Senior High School

NOT

Earth Science
Quarter 1 - Module 2
Minerals and Rocks

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

Earth Science- Grade 12
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 - Module 2: Minerals and Rocks
First Edition, 2020

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 Senior High School

Earth Science
Quarter 1 – Module 2
Minerals and Rocks
Version 4

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 Table of Contents

What This Module is About ...........................................................................................................i

What I Need to Know.....................................................................................................................i
How to Learn from this Module .....................................................................................................i
Icons of this Module......................................................................................................................ii
What I Know ............................................................................................................... iii

Lesson 1:
Composition and Structure of Mineral......................................................
What I Need to Know..........................1
What I Know -------------------------2,3
What’s In---------------------------------4
What’s New: Anticipation Guide--- 4
What Is It: Learning Concept-------5
What I Have Learned: Bubble Chart ..........................................................8
What I Can Do: Online Browsing and familiarize different kinds of
minerals ------------------------------------------ 8

Lesson 2:
Properties of Minerals...................................................................................................
What’s In: Learning concept -----------------------------------------------------9
What’s New: Examine the pictures --------------------------------------------9
What’s In: Learning Activity #3.........................................................-13
What I Have Learned: Venn Diagram---------------------------------------15

Lesson 3: Classification
Rocks
What I Need to Know--------15
What’s In: ----------------------16
What Is It: Rock Cycle----- 16
What’s New: Rock cycle Diagram ---17,18
What Is It---------------------------------------23
What I Have Learned: Word Analysis---23
What I Can Do: Visit an area of your place ........................................23

Summary ............................................................................................................24
Assessment: (Post-Test) --------------------------------------------------------------------25

Key to Answers ................................................................................................26-27

References ................................................................................-......................28
 Module 2
Minerals and Rocks
What This Module is About

This module deals with the relationship between minerals and rocks. It is
important that we gain knowledge of the materials that make up the Earth’s crust.
Rocks and minerals are significant in the formation of earth as an inner planet. The
minerals that we will emphasize on this module are those which are rock-forming and
those which are highly important in our economy. It is necessary for use to have a
good understanding of the physical and chemical properties of minerals because this
will help us in identifying rock-forming minerals. By learning these earth materials, we
will have a good grasp of the various earth processes.
This module will help you understand the key concepts that will answer the
questions pertaining to minerals as the building block of rocks and the solid materials
that are the core of the earth processes.

The following are the lessons contained in this module:

• Lesson 1- Composition and Structure of Minerals
• Lesson 2- Properties of Minerals
• Lesson 3- Classification of Rocks

What I Need to Know

Learning Objectives

In this module, you are expected to:

1. Identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical

properties (S11ES-Ib-5);
2. Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic (S11ES-Ic-6)

How to Learn from this Module

To achieve the objectives cited above, you are to do the following:

• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.

• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.

• Answer all the given tests and exercises.

1
Icons of this Module

What I Know

PRE-TEST

MULTIPLE CHOICE:
Directions: Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct
answer. Place all your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following is a physical property of minerals?

A. chemical make-up C. fracture
B. bonding formation D. viscosity

2. Which carbonate mineral reacts readily with cool, dilute hydrochloric acid to
produce visible bubbles of carbon dioxide gas?
A. Calcite C. Plagioclase
B. Gypsum D. Quartz

2
3. What is the hardest known mineral on earth?
A. Diamond C. Native gold
B. Muscovite D. Silicate

4. Which common mineral is composed entirely of silicon and oxygen?

A. Calcite C. Olivine
B. Diamond D. Quartz

5. Which mineral is easily soluble in water at room temperature conditions?

A. Diamond C. Olivine
B. Halite D. Talc
6. Which element is the most abundant in the Earth's crust by weight?
A. Carbon C. Oxygen
B. Chlorine D. Sodium

7. Which of the following elements bonds with silicon and forming silicates?
A. calcium C. oxygen
B. hydrogen D. Sodium

8. Which of the following characteristics refer to the tendency of minerals to break

forming smooth flat surfaces?
A. cleavage C. streak
B. conchoidal D. fracture

9. Which of the following is the most abundant mineral group on the Earth's crust?
A. carbonates C. silicates
B. oxides D. sulfides

10. Which of the following refers to ability of minerals to reflect light on its surface?
A. Streak C. fluorescence
B. luster D. color

11. Which of the following is said to be the most unreliable (variable) diagnostic
property of minerals?
A. luster C. crystal form
B. hardness D. color .

12. On Mohs hardness scale, which is the softest mineral?

A. apatite C. quartz
B. calcite D. talc

13. Which of the following leads to formation of an igneous rock?

A. at great depth within Earth C. by changes in mineral composition
B. by crystallization of molten rock D. by the weathering of pre-existing rocks

14. Sedimentary rocks account for about how much in the total percentage of rocks
found in all continents?
A. 20 C. 50
B. 35 D. 75

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15. Which of the following does NOT refer to sedimentary rocks?
A. may contain fossils
B. may be economically important
C. hold important clues to Earth's history
D. formed because of heat and pressure at depths

Lesson Composition and Structure of

1 Minerals

What’s In

Question?
Are the minerals present in dietary supplements and the minerals we are talking
about here the same?

The answer is No. From geologic perspective, a mineral must be naturally occurring
crystalline solid. Minerals found in dietary supplements are human-made inorganic
compounds that contain elements needed to sustain life. These dietary minerals
typically contain elements that are metals- calcium, potassium, phosphorus
magnesium, and iron. Although these two types of “minerals” are different, they are
related. The sources of the elements used to make dietary supplements are in fact the
naturally occurring minerals on Earth’s crust. It should also be noted that vitamins are
organic compounds produced by living organisms, not inorganic compounds, like
minerals.

What’s New

Learning Activity # 1: ANTICIPATION GUIDE

Minerals
Write Yes if the statement is true, otherwise, No if the statement is not correct.
Write your answer in the pre-reading column. You are given only 5 minutes to
answer the statement below. Do not answer the post reading yet. You can
answer the post reading column after you have read the characteristics of
minerals below. After reading the text, then answer the post reading portion.
Then compare your answer.
Note: Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
Pre-Reading Statements Post Reading
(write your answer (write your
before reading answer after

4
The reading the text
text below) below)

1. Is a mineral solid? 1.
2. Is a mineral naturally occurring crystalline materials? 2.
3. Is a mineral having definite chemical composition? 3.
4. Is a mineral organic substance? 4.
5. Is a mineral an aggregate of rock? 5.
Congratulations!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

What Is It

Learning Concept

Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Geologists define minerals as any
present inorganic solids that possess an orderly crystalline structure and a well-
defined chemical composition. A mineral must exhibit the following characteristics:

orderly
naturally crystalline
occurring structure inorganic
substance substance (was
never alive)

a solid chemical
composition

Minerals exhibit the following characteristics:

1. Naturally occurring: Minerals form through natural processes, including volcanic

eruptions, precipitation of a solid out of a liquid, and weathering of pre-existing
minerals. Synthetic diamonds and rubies, and other substances with a specific
chemical composition and structure produced by chemists, engineers, and
manufacturers are not considered true minerals.
2. Solid: A true mineral must be solid at temperatures encountered at the earth’s
surface. Liquids and gases are not considered minerals, they do not have a
characteristic crystal structure. Ice for example ceases to exist as a mineral upon
melting into liquid water.
3. Inorganic processes: Any material produced through organic activity – such as
leaves, bones, peat, shell, or soft animal tissue – is not considered a mineral. Most
fossils, although they were once living, have generally had their living tissues
completely replaced by inorganic processes after burial; thus, they are considered to
be composed of minerals as well.
4. Chemical composition: Most minerals exist as chemical compounds composed of
two or more elements. The chemical formula of salt, or halite, is NaCl. A few minerals,
consist of only one type of atom such as graphite (carbon, in this case), therefore, the

5
 chemical formula for graphite is written simply as C. All minerals are defined by their
chemical composition. Quartz, for example, has the chemical formula SiO2 .The
gemstone amethyst is a form of quartz that is colored pale to deep purple by the
presence of the impurity Iron (Fe).

Figure 1: An example of rose quartz Figure 2: Quartz (amethyst)

5. Orderly crystalline structure: Minerals are crystalline substance which means the
chemical composition of a mineral is reflected internally in a regular, repeating
arrangement of atoms, called the crystal structure of the mineral. The crystal
structure of halite is shown in Figure 2a and Figure 2b is cubic shape. The cubic shape
of salt crystals very clearly reflects the right-angle bonds between the Sodium (Na) and
Chlorine (Cl) atoms in its atomic structure.

Figure 2a: structure of sodium Figure 2b: The cubic shape of salt
chloride crystal crystals results from the regular crystal

Through organic and inorganic processes, minerals are formed. A few naturally
occurring substances called mineraloids have characteristic chemical compositions
but are amorphous (having no definite shape). Opal is an example.

Terms to remember:
1. inorganic processes- are found naturally in the ground after the burial of the living
materials e.g. salt or calcium carbonate (from shells and corals reefs).
2. crystal structure – the atoms of a mineral must be arranged in a definite pattern
such as quartz.
3. chemical composition – a mineral is composed of two or more elements.

THE COMPOSITION OF MINERALS

There are approximately 4000 known minerals, uniquely defined by their chemical
composition and internal structure. From the previous texts, you are now familiar with
minerals such as quartz, halite (rock salt), gold, and diamond. Many materials found on
the Earth’s surface are not minerals. Water (H2O(l)) is not mineral because it's not a
solid though having the same chemical formula with ice. Coal is not a mineral because
it is made up of plant remains, it lacks a particular composition, and its atoms are not
arranged in an orderly way. Although they are produced by living things, the shells of

6
such marine animals as clams are composed of minerals. Out of all the elements found
on Earth, only eight (8) make up 98.5 percent of the crust’s total mass.

These elements, which are the ones most common in minerals, are listed in the table
below. More than 90 percent of the minerals on the Earth’s crust are compounds
containing oxygen and silicon, the two most abundant elements. Most minerals are
compounds. Quartz is a compound of Silicon and Oxygen. The mineral galena is a
compound of Lead and Sulfur. A few minerals, however, contains single elements and
are called native elements, these are minerals that exists in their purest forms. Some
of which include, Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu), Sulfur (S), and Diamond (C). Often, differing
types of minerals (compounds and native elements) are found mixed together. Such
mixtures of minerals are called rocks.

The precise chemical composition and internal atomic structure that defines each
mineral also directly determines its outward appearance and physical properties. Thus,
in most cases, general appearance and a couple of easily determined physical
properties are sufficient to spot the mineral.

Common Elements of
Earth’s Crust
Name Percent by
Element Symbol Mass
Oxygen O 46.6
Silicon Si 27.7
Aluminum Al 8.1
Iron Fe 5.0
Calcium Ca 3.6
Sodium Na 2.8
Potassium K 3.6
Magnesium Mg 2.1
Other - 1.5

THE STRUCTURE OF MINERALS

A mineral is composed of an ordered array of atoms chemically bonded to make a

particular crystalline structure. This orderly packing of atoms is reflected in the
regularly shaped objects we call crystals. Rocks are considered to be a combination of
one or more minerals. The growth of crystals is affected by competition for space. The
following are some of the defining features of a crystal.

 Crystal structure
 Regular, geometric, smooth faces
 Orderly arrangements with repeating structures
 Each mineral always forms the same crystal shape
 Crystallographic axes are used to determine structure Six basic crystal shapes

7
 What I Have Learned

Learning Activity no.2: Bubble Chart

1. Instruction: In your paper, copy the bubble chart and fill in the circles in the
bubble chart with the characteristics of minerals that you have just learned.

Minerals

What I Can Do

Online Browsing and familiarize the different kinds of

minerals

8
Lesson Properties of Minerals
2
What’s In

Learning Concept

Now that you have gained knowledge about minerals, it is time for you to know
about the properties of minerals. Take note of the following points:

 Minerals are identified using a set of properties.

 Looking at more than one property is important when identifying minerals .

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Identify a mineral by using their physical properties such as color, luster,

streak, cleavage, and hardness etc.
 Compare and contrast the minerals by using their properties physical and
chemical properties. Understand that it is necessary to examine more than
one property to identify a mineral.

What’s New
Examine the pictures below. C an you identify these
minerals by simply looking at them?

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Minerals differ from each other in chemical composition and architecture, and these
factors produce distinctive physical properties that enable minerals to be identified

Minerals are solids formed primarily by inorganic processes. Each mineral has an
orderly arrangement of atoms (crystalline structure) and a particular chemical

9
 composition, which provides it a singular set of physical properties. Minerals can be
identified by their color, luster, streak, cleavage, hardness, and even by their chemical
composition. Using these properties is one way a Geologist defines and identifies what
kind of mineral a specimen is.

1. Crystal form – The external expression of a mineral that reflects the orderly
internal arrangement of atoms. A crystal may be a solid, homogeneous, displaying
an orderly array of atoms and should be in any size. The shape of a mineral’s
crystal is determined by the arrangement of atoms within it. Some crystals have
smooth, planar and regular geometric shapes. These are what most people think of
as crystals. These crystals rarely occur in nature, however, to develop those
beautifully-shaped crystals, the mineral must have unlimited space for growing.
When minerals start to form solid structure, microscopic crystals form and
grow. This results from the cooling of molten material or through
precipitation from a solution. These tiny crystals will continue to grow until
they run out of space. Their shape will simply reflect the form of the void
which they grew. A nicely shaped crystal such as a geode will be formed if
the growing crystal runs out of material before it runs out of space.
Examples of which will include pyrite and quartz.

A. Pyrite B. Quartz (variety: amethyst) C. Quartz (variety: white)

2. Luster – This property describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected
from its surface. Is it shiny or dull: does it appear as like a metal or like glass?
Generally, the first thing you notice when identifying an unknown sample is the
mineral’s luster. Minerals that have the appearance of metals, regardless of color,
are said to have a metallic luster, like pyrite crystals. Minerals with a nonmetallic
luster are described by various adjectives. They may be described as vitreous
(glassy -like crystals), pearly, silky, resinous, and earthy (dull). Some minerals
appear somewhat metallic in luster and are said to be sub-metallic.

Minerals with a metallic luster look like metals such as steel or Copper. They
possess characteristics of being shiny and opaque, even when watching through a
skinny edge. Many metallic minerals become dull or earthy when they are exposed to
the elements for a long time (like Silver, they tarnish). To determine whether or not a
mineral exhibits a metallic luster, you may want to check out a recently broken part of
the mineral and exposed it to light. Minerals with an earthy luster exhibits earth or dirt
like features. Like metallic minerals, these are completely opaque, but dull. One
example is rust on Iron or tarnish that forms on metals. Vitreous luster is like that of a
shiny glass which may vary from translucent to transparent. Remember that glass can
be almost any color, including black, so don't be fooled by the color. Also, a dark piece
of glass may appear to be opaque if its thick enough. If you hold a thin edge up to the

10
 light you should be able to see light bleeding through. Minerals with a waxy luster
look like paraffin, typically translucent but dull. Moreover, minerals with pearly luster
have an appearance almost like a pearl or that of an abalone shell – translucent and
glossy. When exposed to sunlight, a rainbow effect is displayed on the surface
(similar to anoil slick).

A. Pyrite B. This rock contain gold & copper

3. Color – This is the most obvious feature of a mineral but often an unreliable
diagnostic property. Many minerals are found in several colors. This is may be
attributed to the impurities added to the minerals. Some may have extra
chemicalsin them that give them an unexpected color. One good example is quartz.
Due to impurities, quartz may have variety of colors including pink, purple
(amethyst), milky white, and even black.

Quartz (white &

amethyst)

4. Streak – This color of the mineral in its powdered form, which may or may not be
the same color as the outward color of the mineral. Streak is useful for identifying
minerals with metallic or earthy luster. Streak is obtained by scratching the mineral
on an unpolished piece of white porcelain called a streak plate. When the mineral is
rubbed across the plate, it produces a powder of that mineral, the reason that the
streak plate is harder than most minerals. When the excess powder is blown away,
what remains is the true color of the mineral. Streaking reveals the internal color of
the mineral thus it is more reliable than color in identifying minerals.
5. Hardness – This refers to a measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or
scratching. Geologists use a standard hardness scale, called the Mohs scale. It
consists of 10 minerals arranged in order from 10 (hardest) to 1 (softest).

Table: Mohs scale of mineral hardness

Relative Scale Mineral Hardness of Some Common Objects
Hardest 10 Diamond
9 Corundum
8 Topaz 8.5 Masonry Drill bit

11
 7 Quartz
6 Potassium
Feldspar 5.5 Glass, Pocketknife
5 Apatite
4 Fluorite
3 Calcite 3.5 Copper Penny
2 Gypsum 2.5 Fingernail
Softest 1 Talc

1. Cleavage – A mineral that exhibits cleavage consistently breaks, or cleaves, along

parallel flat surfaces called cleavage planes. Some examples are

Figure 2.15 Common cleavage directions exhibited by minerals. (Photos courtesy of E. J. Tarbuck)

2. Fracture – Minerals that don't exhibit cleavage when broken have exhibits fracture
like quartz. Minerals that break into smooth curved surfaces like those seen in
broken glass have a conchoidal fracture. Others break into splinters or fibers, like
asbestos, but most minerals fracture irregularly. Fractures are generally rough or
irregular, instead of flat, and thus appear duller than cleavage surfaces. Some
minerals fracture in a way that helps spot them. There are other kinds of fracture
that exist in nature such as fibrous, splintery, or irregular.

3. Specific gravity –The specific gravity of a mineral is the weight of that mineral
divided by the weight of an equal volume of water. The specific gravity of water
equals 1.0, by definition. Most silicate, or rock-forming, minerals have specific
gravities of two .6 to 3.4; the ore minerals are usually heavier, with specific gravities
of 5 to eight. If you compare similar-sized samples of two different minerals, the one
with the higher specific gravity will feel the heaviest; it has a greater heft. For most
minerals, relative density isn't a very noteworthy feature, except for some, high
relative density is distinctive (examples are barite and galena). The average specific
gravity for mineral is around 2.7.

4. Other properties
a. Taste – The salty taste if halite makes it easy to identify

12
 b. Smell – Sulfur smells like rotten-egg.
c. Elasticity –A thin sheet of mica will bend and elastically snapback
d. Malleability- Gold for example is widely use because of its ability to be
hammered and turn into sheets.
e. Feel – Minerals like talc and graphite are easily identified due to the distinct
feeling they give to the observer; talc feels soapy while graphite feels greasy
f. Magnetism – Some minerals with high Iron content like hematite can easily be
identified using a magnetite.
g. Double refraction – Some mineral like the transparent calcite exhibits double
refraction when light passes through them. When a printed material is placed
under it, the text will appear double.
h. Reaction to hydrochloric acid – Like calcite and other carbonates, some
minerals react rapidly to weak acids. When exposed to acids, these minerals
will effervesce (fizz) indicating the release of Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas.

MINERAL CLASSES

Approximately 4000 minerals have been named and new ones are identified
each year, but only a few dozen are common. Eight elements make up the bulk of
these minerals, and represent more than 98 percent (by weight) of continental crust.
The eight elements that compose most rock forming minerals, are: Oxygen (O),
Silicon (Si), Aluminum (Al), Iron (Fe), Calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), and
Magnesium (Mg). Oxygen (46.6% by weight) and Silicon (27.7% by weight) are the
most abundant elements in the crust of the earth. All silicate minerals have the silicon-
oxygen tetrahedron as their fundamental building block. In some silicate minerals the
tetrahedra are joined in chains; in others, the tetrahedra are arranged into sheets,
or three-dimensional networks. The term ore is employed to denote useful metallic
minerals, like hematite (mined for iron) and galena (mined for lead) which will be
mined for a profit also as some nonmetallic minerals, like fluorite and sulfur, that
contain useful substances.
There are different kinds of minerals. They are classified according to their
properties, chemical composition or uses. Table 2.1 lists the common groups of
minerals with corresponding examples and uses.

Table 2.1 Common Groups of Minerals

Group Example Chemical composition uses
Quartz SiO2
Magnetite Fe3O4 Source of iron
Rutile TiO2 paints
Hematite Fe2O3 Ore of iron, pigment
Corundum Al2O3 Gemstone , abrasive
Ice H2O Solid form of water
Chromite FeCr2O4 Ore of chromium
Oxides Ilmenite FeTiO3 Ore of titanium
Limonite FeO(OH) • nH2O Ore of iron, pigments
Hydroxides Bauxite Al(OH)3 • nH2O Ore of aluminum
Sulfides Pyrite FeS2 Sulphuric acid production
Galena PbS Source of lead
Sphalerite ZnS Ore of zinc
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Ore of copper
Bornite Cu5FeS4 Ore of copper

13
 Cinnabar HgS Ore of mercury
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O Plaster of paris
Sulfates Anhydrite CaSO4 Plaster of paris
Barite BaSO4 Drilling mud
Gold Au Trade, Jewelries and
coins
Silver Ag Jewelries and coins

Copper Cu Electrical conductor

Diamond C Gemstone, abrasive
Sulphur S Sulpha drugs chemicals
Graphite C Pencil lead dry
Native elements lubricant
Platinum Pt Catalyst
Halides Halite NaCl Common salt
Fluorite CaF2 Component of
steelmaking
Sylvite KCl Fertilize
Carbonates Calcite CaCO3 Chalk, Portland cement,
lime
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 Portland cement, lime
Malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2 Gemstone
Azurite Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 Pigment
Phosphates Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH) fertilizer
Turquoise CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8 Gemstone

What’s In

Learning Activity 3: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Answer the following questions: Use a separate sheet of paper.

1. In your own words, describe the following properties of minerals:

Streak:
Color:
Hardness:
Luster:
Cleavage:

2. In your paper, copy and fill in the table by identifying and grouping the
minerals used to demonstrate each physical property.

Hematite pyrite (2) sulfur potassium feldspar calcite(2) quartz (3)

biotite diamond magnetite copper fluorite (2) corundum
topaz (2) talc halite galena earthy (goethite) feldspar muscovite

Streak Color Hardness Luster Cleavage

14
 What I Have Learned

Learning Activity #4: Venn Diagram

In your paper draw the Venn diagram and pick two minerals to compare. Name
at least 3 similarities and 3 differences between 2 minerals.

Mineral 1 Write 3 Mineral 2

Write 3 differences similarities Write 3 of
of both differences

Lesson
Classification of Rocks
3

What I Need to Know

To understand the relationship between minerals and rocks, imagining a

Choco Mucho chocolate bar might just help you! It is made up of several different
materials: chocolate, wafer cereal crispies coated, and caramel. A rock is like that
chocolate bar. There is an aggregate of distinctive components that makes it. Mainly,
these components are the minerals which you have just learned from the previous
lesson. Rock components and origin are used to identify them.

15
 What’s In
Why study rocks? As you have learned in the previous topic, minerals are the building
blocks of rocks. Rock is composed of one or more minerals. These earth materials,
rocks and minerals have great economic value and the earth processes from which
they originate, determine their properties.

In this lesson, we will discuss the classification of rocks based on their mode of origin.
Before examining each group as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock, we will
view first the rock cycle, which describes the interrelationships among these rock
groups.

What Is It

Rock Cycle

Fig. 1 Rock Cycle

Rock Cycle

To conveniently discuss the rock cycle let us begin with the formation of igneous rocks.
Igneous rocks are formed by solidification and cooling of molten materials. This process
called crystallization may occur either beneath the earth’s surface or following volcanic
eruption at the surface.

When igneous rocks make their way to the surface, they will be pick up, transported and
deposited by any number of erosional agents such as running water, glaciers, wind and

16
 waves. Due to these agents, the rocks will turn into sediments, which will be deposited,
usually as horizontal beds in the ocean and will undergo lithification. This process where
rocks experience cementation and compaction of converting the sediments into solid rock
(sedimentary rocks).
If the resulting sedimentary is buried deep within the earth or involved in the dynamic of
mountain building, it will be subjected to great heat and pressure. The sedimentary rock will
react to changing environment turn into the third type, metamorphic rock. When
metamorphic rock is subjected to still greater heat and pressure, it will melt to create
magma, which will eventually solidify as igneous rock.

Alternative Path…. The path shown in Figure 1 is only the basic cycle; this
is not the only possible path. For example, if the igneous rock did not reach
the surface instead is subjected to heat and pressure beneath, it will turn
into a metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rocks may be exposed to the
surface and be subjected to the agents that will turn them into sediments
and eventually through lithification turn them into sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks may be get buried and melt turning into magma which
will turn into igneous rocks. Rocks can transform from one form to another.
When magma pours out on Earth's surface, magma is called lava. Lava is
the same liquid rock matter that you see coming out of volcanoes.

What’s New

Learning Activity # 5: Rock Cycle Diagram

Word Bank
melting sediments igneous rock crystallization
metamorphic rock metamorphism
lithification heat and pressure weathering, transportation, and deposition
sedimentary rock weathering and erosion

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Complete the Rock Cycle diagram by placing terms from the word bank into the
diagram. In your paper draw the diagram and write your answer.

MAGMA
(Molten ro)ck
1.

9.

2. 10. 8.

7. Heat &
pressure
3. 11

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4. 6.
Cementation & compaction
.
5.

As you have learned from the discussion of the rock cycle, there are three kinds
of rocks. Each has a different texture and origin. Let us find out more about these rocks.

Classification of Rocks

1. Igneous rock form from magma that cools and solidifies in a process called
crystallization. Crystal size depends on the rate of cooling. The faster the rate of cooling is,
the smaller the crystal; this is because, there is less time for crystals of the same chemical
composition to group together. On the other hand, the slower the rate of cooling, the bigger
the crystal sizes are; this is because the longer time for cooling is, the more the time for
crystals of the same chemical composition to group together. The texture of igneous rocks is
classified into four (4): 1) fine-grained, 2) coarse-grained, 3) porphyritic, and 4) glassy.
Texture among minerals refers to the size and arrangement of crystals.

Types of texture
Texture Description Example
1. Fine-grained fast rate of cooling

Rhyolite
2.Coarse-grained slow rate of cooling

Granite

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3.Porphyritic (two two rates of cooling
crystal sizes)

Andesite porphyry
4. Glassy very fast rate of cooling

Obsidian

Igneous rocks can be categorized based on their texture and mineral composition.
Felsic rocks are usually made up of the light-colored silicate minerals like Potassium feldspar
and quartz. More examples of this are granite and rhyolite. Rocks of intermediate
composition contain plagioclase feldspar and amphibole such as andesite. Mafic rocks (e.g.
basalt) contain abundant olivine, pyroxene, and calcium feldspar

Basalt

Classification of Igneous Rocks

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

There are two groups of sedimentary rocks based on the source of the material.
1. Detrital sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation of materials that
originated from pre-existing rocks and was transported in the form of sediments as a result
of mechanical and chemical weathering. Common examples of this rock classification
include shale (most abundant), siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate or breccia.

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 Classification of detrital sedimentary rock name.
Sediment name Detrital Rock name Example

Gravel Conglomerate or
breccia

Conglomerate

Sand Sandstone

Sandstone
Silt Siltstone

Siltstone
Clay Shale

Shale

2. Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed when the dissolved substances from
preexisting rocks are precipitated by either inorganic or organic processes. Precipitation may
occur directly as the result of inorganic processes or indirectly as the result of life processes
by water dwelling organism like snails and clams that produce Calcium carbonate and is
said to have a biochemical origin.

Common sedimentary rocks

1. Limestone is the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock. It is made up of Calcium
carbonate and forms either by inorganic means or as the result of biochemical processes.
“Identified Biochemical Limestone”

a. Coquina is a coarse rock composed of poorly cemented shells and shell fragments.
b. Chalk is a rock made up almost entirely of hard parts of microscopic organisms that are
not longer than the head of a pin.
c. Travertine is a form of limestone (CaCO3) that is deposited by hot springs or as a cave
deposit. This type of limestone is commonly seen decorated in caverns or as a deposit
when groundwater containing Calcium carbonate evaporates.
2. Microcrystalline quartz (precipitated quartz) are very small crystals which cannot
be seen by the naked eye. Examples include chert (light color), flint (dark), jasper(red) and
agate(banded)
3. Evaporites form eventually when the water saturated with salt evaporates but leaves the
deposit behind such as rock salt and gypsum.

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 Fossiliferous limestone

Coquina Chalk Rock salt

4. Coal is made up mostly of organic matter, it is the end-product of the burial of large amounts
of plant material over extended periods. Lignite and bituminous coals are sedimentary rocks,
but anthracite is a metamorphic rock. Anthracite is formed when bituminous coal undergoes
metamorphism, and although it burns more cleanly, it is not as widespread and is more
expensive to mine.

Bituminous coal

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

3. Metamorphic rocks (“changed form" rocks) are formed from igneous rocks, sedimentary
rocks or even from other metamorphic rocks. Metamorphism is the change in the mineral’s
composition and texture of the rock when subjected to high temperature and pressure within
the earth; there is transformation of pre-existing rocks. The degree of metamorphism is
shown in the rock's texture and mineralogy.
Types:
1. Low-grade (slight changes) e.g., shale becomes slate

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2. High-grade (substantial changes) causes the original features to be obliterated.

Metamorphic settings
1. Contact or thermal metamorphism takes place when the rock is intruded by magma.
Here, change is driven by the rise in temperature within the host rock surrounding a molten
igneous body.
2. Regional metamorphism occurs when a large area is affected due to large-scale heat
and pressure such as mountain building. When this happens, metamorphism produces a
great volume of metamorphic rocks.
Agents of Metamorphism

In this module, we identify three (3) agents of metamorphism, these are: (1) heat, (2)
pressure or stress due to confining pressure and differential stress during mountain building,
and (3) chemically active fluids (mainly water and other volatiles) which promote
recrystallization by enhancing ion migration.

Metamorphic textures
When rocks are subjected to low-grade metamorphism, they become more compact and
thus denser. A common example is the metamorphic slate. Here some types of metamorphic
textures:
1. Foliated texture results in the mineral alignment perpendicular to the
compressional force and usually gives the rock a layered or banded appearance.

Common foliated metamorphic rock:

a. Slate is a finely grained rock composed mostly of mica and produced through
the low-grade metamorphism of shale.

b. Schist (pronounce “shists”) is a strongly foliated rock and described as platy

meaning, the rock’s crystals are thin and leaf-like". Its types are based on
composition.
c. Gneiss (pronounced “nice”) is a strong segregation of silicate minerals and
exhibits a "banded" texture (alternating layers of light and dark minerals like
granite.

Slate Mica Schist Gneiss (banded appearance)

2. Non-foliated texture contains equidimensional crystals and resembles a coarse-

grained igneous rock. Examples of non-foliated rocks are the following:

a.Marble results when limestone (parent rock) is metamorphosed. There are large,
interlocking crystals of calcite and is used as a building stone and has variety of colors.
b.Quartzite forms from quartz sandstone (parent rock); quartz grains are
fused.

Marble – a nonfoliated metamorphic . Quartzite

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 What Is It

Learning Activity # 6: Classify Me!

Word Bank
granite anthracite shale arkose rhyolite obsidian
gypsum gneiss scoria sandstone conglomerate marble
slate quartzite pumice

Classify the following rocks as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Find your
answer from the word bank. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
Igneous rock Sedimentary rock Metamorphic rock

What I Have Learned

Learning Activity #7: Word Analysis

Word Analysis. Go through the words and/or phrases in each item below and identify
the relationship which is common in most of the words/phrases. Select the word or
phrase which does not fit the pattern.

1. A. diorite B. gabbro C. granite D. basalt

2. A. shale B. sandstone C. breccia D. conglomerate
3. A. chemical fluids B. recrystallization C. melting D. pressure
4. A. cementation B. weathering C. lithification D. compaction
5. A. hydrolysis B. sheeting C. oxidation D. dissolution

What I Can Do

Learning Activity #8: Collection of Rocks (Performance Task)

Visit an area in your place where you can find rocks such as rivers, parks,
construction stores, etc. Collect the rocks that interest you and classify and give
description of each kind of rock (classify as igneous, sedimentary or
metamorphic). Request your father or relatives to accompany you to the place
where you found the rocks.

Ask anyone who might know the local name of the rocks and how people
might have used it before or even now. Place your collected rocks in a small box
and label.

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 Summary:

 A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid that possesses a definite chemical

composition and a definitive molecular structure that gives it a unique set of physical
properties. Rocks are the result of the accumulation of two or more minerals.

 Characteristics of a mineral include being inorganic, solid, natural occurring, with orderly
internal arrangement of particles, and has a definite chemical structure.
 Rocks are a combination of one or more minerals. The growth of crystals is affected by
competition for space.

 A mineral is an inorganic solid that possesses a particular chemical composition and a

definitive molecular structure that provides it a singular set of physical properties. Rocks are
accumulations of two (2) or more minerals.

 Mineral properties include crystal form, shine or luster, streak, hardness, cleavage, fracture,
color, and relative density. The eight most abundant elements found in Earth's continental
crust (Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, and Magnesium) also
compose the bulk of minerals.

 All silicate minerals have the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron as their fundamental building block.
In some silicate minerals the tetrahedra are joined in chains; in others, the tetrahedra are
arranged into sheets, or three-dimensional networks.

The term ore is employed to denote useful metallic minerals, like hematite (mined for iron)
and galena (mined for lead) which will be mined for a profit also as some nonmetallic
minerals, like fluorite and sulfur, that contain useful substances. .
An igneous rock forms from magma that cools and solidifies in a process called
crystallization. A sedimentary rock forms from the lithification of sediment. A metamorphic
rock forms through intense pressure and heat in the process of metamorphism.
The cooling rate of magma affects the size of crystals in igneous rocks– the slower the rate
of cooling, the bigger the crystals, the faster the rate, the smaller the rate. The four types of
igneous rock textures can be categorized as follows; 1) fine-grained, 2) coarse-grained, 3)
porphyritic, and 4) glassy.
 Limestone is the most common and most abundant chemical sedimentary rock, which is
made up mostly of calcium carbonate.
 The 2 types of metamorphism include the regional metamorphism and contact
metamorphism. Heat is the most important factor which provides the energy to drive the
reactions that result in the recrystallization of minerals.

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 Assessment: (Post-Test)

MULTIPLE CHOICE:
Directions: Read and carefully each item and choose the letter of the correct answer. Write
your answers in a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following properties may vary for different samples of a given mineral?
A. color B. hardness C. luster D. strea
2. Which of the following is a physical property of minerals?
A. chemical make-up C. fracture
B. bonding formation D. viscosity
3. What is the hardest known mineral on earth?
A. Diamond B. Muscovite C. Native gold D. Silicate
4. Which common mineral is composed entirely of silicon and oxygen?
A. Calcite B. Diamond C. Olivine D. Quartz
5. Which mineral is easily soluble in water at room temperature conditions?
A. Diamond B. Halite C. Olivine D. Talc
6. Which element is the most abundant in the Earth's crust by weight?
A. Carbon B. Chlorine C. Oxygen D. Sodium
7. Which one of the following is NOT true for minerals?
A. They may be liquid, solid, or gas form.
B. They have a specific, internal, crystalline structure.
C. They have a specific, predictable chemical composition.
D. They can be identified by characteristic physical properties.
8. Which of the following characteristics refer to the tendency of minerals to break
forming smooth flat surfaces?
A. cleavage B. conchoida C. streak D. fracture
9. Which of the following is the most abundant mineral group on the Earth's crust?
A. carbonates B. oxides C. silicates D. sulfides

10. Which of the following refers to ability of minerals to reflect light on its surface?
A. Streak B. luster C. fluorescence D. color

11. Which of the following is said to be the most unreliable (variable) diagnostic property of
minerals?
A. luster B. hardness C. crystal form D. color .

12. On Mohs hardness scale, which is the softest mineral?

A. apatite B. calcite C. quartz D. talc

13. Which one of the following is NOT one of the eight most common elements in
Earth's crust?
A. aluminum B. calcium C. carbon D. potassium
14. Which of the following leads to formation of an igneous rock?
A. at great depth within Earth C. by changes in mineral composition
B. by crystallization of molten rock D. by the weathering of pre-existing rocks

15. Sedimentary rocks account for about how much in the total percentage of rocksfound in all
continents?
A. 20 B. 35 C. 50 D. 75

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References:

Books

Tarbuck, Edward.J, Lutgens, Frederick. K. and Tasa, Dennis. 2009 Earth Science
12th ed. (Phil. Ed), PEARSON EDUCATION SOUTH ASIA PTE LTD, 81-29
Tarbuck, Edward J., Lutgens, Frederick. K. 2004 Earth Science 10th ed(Phil. Ed).
PEARSON EDUCATION SOUTH ASIA PTE LTD,. 61-19

MELC4_Project EASE Integrated Science Inside the Solid Earth: Lesson 2 Minerals and Rocks

Johansson L., Alderton, Westholm, D., 2015 in Reference Module in Earth Systems and
Environmental Sciences

Photo: Rosalina B. Fantilaga

Web Resources:
http://minerals.galleries.com minerals by chemical group, name
http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals U.S. Geological Survey, minerals in U.S.
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/AASG Link to all state geological surveys
http://geology.com minerals>rocks http://www. saddleback.edu.>notes
https://www.Sciencedirect. com/mineral resources

For inquiries and feedback, please write or call:

Department of Education – Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR)

DepEd Division of Cagayan de Oro City

Fr. William F. Masterson Ave Upper Balulang Cagayan de Oro
Telefax: ((08822)855-0048

E-mail Address: cagayandeoro.city@deped.gov.ph

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