Functions and Graphs 1

At the end of this session, students will be able to:

1. describe different types of numbers;
2. define set and identify sets;
3. determine and evaluate a function;
4. find the root of a function;
5. apply the arithmetic operations and composition of functions; and
6. find the inverse of a function

Functions
What is a number?
There are different kinds of numbers. The simplest numbers are the positive
integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,…. and the number zero 0; and the negative
integers -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9… Together these form the integers or
whole numbers.
Next, there are the numbers you get by dividing one whole number by
another (nonzero) whole number such as ½, 1/3, 2/3, ¼, 2/4, ¾, 4/3,… or -
½, -1/3, -2/3, -¼, -2/4, -¾, -4/3. These are the so called fractions or
rational numbers.
You can add, subtract, multiply and divide any pair of rational numbers and
the result will again be a rational number (provided you don't try to divide
by zero).
You can represent certain fractions as decimal fractions. For example,
21/12 = 1.75.
Not all fractions can be represented as decimal fractions. For example,
expanding 1/3 into a decimal fraction leads to an unending decimal fraction.
It is impossible to write the complete decimal expansion of 1/3 because it
contains infinitely many digits. But you can describe the expansion, each digit
is a three.
Every fraction can be written as a decimal fraction which may or may not be
finite. If the decimal expansion doesn't end, then it must repeat. For example,
1/7 = 0.142857 142857 142857 142857… Hence, any infinite repeating
decimal expansion represents a rational number.
A real number is specified by a possibly unending decimal expansion. For
example, √2 = 1.414213562. You can never write all the digits in the decimal
expansion, so you only write the first few digits by rounding off.

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The real number line and intervals
It is customary to visualize the real numbers as points on a straight line. We
imagine a line, and choose one point on this line, which we call the origin.
We also decide which direction we call “left" and hence which we call “right."
Some draw the number line vertically and use the words “up" and “down."
To plot any real number x one marks off a distance x from the origin, to the
right (up) if x > 0, to the left (down) if x < 0.

Figure 1. The real number line and intervals.

The distance along the number line between two numbers x and y is |x – y|.
In particular, the distance is never a negative number.
Example: number line for x=3, x>=3, x<=3, x>3, and x<3

Figure 2. A number line for x=3, x>=3, x<=3, x>3, and x<3.

Another example, to draw the half open interval [-1; 2) use a closed dot to
mark the endpoint which is included and an open dot for an excluded
endpoint.

Figure 3. A half open interval [-1; 2).

 The collection of all real numbers between two given real numbers form an
interval. The following notation is used:
 (a; b) is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy a < x < b.
 [a; b) is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy a <= x < b.
 (a; b] is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy a < x <= b.
 [a; b] is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy a <= x <= b.
If the endpoint is not included then it may be ∞ or -∞. E.g. (�1; 2] is the
interval of all real numbers (both positive and negative) which are 2.

Set Notation
A common way of describing a set is to say it is the collection of all real
numbers which satisfies a certain condition. One uses this notation
A = { x | x satisfies this or that condition}
Most of the time we will use upper case letters (A,B,C,D, . . . ) to denote sets.
For example, the interval (a, b) can be described as (a, b) = {x | a < x < b}
The set B = {x | x2 - 1 > 0} consists of all real numbers x for which x 2 - 1 > 0,
that is, it consists of all real numbers x for which either x > 1 or x < -1 holds.
This set consists of two parts: the interval (-∞, -1) and the interval (1, ∞).
Some sets can be very difficult to identify, For example, C = {x | x is a rational
number} can't be accurately be identified.
Sets can also contain just a few numbers, like D = {1, 2, 3} which is the set
containing the numbers one, two and three or the set E = {x | x3 - 4x2 + 1 = 0}
which consists of the solutions of the equation x 3 - 4x2 + 1 = 0.
There are three of them, but it is not easy to give a formula for the solutions.
If A and B are two sets then the union of A and B is the set which contains all
numbers that belong either to A or to B. The following notation is used:
A U B = {x | x belongs to A or to B or both}.
Similarly, the intersection of two sets A and B is the set of numbers which
belong to both sets. This notation is used:
A Ո B = {x | x belongs to both A and B}.

Functions
The term function was first used by Leibniz in 1673 to denote the
dependence of one quantity on another. In general, if a quantity y depends on
a quantity x in such a way that each value of x determines exactly one value
of y, then we say that y is a “function” of x.
A function is a rule that assigns to each element in a nonempty set A one and
only one element in set B. (A is the domain of the function, while B is the
range of the function).

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The set of numbers for which a function is defined is called its domain. The
set of all possible numbers f(x) as x runs over the domain is called the range
of the function. The rule must be unambiguous: the same x must always lead
to the same f(x).
For example, one can define a function f by putting f(x) = √x for all x ≥ 0.
Her, the rule defining f is: “take the square root of whatever number you're
given", and the function f will accept all nonnegative real numbers.
The rule which species a function can come in many different forms. Most
often it is a formula, as in the square root example above.
Sometimes you need a few formulas, as in
2𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
𝑔(𝑥) = { 2
𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠.
Functions which are defined by different formulas on different intervals are
called piecewise defined functions.

Example 1:
Determine if each of the following is a function.
1) y = x2 + 1
2) y2 = x + 1
3) y = x2 - x + 3
Solution:
1) This first one is a function. Given an x, there is only one way to square it
and then add 1 to the result. So, no matter what value of x you put into the
equation, there is only one possible value of y.
2) The only difference between this equation and the first is that we moved
the exponent off the x and onto the y. This small change is all that is
required, in this case, to change the equation from a function to
something that isn’t a function.
To see that this isn’t a function is fairly simple. Choose a value of x,
say x=3 and substitute into the equation y 2 = x + 1.
Now, there are two possible values of y that we could use here. We could
use +2 or -2 . Since there are two possible values of y that we get from a
single x this equation isn’t a function.
Note that this only needs to be the case for a single value of x to make an
equation not be a function. For instance we could have used x=-1 and in
this case we would get a single y(y=0). However, because of what
happens at x=3 this equation will not be a function.
3) The last one is also a function. Again, no matter what value of x you put
into the equation, there is only one possible value of y.
 Function Notation

Function notation is nothing more than an impressive way of writing the y in

a function that will allow you to simplify notation.

The function y = x 2 - 2x + 3 can be written as follows.

 f(x) = x2 - 2x + 3

 h(x) = x2 - 2x + 3

 w(x) = x2 - 2x + 3

 g(x) = x2 - 2x + 3

 R(x) = x2 - 2x + 3

 y(x) = x2 - 2x + 3

So, why is this useful? Well let’s take the function above and let’s get the
value of the function at x= 3. Using function notation we represent the value
of the function at x=3 as f(3). Function notation gives us a nice compact way
of representing function values.

Now, how do we actually evaluate the function? That’s really

simple. Everywhere we see an x on the right side we will substitute
whatever is in the parenthesis on the left side. For our function this gives,

f(3) = (3)2 - 2(3) + 3

= 9 – 6 +3

=6

Example 2:

Given f(x) = - x2 + 6x – 11 find each of the following.

1) f(2)
2) f(-10)

3) f(t)

4) f(t-3)

5) f(x-3)

6) f(4x-1)

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Solution:

For the solution, simply substitute the respective values to the function f(x) =
- x2 + 6x – 11

1) f(2) = -(2)2 + 6(2) – 11 = -3

2) f(-10) = -(-10)2 + 6(10) – 11 = -171. Be careful when squaring negative

numbers

3) f(t) = -(t)2 + 6(t) – 11 = -t2 + 6t – 11. Remember that we substitute for

the x’s whatever is in the parenthesis on the left. Often this will be
something other than a number. So, in this case we put t’s in for all the x’s
on the left.

4) f(t-3) = -(t-3)2 + 6(t-3) – 11 = -t2 + 12t – 38. Often instead of evaluating

functions at numbers or single letters we will have some fairly complex
evaluations so make sure that you can do these kinds of evaluations.

5) f(x-3) = - (x-3)2 + 6(x-3) – 11 = -x2 + 12x – 38. The only difference

between this one and the previous one is that we changed the t to
an x. Other than that there is absolutely no difference between the two.

6) f(4x-1) = -(4x-1)2 + 6(4x-1) – 11 = -16x2 + 32x – 18. This one is not much
different from the previous part. All we did was change the equation that
we are plugging into the function.

Root of a Function

Throughout a calculus course we will be finding roots of functions. A root of

a function is nothing more than a number for which the function is zero. In
other words, finding the roots of a function, f(x), is equivalent to solving f(x)
= 0.

Hence, the number r is a root of a polynomial f(x) if and only if f(r) = 0. For
example, with the function f(x)=2−x, the only root would be x=2, because that
value produces f(x)=0.

Example 3:

Determine all the roots of P(x) = 5x3− 4x2 + 7x – 8

Solution:
Then the root of that polynomial is 1 because, according to the definition, by
substituting the value of 1 to the given expression, the function becomes 0.
P(x) = 5x3− 4x2 + 7x − 8
P(1) = 5(1)3 − 4(1)2 + 7(1) − 8
 =5 −4 +7− 8
=0

Example 4:

Determine all the roots of G(x) = x2 −x − 6

Solution:
So, we need to solve, x 2 −x − 6 = 0
First, we should factor the equation as much as possible. Doing this gives,
(x + 2) (x − 3)
The roots are −2 and 3. These are the values of x that will make the function
equal to 0.
x2 −x − 6 = (x + 2)(x − 3)
(x + 2)(x − 3) = 0
x = -2
x=3
x = -2: (-2)2 −(-2) − 6 = 0 ; 4 + 2 – 6 = 0
x = 3: (3)2 − (3) − 6 = 0 ; 9 – 3 – 6 = 0

Arithmetic Operations on Functions

Arithmetic Operations on functions

 Sum: (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x),domain: the intersection of the domains of

f and g.

 Difference: (f − g)(x) = f(x) − g(x),domain: the intersection of the

domains of f and g.

 Product: (f ∗ g)(x) = f(x) ∗ g(x),domain: the intersection of the

domains of f and g.

 Quotient: (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x),domain: the intersection of the domains

of f and g with the points where g(x) = 0 excluded.

Example 5:

Given f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = 4 – 5x, find (f + g)(x), (f – g)(x),

(f×g)(x), and (f/g)(x).
Solution:
To find the answers, all you have to do is to simply apply the operations plus,
minus, times, and divide orderly.
 (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) = [3x + 2] + [4 – 5x] = 3x – 5x + 2 + 4 = –2x + 6
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  (f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x) = [3x + 2] – [4 – 5x] = 3x + 5x + 2 – 4 = 8x – 2
 (f × g)(x) = [f(x)][g(x)] = (3x + 2)(4 – 5x) = 12x + 8 – 15x2 – 10x
 (f/g)(x) = f(x) / g(x) (3x + 2) / (4 – 5x) = –15x2 + 2x + 8

Example 6:
Given f(x) = 2x, g(x) = x + 4, and h(x) = 5 – x3, find (f + g)(2), (h – g)(2),
(f × h)(2), and (h/g)(2).
Solution:
To find the answers, you can either work symbolically (like in the previous
example) and then evaluate, or you can find the values of the functions at x =
2 and then work from there. It's probably simpler in this case to evaluate
first, so
f(2) = 2(2) = 4
g(2) = (2) + 4 = 6
h(2) = 5 – (2)3 = 5 – 8 = –3
Now, we can evaluate the listed expressions:
 (f + g)(2) = f(2) + g(2) = 4 + 6 = 10
 (h – g)(2) = h(2) – g(2) = –3 – 6 = –9
 (f × h)(2) = f(2) × h(2) = (4)(–3) = –12
 (h / g)(2) = h(2) ÷ g(2) = –3 ÷ 6 = –0.5
If you work symbolically first, and plug in the x-value only at the end, you'll
still get the same results. Either way will work.
Evaluating first is usually easier, but the choice is up to you.

Composition of Functions
Evaluating a symbolic composition, where you're first plugging x into some
function and then plugging that function into some other function, can be
much disorganized. But the process works just as the at-a-number
composition does, and using parentheses to be carefully explicit at each step
will be even more helpful.
Composition of f with g : (f ◦g)(x) = f((g(x)),the domain of f ◦g consists of all x
in the domain of g for which g(x) is in the domain of f.
Example 7:
Given f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = –x2 + 5, find (f o g)(x).
Solution:
In this case, we are not trying to find a certain numerical value. Instead, we
are trying to find the formula that result from plugging the formula for
g(x) into the formula for f(x). Write the formulas at each step, using
parentheses to indicate where the inputs should go:
 ( f o g)(x) = f (g(x))
= f (–x2 + 5)
= 2(–x2 + 5) + 3
= –2x2 + 10 + 3
= –2x2 + 13

Example 8:

Here's another symbolic example:

Given f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = –x2 + 5, find (g o f )(x).

Solution:
Same as the previous example, here, we are trying to find the formula that
results from plugging the formula for g(x) into the formula for f(x). Write the
formulas at each step, using parentheses to indicate where the inputs should
go:
(g o f )(x) = g( f(x))
= g(2x + 3)
= –(2x + 3)2 + 5
= –(4x2 + 12x + 9) + 5
= –4x2 – 12x – 9 + 5
= –4x2 – 12x – 4

Note that, (f o g)(x) is not the same as (g o f )(x). This is true in general; you
should assume that the compositions ( f o g)(x) and (g o f )(x) are going to be
different. In particular, composition is not the same thing as multiplication.
The open dot "o" is not the same as a multiplication dot "•", nor does it mean
the same thing. While the following is true:
f(x) • g(x) = g(x) • f(x) [always true for multiplication]
...you cannot say that:

( f o g)(x) = (g o f )(x) [generally false for composition]

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Inverse Function
The inverse of f is a function which maps f(x) to x in reverse. It is denoted by
f-1 .

The inverse of a function is found by interchanging its range and domain. The
domain of F becomes the range of the inverse and the range of F becomes the
domain of the inverse of F. The inverse of a function is not always a function
and should be checked by the definition of a function. A function only has an
inverse if it is one-to-one.

One-to-One Function

What is a one-to-one function?

In a one-to-one function every element in the domain is paired with a unique
element in the range and every element in the range is paired with a unique
element in the domain. Only one-to-one functions can have inverse functions.
How to get the inverse of a function?
The steps involved in getting the inverse of a function are:
Step 1:. Replace f(x) with y
Step 2: Move y to the right side of the equation
Step 3: Make x the subject of the equation
Step 4: Replace x by f-1(x) and replace y by x

Example 8:
Find the inverse of f(x) = 2x + 3.
Solution:
For the solution, rewrite f(x) = 2x + 3 as y = 2x + 3.
y = 2x + 3, move y to the RHS, this becomes
2x + 3 = y, make x the subject of the formula,
2x = y – 3
3
x= 𝑦− , finally, replace x by f -1 (x) and y by x
2
3
f-1 (x) = 𝑥 − 2

Example 9:
Find the inverse of g(x) = x / 2– 5.
Solution:
Rewrite g(x) = x/2 – 5 as y = x/2 – 5.
 y = x/2 – 5, move y to the RHS, this becomes
x/2 – 5 = y, make x the subject of the formula,
x/2 = y + 5
x = 2 (y + 5), finally, replace x by g -1 (x) and y by x
g-1 (x) = 2 (x + 5)

There are different types of numbers: Integers or Whole Numbers,

Fractions or Rational Numbers, and Real numbers
A set is the collection of all real numbers which satisfies a certain condition.
The union of A and B is the set which contains all numbers that belong either
to A or to B. The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of numbers which
belong to both sets.
In general, if a quantity y depends on a quantity x in such a way that each
value of x determines exactly one value of y, then we say that y is a
“function” of x
A root of a function is nothing more than a number for which the function is
zero. In other words, finding the roots of a function, f(x), is equivalent to
solving f(x) = 0.
To perform Arithmetic Operations on functions, all you have to do is to
simply apply the operations plus, minus, times, and divide orderly.
Composition of f with g : (f ◦g)(x) = f((g(x)), the domain of f ◦g consists of all x
in the domain of g for which g(x) is in the domain of f.
The inverse of f is a function which maps f(x) to x in reverse, denoted by f -1.
The steps involved in getting the inverse of a function are:
Step 1:. Replace f(x) with y
Step 2: Move y to the right side of the equation
Step 3: Make x the subject of the equation
Srep 4: Replace x by f-1(x) and replace y by x

Activities and Exercises

Work on exercises and complete the quiz. Refer to Week001-Assessments-
FunctionsAndGraphs1 file.

References
Angenent, Sigurd B. (2006). MATH 221 - 1st Semester Calculus Lecture
Notes, Version 2.0. Free Software Foundation

Course Module
Strang, Gilbert. Calculus. Massachusetts: Wellesley, Wellesley-Cambridge
Press.
Dawkins, Paul. (2007). Calculus I – Review. Retrieved from
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/CalcI.aspx