● Size
- number of individuals
in an area
● Density
- Measurement of
population
● Dispersion
- Spacing relative to
each other
THREE MAIN FACTORS
1. Death rate and
Birth rate
2. Immigration(Into)
3. Emigration (Exit)
Limiting Factors - Control
population growth
● Coevolution
-Species so tightly
connected
● Convergent
Evolution
- Two species not related
but develop similar
features
● Divergent
Evolution
- Two different species
share the same ancestral
origin but have evolved
differently
- Example: Flying squirrel
and Sugar glider
- Example: Wolly mammoth
and Modern Elephant
● Extinction
- Open up new speciation
and adaptive radiation

Exponential Growth -
populations stabilize rather than
growing endlessly -GOODLUCK SA EXAM-

Carrying capacity - maximum

number of species that an
ecosystem can support

● Density-dependent
limiting factors
- Competition,
Predation, Space

● Density-independent
limiting factors
- Earthquake,
Volcanic eruption