Module 1 LIMITS

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Evaluate limit of a function;

2. Identify where a function is discontinuous; and
3. Trace the graph of a function.

Numerical Approach to Limits

Example 1: Let f(x) = 2 x + 2 and compute f(x) as x takes values closer to 1. We first

consider values of x approaching 1 from the left (x < 1).

x f(x)

0.5 3

0.8 3.6

0.9 3.8

0.95 3.9

0.99 3.98

0.999 3.998

0.9999 3.9998

0.99999 3.99998
We now consider x approaching 1 from the right (x > 1).

x f(x)

1.5 5

1.2 4.4

1.1 4.2

1.05 4.1

1.01 4.02

1.001 4.002

1.0001 4.0002

1.00001 4.00002

In both cases as x approaches 1, f(x) approaches 4. Intuitively, we say that lim x→1 f(x) =

4.

NOTE: We are talking about the values that f(x) takes when x gets closer to 1 and not

f(1). In fact we may talk about the limit of f(x) as x approaches a even when f(a) is

undefined.
Example 2: Let g(x) = sin x / x and compute g(x) as x takes values closer to 0. We

consider values of x approaching 0 from the left (x < 0) and values of x approaching 0

from the right (x > 0).

x g(x)

-0.5 0.9588

-0.2 0.993346

-0.1 0.998334

-0.01 0.999983

-0.001 0.999999

x g(x)

0.5 0.9588

0.2 0.993346

0.1 0.998334

0.01 0.999983

0.001 0.999999

Here we say that limx→0 g(x) = 1. Note that g(0) is undefined.

Graphical Approach to Limits

Example 3:

The graph below shows that as x approaches 1 from the left, y = f(x) approaches 2 and

this can be written as

limx→1- f(x) = 2

As x approaches 1 from the right, y = f(x) approaches 4 and this can be written as

limx→1+ f(x) = 4

Note that the left and right hand limits and f(1) = 3 are all different.

Example 4:

This graph shows that

limx→1- f(x) = 2

As x approaches 1 from the right, y = f(x) approaches 4 and this can be written as

limx→1+ f(x) = 4

Note that the left hand limit and f(1) = 2 are equal.
Example 5:

This graph shows that

limx→0- f(x) = 1

and

limx→0+ f(x) = 1

Note that the left and right hand limits are equal and we can write

limx→0 f(x) = 1

In this example, the limit when x approaches 0 is equal to f(0) = 1.

Example 6:

This graph shows that as x approaches - 2 from the left, f(x) gets smaller and smaller

without bound and there is no limit. We write

limx→-2- f(x) = - ∞

As x approaches - 2 from the right, f(x) gets larger and larger without bound and there

is no limit. We write

limx→-2+ f(x) = + ∞

Note that - ∞ and + ∞ are symbols and not numbers. These are symbols used to

indicate that the limit does not exist.

Example 7:

The graph below shows a periodic function whose range is given by the interval [-1 , 1].

If x is allowed to increase without bound, f(x) take values within [-1 , 1] and has no limit.

This can be written

limx→ + ∞ f(x) = does not exist

If x is allowed to decrease without bound, f(x) take values within [-1 , 1] and has no limit

again. This can be written

limx→ - ∞ f(x) = does not exist

Example 8:

If x is allowed to increase without bound, f(x) in the graph below approaches 2. This

can be written

limx→ + ∞ f(x) = 2

If x is allowed to decrease without bound, f(x) approaches 2. This can be written

limx→ - ∞ f(x) = 2
Definition 1.1 Let f(x) be any function and let a and L be numbers. If we can make f(x)
as close to L as we please by choosing x sufficiently close to a then we
say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L or symbolically

lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

Theorems on Limits

We shall deals with several theorems by means of which we shall be able to evaluate
the limits of functions rapidly and efficiently. To evaluate of to find

lim 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑥→𝑎

means that we are to find the number L that f(x) is near whenever x is near a but not equal to a.

To obtain the limits of more complicated functions, we shall use the following theorems
which we shall state symbolically

L1. lim 𝑐 = 𝑐 c = any constant

𝑥→𝑎

L2. lim 𝑥 = 𝑎 a = any real number

𝑥→𝑎

L3. lim 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example

lim 5𝑥 = 5 lim 𝑥 = 5(2) = 10

𝑥→2 𝑥→2

L4. lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example

lim (3𝑥 + 4) = lim 3𝑥 + lim 4 = 3 lim 𝑥 + lim 4 = 3(3) + 4 = 13

𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

L5. lim [𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example

lim (3𝑥 ∗ 4) = lim 3𝑥 ∗ lim 4 = 3 lim 𝑥 ∗ lim 4 = 3(3) ∗ 4 = 36

𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
L6. lim =
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

Example
6𝑥 lim 6𝑥 6(1)
lim = 𝑥→1 = =2
𝑥→1 3𝑥 lim 3𝑥
𝑥→1
3(1)

L7. lim 𝑛√𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example

3 3
lim √2𝑥 + 4 = 3√ lim 2𝑥 + 4 = √2(2) + 4 = 2
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

𝑛
L8. lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example
2
lim (3𝑥 + 4)2 = [lim (3𝑥 + 4)] = [3(3) + 4]2 = 169
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

Exercise 1.1

Evaluate each of the following:

1. lim (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3) Ans. -1
𝑥→2

√2+1
2. lim𝜋(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) Ans.
𝑥→ 4 √2

3
3. lim (2𝑥 + √𝑥 − 4) Ans. 14
𝑥→8

√3𝑥 1
4. lim Ans.
𝑥→3 𝑥√𝑥+1 2
Limit at Infinity
Let f(x) be a function. If we can make f(x) as large as we please by making x close
enough, but not equal to, a real number a, then we describe this situation by writing.
lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∞
𝑥→𝑎

where the symbol ∞is read “infinity”.

1
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥
1
→∞ as 𝑥→0
𝑥

In more compact form

1
lim =∞
𝑥→0 𝑥

A function f(x) may have a finite limit even when the independent variable x becomes
infinite. This statement “x becomes infinite “ is customarily expressed in symbol by “𝑥 → ∞”.
We shall now consider this fact as an additional theorem on limits and in symbol, we write
1
L9. lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

Let’s illustrate this theorem with the following example:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Example 1. lim = lim ( ∗ ∗ ) = lim ∗ lim ∗ lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

4 1 1 1
Example 2. lim = 4lim (𝑥2 ) = 4 ( lim 𝑥 ∗ lim 𝑥) = 0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞

From the example above, we intuitively feel that if n is any positive number, then
1
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑛

𝑁(𝑥) ∞
A function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐷 may assume the indeterminate form ∞ when x is replaced by ∞.
(𝑥)

However, the limit of f(x) as x becomes infinitive may be definite. To find the limit we first divide
N(x) and D(x) by the highest power of x. Then we evaluate the limit by use of L9.
4𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2−6
Example: Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 3 +5𝑥+3
 ∞
Solution: the function assumes the indeterminate form ∞ when x is replaced by ∞. Dividing the
numerator and denominator by x3, we get
3 6
4𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 −6 4+ − 3 4+0+0
𝑥 𝑥
lim = lim 5 3 = 2+0+0 = 2
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 3 +5𝑥+3 𝑥→∞ 2+ 2+ 3
𝑥 𝑥

Exercises 1.2
Evaluate each of the following:
6𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 +5 8𝑥−5
1. lim Ans. 3/4 3. lim Ans. 4
𝑥→∞ 8𝑥 3 +7𝑥−3 𝑥→∞ √4𝑥 2 +3
4𝑥+5 (𝑥+2)3 −(𝑥−2)3
2. lim Ans. 0 4. lim Ans. 12
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑥→∞ 𝑥2

Continuity
Definition: A function f(x) is continuous at x = a if lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎

Note that the condition lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑎) in the definition above implies three conditions,
𝑥→𝑎
namely:
(1) f(a) is defined.
(2) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝐿 exists, and
𝑥→𝑎
(3) L= f(a)
If any of these conditions is not satisfied, then f(x) is said to be discontinuous at x = a.
A function f(x) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous for every value of x
in the interval. The graph of this function is “unbroken” over that interval. That is, the graph of
f(x) can be drawn without lifting the pencil from the paper.

Example 1: the function f(x) = x2 is continuous at x = 2 because lim 𝑥 2 = 𝑓 (2) = 4. In fact, it is

𝑥→2
continuous for all finite values of x. the graph of the function is shown below.
 1 1 1
Example 2: the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 is continuous at x = 3 becauselim 𝑥 = 𝑓 (3) = 3. It is, however,
𝑥→3
1
discontinuous at x = 0 since lim 𝑥 = ∞. The graph of the function contains a “break” at x = 0.
𝑥→0

Exercise 1.3
Find the value or values of x for which the function is discontinuous.
3𝑥 5𝑥+1 1
1. Ans. 5 3. Ans. None 5. =8 Ans. 3
𝑥−5 𝑥 2 +4 2𝑥
3𝑥+2 6𝑥 𝑥+3
2. Ans. -3 & - 4. Ans. -3 & 3 6. Ans. 0, 1, &
𝑥 2 −8𝑥+15 𝑥 2 −9 𝑥 3 −3𝑥 2 +2𝑥
5 2

Asymptotes
𝑁(𝑥)
Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐷 , 𝐷(𝑥) ≠ 0, be a rational function, i.e. N(x) and D(x) are polynomials.
(𝑥)

Suppose we wish to sketch thee graph of f(x). A useful aid in sketching the graph of a function is
to find, if there is any, the asymptote of its graph. The asymptote may be a vertical line (no slope),
a horizontal line (zero slope) or a non-vertical line which slants upward to the right (positive slope)
or slants downward to the right (negative slope). The following definition are used to determine
the vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
Definition: The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f(x) if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→𝑎
2𝑥
Example: Since lim 𝑥−3 = ∞, then x = 3 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function
𝑥→3
2𝑥
defined by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = .
𝑥−3

Definition: The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f(x) if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏.
𝑥→∞

4𝑥 2 4𝑥 2
Example: y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥2 −6 since lim =2
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 2 −6
3 3
Example: y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥2 −1 since lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 −1

4𝑥 2
Example: There is no horizontal asymptote for the graph of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥−1 since
4𝑥 2
lim =∞
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥−1

From the definition and examples above, we can make certain generalizations which
would facilitate further the process of finding the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the graph
of the rational function defined by the equation
𝑁(𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ,𝐷 ≠ 0
𝐷(𝑥) (𝑥)

Since N(x) and D(x) are polynomials, we may let

𝑁(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚−1 + 𝑎𝑚

𝐷(𝑥) = 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 + 𝑏𝑛

where m and n are positive integers and a0, a1,…, am and b0, b1, …,bn are constant. We now
formulate the following rules for finding the vertical and horizontal asymptote of the rational
𝑁(𝑥)
function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = :
𝐷(𝑥)

1. To find the vertical asymptote of the graph of f(x), we set D(x)=0 and solve for x. If x =
k where k is any real number, then the vertical asymptote is the line x = k.
2. To find the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f(x), we have the following conditions
to observe:
C1: If m < n, then the horizontal asymptote is y = 0.
𝑎0
C2: If m = n, then the horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = .
𝑏0

C3: If m > n, there is no horizontal asymptote.

 2𝑥 2
Example: Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥2 −4

Solution: Note the N(x) = 2x and D(x)= x2-4.

I. Intercepts: x = 0 and and y = 0
II. Symmetry: Symmetric with respect to y-axis.
III. Asymptotes:

(1) Setting 𝑥 2 − 4 = 0, we get x = 2 and x = -2 as vertical asymptotes.

(2) Since m = n = 2, condition C2 is satisfied and because a0= 2 and b0= 1, then the
horizontal asymptote is the line y = 2.

Consider again condition C3 where m > n, i.e. where the degree of N(x) is greater than the
degree of D(x). While there is no horizontal asymptote, there may be a “slanting” asymptote. To
find the equation of this asymptote, we proceed as follows:

By long division, write

𝑁(𝑥)
𝑦=
𝐷(𝑥)
in the form
𝑅(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) +
𝐷(𝑥)

where the degree of R(x) is less than the degree of D(x). The equation of the “slanting” asymptote
is y = Q(x).
2𝑥 2 +𝑥−1
Example: the function 𝑦 = , by long division, can be written in the form
𝑥−1

2
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 +
𝑥−1
2
We recognize Q(x)= 2x + 3 and 𝑅(𝑥) = . Hence the “slanting” asymptote is the
𝑥−1
line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3. The graph of the function is shown below.

Exercises 1.4
Sketch the graph of the following function:
4
1. 𝑦 = 𝑥
2𝑥
2. 𝑦 = 𝑥−1

𝑥 2 +1
3. 𝑦 =
𝑥