Internet Research

The role of virtual try-on technology in online purchase decision from consumers’
aspect
Tingting Zhang, William Yu Chung Wang, Ling Cao, Yan Wang,
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Online
The role of virtual try-on purchase
technology in online purchase decision

decision from consumers’ aspect

Tingting Zhang
University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China
Received 31 December 2017
William Yu Chung Wang Revised 26 April 2018
16 May 2018
University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand 4 July 2018
Ling Cao Accepted 7 July 2018

Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, China, and

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Yan Wang
Shaanxi Business College, Xi’an, China

Abstract
Purpose – Online shopping has continued to grow in popularity, and the advance of internet technology has
enhanced customers’ experiences. One technology online retailers have been using to increase sales is virtual
try-on (VTO). The purpose of this paper is to investigate how such technology affects online consumers’
purchase decision process towards purchase intention, especially from an integration of utilitarian, hedonic
and risk perspectives, by using advanced partial least square (PLS) approaches.
Design/methodology/approach – This study applied a web-based survey approach for data collection from
online apparel retailing websites. The survey instrument was developed by adapting previously validated
measurement items. The valid data collected were analysed using PLS with multi-group analyses. Advanced
PLS techniques such as examination of discriminant validity using heterotrait-monotrait ratio, tests of
out-of-sample prediction performance, and measurement invariance of composite models were applied.
Findings – The results of examining the proposed model reveal that customers’ attitude towards VTO
technology can affect their intention to purchase a garment online, which is affected by perceived
usefulness, perceived enjoyment and perceived privacy risk. Perceived ease of use is found to affect
perceived usefulness and perceived helpfulness. The results also show no significant differences among age
groups and genders in terms of the role of VTO technology in the full decision process towards online
purchase intention.
Originality/value – This study enhances the understanding of the roles that VTO technology plays
in consumers’ online purchase intention by providing an integrative view of its utilitarian value, hedonic
value and risk. This study demonstrates the feasibility of applying advanced PLS techniques to investigate
online consumer behaviour, particularly in the field of VTO application in online retailing. Implications
for online retailers and designers of VTO technology are also derived from the findings.
Keywords Online retailing, Purchase intention, Partial least squares, Multi-group analysis,
Use and gratification theory, Virtual try-on
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
The expansion of online marketplaces has dramatically changed shopping patterns in the
worldwide retailing environment. It is reported that US customers made 51 per cent of
their purchases online in 2016 (Farber, 2016). Clothing and accessories have been the
leading online merchandise category in the past decade (Huang and Shiau, 2017).
For example, US online retail sales in apparel, footwear and accessories generated $81bn
in 2017 and is expected to increase to $123bn by 2022 (Statista, 2018). Despite the steady
rise in online apparel sales over the years, the inability to try-on clothing is a major Internet Research
obstacle to online purchases, which is usually termed as the suit, fit and match dilemma © Emerald Publishing Limited
1066-2243
(Pachoulakis and Kapetanakis, 2012). DOI 10.1108/IntR-12-2017-0540
 INTR Online apparel retailers have tried various approaches in recent years to address this
issue. A key approach is adopting virtual try-on (VTO) technologies (Lin and Wang, 2015),
which “consist of website features that enable creation and manipulation of product or
environment images to simulate (or surpass) actual experience with the product or
environment” (Fiore, Kim and Lee, 2005, p. 39). It is believed that adopting VTO technology
is trendy and is likely to represent the future of online clothing retailing (Greene, 2011). Such
a trend is even observed among online retailers of other products such as Ray-Ban’s
eyewear and MAC’s cosmetics.
Similar to the industry interest in improving VTO technology and its implementation,
research on the role of such technology on online retailing marketing was called for by a
number of researchers, and numerous studies have been conducted ( Jennifer, 2009).
Indeed, research has found that VTO plays an important role in online consumers’
purchase decision making (Merle et al., 2012). Traditionally, this technology adds
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shopping value from the utilitarian perspective by addressing the suit, fit and match
dilemma. It can also provide hedonic value through the pleasure and enjoyment
experienced by consumers while interacting with VTO technology. However, despite how
useful and enjoyable it is to interact with this technology, online consumers may decide
not to purchase clothing from online retailers if using it requires too much effort or has
some risks (Merle et al., 2012).
Overall, extant literature has investigated how VTO applications affect online
consumers’ decision making from different perspectives (Zhang et al., 2017). For example,
while Kim and Forsythe (2010) focus on utilitarian and hedonic perspectives and Lee et al.
(2010) on utilitarian and risk perspectives, Yang and Wu’s (2009) study has a focus on
utilitarian and hedonic perspectives with risk as the moderator. Nevertheless, there is not
a holistic view combining the utilitarian, hedonic and risk perspectives of VTO technology
to investigate the said topic. This study makes an effort towards this direction. In
addition, in examining the role of this particular technology in consumers’ online purchase
decision process, prior studies mostly adopt covariance-based structure equation
modelling (CB-SEM) techniques.
This study intends to deepen our understanding of the role of VTO technology in
consumers’ decisional process towards online purchase intention by extending the use of
partial least square SEM (PLS-SEM) techniques to this research area. The rest of this
paper is organised as follows. Section 2 elaborates related literature and the development
of hypotheses. Section 3 discusses data collection and data analysis methods, followed
by data analysis and presentation of results. Section 5 discusses the findings and
concludes this study.

2. Literature review and hypotheses development

2.1 Perspectives of VTO technology
Online consumers’ purchase decision process involves five steps: problem recognition,
information search, evaluation, decision and post-purchase behaviour (Hakan, 2016).
Online retailers introduced VTO technology to enable online consumers to select
complementary clothes from the online shop, try various matches freely and see the
outfits on the screen, which assists with their evaluation of clothes (Fiore, Jin and Kim,
2005). Hence, this technology plays an important role in the evaluation stage, which in
turn affects users’ purchase decision (e.g. Merle et al., 2012; Kim, 2016). Indeed, it is
reported that online consumers’ attitude towards VTO technology is related to
behavioural intention towards online retailers or their online retailing websites (Lee et al.,
2006; Kim and Forsythe, 2009), while its values and usage are associated with
purchase intention in certain ways (Fiore, Jin and Kim, 2005; Fiore, Kim and Lee, 2005;
Merle et al., 2012; Beck and Crié, 2018).
 The literature claims that VTO technology has utilitarian and hedonic values. Utilitarian Online
value involves helping consumers address the suit, fit and match dilemma. For example, purchase
Baytar et al. (2016) find that as VTO applications could potentially provide consumers with decision
helpful information related to apparel attributes (e.g., size, and colour) during
online shopping, consumers are interested in this application for apparel fit evaluation.
Baytar et al.‘s (2016) argument is also supported by an early study (Faust and Carrier, 2011)
in which 70.2 per cent of participants used this technology to confirm the fit of clothes. The
utilitarian value of VTO technology has also been assessed by identifying its usefulness and
ease of use (Hirst and Omar, 2007).
Interaction with VTO provides an enjoyable shopping experience for customers,
demonstrating its hedonic value. This technology allows online consumers to enlarge or
rotate an outfit, to customise a virtual model using their own body information (Pachoulakis
and Kapetanakis, 2012), or even to upload a picture of their own face to make the model look
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like themselves (Merle et al., 2012). VTO applications can also provide social value, allowing
consumers to seek their friends’ opinions by sharing how an outfit looks on the customised
model (Kang and Johnson, 2013).
Despite its utilitarian and hedonic values, using VTO technology is not risk free. It is
reported that the return rates for apparel and accessories bought online are normally
between 35 and 40 per cent (Dennis, 2017), suggesting that one risk is possible inconsistent
fit between the actual result and the virtual trying-on outcome. In addition, while
customising a virtual model, customers usually need to provide confidential information,
such as facial image, height, weight, bust size, waist size and body shape (Merle et al., 2012;
Pachoulakis and Kapetanakis, 2012). In such cases, there is a danger of information leakage,
suggesting the possibility of privacy risk.
Prior studies have investigated VTO application from a utilitarian perspective (e.g. Beck
and Crié, 2018) or a hedonic perspective (e.g. Merle et al., 2012) separately, and a combination
of utilitarian and hedonic perspective (e.g. Fiore, Jin and Kim, 2005; Fiore, Kim and Lee, 2005;
Lee et al., 2006; Hirst and Omar, 2007; Kim and Forsythe, 2007, 2008, 2009; Yen et al., 2017),
of utilitarian and risk perspective (e.g. Cho and Fiorito, 2009; Cho and Wang, 2010; Huang
and Qin, 2011), and of hedonic and risk perspective (e.g. Lee et al., 2010; Huang and Qin,
2011). A summary of related studies is presented in Table I. Nevertheless, there seems a lack
of focus on a holistic view of the utilitarian value, hedonic value and risk of VTO application,
with socialisation being seldom included.

2.2 Uses and gratifications theory

As a visualisation technology, VTO application is a media format that requires extensive
interaction between consumers and the technology. Originated from the effectiveness
perspective on media communication (Luo, 2002), uses and gratifications (U&G) theory
assumes a user-directed nature of a media and that the media requires a high level of
interactivity from its users (Huang, 2008). It has been applied to investigate users’
experience and behaviour associated with online shopping, especially in the area of
consumers’ motivations and attitudes towards interaction with various online media, and
the resulting impacts on their purchasing intentions (Lim and Ting, 2012). Thus, U&G is
considered appropriate for investigating consumers’ perceptions about VTO applications
and their impact on consumers’ attitudes and behaviour (Yaoyuneyong et al., 2014).
Prior studies provide extensive reviews of the applications of U&G for understanding
online consumer behaviours (e.g. Luo, 2002; Lim and Ting, 2012; Yaoyuneyong et al., 2014).
The literature demonstrates the three key aspects of U&G, namely, informativeness,
entertainment and irritation, are equally important for understanding online consumers’
attitudes towards web-based visualisation technology and their behaviours (Lim and Ting,
2012). While informativeness, which describes the value of information delivered by the
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INTR

Table I.

adoption by
A summary of

online consumers
literature on VTO
Socioeconomic
Source Perspectives Method Independent variable Dependent variable factor Findings

Beck and Utilitarian Experiment, Virtual fitting room usage, Intention to purchase – Virtual fitting room use→curiosity about
Crié MANCOVA, curiosity about product, intention product both online and offline; curiosity
(2018) mediation test to patronise →patronage intention both online and
offline; patronage intention →purchase
intention both online and offline; virtual
fitting room use→purchase intention
offline
Yen et al. Utilitarian; Survey; multiple Perceived usefulness, perceived Intention toward using a – PU→INT; PE→INT; ATT→INT
(2017) Hedonic linear regression ease of use, perceived enjoyment, virtual fitting system
attitude towards product
Kim and Utilitarian; Online survey, PU, PEOU, PE, ATU, actual use of ATU, intended use of – PU, PE→ATU; ATU→actual use
Forsythe Hedonic CB-SEM SET VTO, post-use
(2009) evaluation of SET,
purchase, reuse SET,
revisit the site
Kim and Utilitarian; Online survey, PU, PEOU, PE, ATU, intended use ATU, intended use of Gender PU, PE→ATU; PEOU→PU, PE; ATU→
Forsythe Hedonic factor analysis, of VTO VTO, post-use intended use of VTO; Perceived
(2008) CB-SEM evaluation of VTO entertainment has a stronger effect on
attitude for women than for men
Hirst and Utilitarian; Email survey, PU, PEOU, PE, ATP Attitudes towards Gender Online shoppers tended to be more
Omar Hedonic factor analysis, online shopping, matured with high incomes and are willing
(2007) multivariate and intention to shop online to provide personal information (credit
univariate card and purchasing information) online
analysis
Kim and Utilitarian; Focus group and Perceived usefulness, perceived ATT, Use – PU→ATT; PE→ATT, ATT→USE
Forsythe Hedonic online survey, entertainment value
(2007) CB-SEM
Lee et al. Utilitarian; Experiment, Utilitarian shopping orientation, PU, PEOU, PE, ATR, Age, gender, Utilitarian shopping orientation, level of
(2006) Hedonic factor analysis, hedonic shopping orientation, level behavioural intention major IIT→perceived usefulness; utilitarian
CB-SEM of IIT, PU, PEOU, PE towards online retailers shopping orientation, level of IIT→PEOU;

(continued )
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Socioeconomic
Source Perspectives Method Independent variable Dependent variable factor Findings

hedonic shopping orientation, level of

IIT→perceived enjoyment; PU, PEOU,
PE→attitude towards the online retailer;
attitude→behavioural intention
Fiore Utilitarian; Experiment, Arousal, Pleasure, trying image Global attitude, Age, gender, Consciousness-emotion-value, recreational
et al. Hedonic CB-SEM interactivity as stimulating willingness to purchase, major shopping→trying image interactivity;
(2005a) experience, OSL (consciousness- willingness to patronise trying image interactivity→pleasure and
emotion-value), recreational willingness to purchase
shopping
Cho and Utilitarian; Online survey, PU, PEOU, PS, trust, perceived Trust, ATR, Age, education, PEOU, PS→PU; PU, PS→Trust; PU,
Wang Risk factor analysis, security, PEOU, PU, trust, ATR income Trust→ATR
(2010) CB-SEM
Merle Hedonic Experiment, Self-congruity, body esteem, Confidence in fit, Gender Body esteem→self-congruity, confidence in
et al. factor analysis, confidence in apparel fit, utilitarian utilitarian value, fit; Self-congruity→confidence in fit,
(2012) CB-SEM value, hedonic value purchase intentions utilitarian value, hedonic value; utilitarian,
hedonic value→PI
Lee et al. Hedonic; Experiment, LIIT, PE, PR, experimenting with PE, PR, ATR – LIIT→PE, PR, experimenting with
(2010) Risk factor analysis, appearance appearance→PE, PR; PE, PR→ATR
CB-SEM
Huang Hedonic; Survey, factor Performance Expectancy, effort Perceived risk, Intention Gender, age,
Performance expectancy, effort
and Qin risk analysis, CB- expectancy, social influence, to use education, expectancy, social influence has positive
(2011) SEM facilitating conditions, privacy prior impact on intention to use. Perceived risk
concerns, security concerns, experience has negative impact on intention to use.
perceived risk Privacy concerns and security concerns
have positive impact on intention to use
Notes: PU, perceived usefulness; PEOU, perceived ease of use; PS, perceived security; PE, perceived enjoyment/entertainment; PR, perceived risk; LIIT, level of IIT;
ATU, attitude towards using IIT; ATP, attitude towards purchasing online; ATR, attitude towards online retailer; PI, purchase intention
decision
purchase
Online

Table I.
 INTR media for consumers, and entertainment, which measures the pleasure consumers can gain
from using the media, are related to consumers’ positive attitude towards the media,
irritation, which refers to the distraction, control and offensiveness felt by consumers, would
lead to negative impressions of the media (Yaoyuneyong et al., 2014). Consumers tend to
expect their interactions with innovative web technology to be as informative and
entertaining as possible, with little irritation (Yaoyuneyong et al., 2014).
The three aforementioned aspects of U&G form a solid theoretical foundation for a
holistic view of the perceived values and risks of VTO technology and the subsequent
purchase decision. The primary goal of the information delivered via this technology is to
address the suit, fit and match dilemma in apparel online shopping, which is of utilitarian
value. Virtually trying-on apparel can be entertaining, suggesting the hedonic value of such
an application. Consumers may feel irritated if they have to return a garment, whether or not
they virtually tried it on, or believe that the personal information provided to use the VTO
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application might be in danger of leakage, which is related to risk.

2.3 Hypotheses development

Online consumers’ interaction with shopping-assisting applications can affect their
purchase intention decision making in an online setting (Kim, 2016). Online purchase
intention refers to whether or not online consumers intend to make an online purchase in
the near future (Law and Ng, 2016), which is subject to consumers’ attitude towards
shopping-assisting applications (Noordin et al., 2017). Attitude is widely used for
predicting behavioural intentions (e.g. Davis, 1989) and found to be a key predictor of
purchase intention (Law and Ng, 2016). Through VTO applications, which provide
visualised shopping assistance, online consumers may obtain additional information
about the clothing by enlarging and rotating the product images and/or mixing-and-
matching various clothing items (Fiore and Jin, 2003). With sufficient information about
clothes acquired from using technology, consumers tend to change their attitudes towards
the technology, which in turn is likely to affect online consumers’ intention to purchase
clothes from online retailers (Beck and Crié, 2018):
H1. Online consumers’ attitudes towards VTO technology positively influences intention
to purchase.
According to the literature, online consumers’ attitudes towards VTO technology are related
to its perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment (Childers et al., 2001). Hirst and Omar’s
(2007) study shows that online consumers’ attitude towards online shopping is directly
influenced by their perceptions of the usefulness and enjoyment, with an indirect influence
from perceived ease of use. VTO technology can help to address the suit, fit and match
dilemma by providing a rich online shopping experience. Such assistance can be useful as it
provides visual information (Dennis et al., 2010). In addition, the perceived ease of use for
VTO applications would enrich consumers’ shopping experience as it provides clues about a
products’ physical attributes to help consumers evaluate the product (Dennis et al., 2010),
thus enhancing its perceived usefulness:
H2. Perceived usefulness has a positive influence on online consumers’ attitude towards
VTO technology.
H3. Perceived ease of use has a positive influence on perceived usefulness.
The enjoyment of interactive shopping is found to be a strong predictor of attitude in an online
shopping context. In addition to assisting with product evaluation, enjoyment of shopping
online can be enhanced by the interactive nature of the VTO application (Kim, 2016; Pantano
et al., 2017). Kim and Forsythe (2008) indicate that perceived entertainment value of virtual
 trying-on has a positive influence on attitudes towards the enabling technology as consumers Online
tend to enjoy immersing themselves in the virtual simulation and that the easier a VTO purchase
application is to use, the more useful and enjoyable it would be perceived to be: decision
H4. Perceived enjoyment has a positive influence on online consumers’ attitude towards
VTO technology.
H5. Perceived ease of use has a positive influence on perceived enjoyment.
Socialisation is another factor that has been intensively studied in the context of online
clothing shopping (Kim, 2011). VTO application could enhance the shopping experience
further as the trying-on outcome can often be easily shared with friends and family (Dennis
et al., 2010). Thus, it can be a socialisation channel, especially when incorporated with social
media applications, which provides a pleasant and interactive shopping experience for
online consumers (Pachoulakis and Kapetanakis, 2012):
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H6. Perceived socialisation has a positive influence on online consumers’ attitude

towards VTO technology.
Based on the literature, risk perception is related to insecure transactions and confidential
information (such as personal information) transferred to other parties (Law and Ng, 2016).
Online consumers may not use a particular internet technology if using it has some risks,
which in turn may negatively affect their attitude towards technology (Merle et al., 2012).
Choi and Lee (2003) found that the level of perceived product risk for online apparel
consumers is higher than for online non-apparel consumers because they could not try
clothes on. Some prior studies have found evidence that virtually trying-on could potentially
reduce the risk regarding apparel fit when shopping online (Shim and Lee, 2011; Kim, 2016).
Yet, consumers are not confident that the clothes they purchase can meet their expectation,
their attitude towards the application tends to change (Merle et al., 2012; Shin and Baytar,
2014). For example, perceptions towards risks of using VTO technology are found to help
explain online consumers’ attitudes towards it (Huang and Qin, 2011):
H7. Perceived product risk has a negative influence on online consumers’ attitude
towards VTO technology.
Online consumers are also concerned about the process of collecting their personal
information (e.g. body size) when using VTO technology, which is referred to as perceived
privacy risk (Sekhavat, 2017). For example, online consumers are reportedly uncomfortable
with using such technology because of the process of collecting their body information
(Loker et al., 2004) and the potential loss of control over their personal information
(Chiu et al., 2014), especially when they have short- and large-body types (Nam et al., 2009).
Online consumers’ concern for their privacy is suggested as one of the major factors
influencing their attitude towards online shopping applications (e.g. VTO technology)
(Grewal et al., 2003; Huang and Qin, 2011):
H8. Perceived privacy risk has a negative influence on online consumers’ attitude
towards VTO technology.
Some prior studies suggest that the age of a person affects the adoption of internet
technologies and the individual’s online purchase decision related to those technologies. For
example, younger people have higher abilities and levels of acceptance in using
technological devices and are major online buyers (Law and Ng, 2016). Also, young
consumers’ online garment shopping experiences are found to be related to the utilitarian
and hedonic effects of the garment presentation (McCormick and Livett, 2012). However,
other researchers demonstrate no differences in the decisional process underlying online
shopping behaviour between different age groups (Hernández et al., 2011). With regard to
 INTR this controversy, this study examines whether there are any differences between younger
and other online consumers in terms of their perceived values and risks of VTO application,
attitude towards it, and online purchase intention:
H9. There are significant differences in the role of VTO technology between younger and
other consumers’ online purchase decision process including perceived values and
risks of using the technology, attitude towards it, and online purchase intention.
Gender is another key socioeconomic factor to investigate differences in customer purchase
decisions in an online setting; specifically, men and women differ in their perceptions
associated with online purchase intentions (Pascual-Miguel et al., 2015). When purchasing
garments, females are considered to have a higher need of product information and are more
likely to use VTO technology as they are more concerned about size and fit (Shin and
Baytar, 2014). Prior studies also found that men’s behaviours are more inclined to be based
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on benefit and utilitarian motivation than women, while female consumers with hedonic
orientation are likely to be attracted by perceived social features of the VTO application
since they are more concerned about social relations and like web technologies that allow
them to socialise more (Dennis et al., 2010; Law and Ng, 2016). With regard to this
controversy, this study examines whether there are any differences between male and
female online consumers in terms of their perceived values and risks of VTO application,
attitude towards it and online purchase intention:
H10. There are significant differences in the role of VTO technology between male and
female consumers’ online purchase decision process in terms of their perceived
values and risks of VTO application, attitude towards it, and online purchase
intention.

3. Research methodology
3.1 Measurement development
The measurement items for each construct are adapted from previously validated items by
carefully revising them to fit the context of this study. Items measuring online consumers’
intention to purchase clothes after using VTO technology were adapted from Fiore, Kim and
Lee (2005). Items used by Kim and Forsythe (2009) are adapted to measure consumers’
attitude towards VTO technology. Perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are
measured using items adapted from Davis (1989). Items measuring perceived enjoyment,
perceived socialisation, perceived product risk and perceived privacy risk are adapted from
Kim and Forsythe (2009), Kim (2011), Choi and Lee (2003) and Cho and Wang (2010),
respectively. A five-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly disagree” to “Strongly agree”
is used to measure all of the items.

3.2 Data collection

This study took a web-based survey approach to collect data for the following reasons.
First, the focus of this study suggests a web-based survey is an appropriate tool to collect
empirical data to examine online consumers’ intention to purchase clothes online. Second, a
web-based survey could maintain the anonymity of respondents, ensuring that the
participants would not know the researcher and vice versa. An anonymous web-based
survey can reduce the response bias because participants may give biased responses if they
know the researcher (Andrews et al., 2008). Third, a web-based survey provides
response control functions to make sure that participants complete the questions
required to be answered, thus reducing missing data (Andrews et al., 2008). In addition, a
web-based survey can be set up to prevent a participant from taking the survey multiple
 times. Fourth, a web-based survey automatically stores survey responses into a database Online
directly, which eliminates transcription errors. purchase
An invitation message regarding the recruitment of participants for the survey was decision
posted on selected online apparel retailing websites. The message outlined the
objective of this study, the sampling procedure, protection of participants’ privacy,
confidentiality, anonymity and plans for disclosing survey results, which could help build
trust between participants and researchers (Andrews et al., 2008). A scanning quick
response (QR) code for and a URL link to the web-based survey were also provided
in the invitation message so that those who were interested were able to participate in the
survey by scanning the QR code or clicking on the URL link. Before proceeding to
answering any questions, respondents were shown three examples of VTO application
with explanations and retailers that had adopted these technologies, such as Uniqlo
(http://uniqlo.bigodata.com.cn/u2/mini.php).
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Overall, 470 attempts were made to participate in the survey, with 208 completions,
resulting in a response rate of 52.55 per cent. In terms of the approach used for accessing
the survey, 208 completions out of 411 attempts accessed the survey through QR code,
with a response rate of 50.61 per cent. In total, 31 completions out of 59 attempts were
made by directly visiting the URL of the survey, with a response rate of 66.10 per cent.
After carefully examining the responses, 11 responses were removed because the
respondents either left the textbox for entering age empty or entered an abnormal age like
1000. Eventually, 236 valid responses were retained for further analysis. Table II shows
that 67.8 per cent of the respondents were adults (i.e. 19 years old or above), which is two
times more than the portion of minor respondents (i.e. 18 years old or below). There were
more female than male respondents. More than half of the respondents spent 500-1500
RMB per month. Nearly, 45 per cent of the respondents had 2–3 years of online shopping
experience, and 22.46 per cent of respondents had 4–5 years of experience.

Frequency %

Age
Minors (18 or below) 76 32.20
Adults (19 or above) 160 67.80
Gender
Male 103 43.64
Female 133 56.36
Monthly expense (RMB)
500 and below 33 13.98
501–1000 59 25.00
1001–1500 69 29.24
1501–2000 31 13.14
2001–2500 10 4.24
2501–3000 6 2.54
3001 or above 28 11.86
Years of online shopping
1 or below 32 13.56
2–3 102 43.22
4–5 53 22.46
6–7 31 13.14 Table II.
8–9 6 2.54 Demographic profiles
10 or above 12 5.08 of the respondents
 INTR The non-response bias was assessed using t-tests to compare the difference between
answers by the initial 40 respondents and the last 40 respondents. Because late respondents
are theorized to have some similarities with non-respondents, one approach would be to
compare scores on key metrics from both the initial respondents and the late respondents
(Armstrong and Overton, 1977). As Table III shows, the results of the t-test indicate
no significant differences between the two groups ( p W0.05) (Liang et al., 2007). Thus,
non-response bias is not an issue in this study.
Since the data were collected using a single web-based survey and the self-reported
answers related to each construct were conceptual, common method bias could be a potential
problem. To minimise common method bias, respondents were assured of anonymity before
they took part in the survey (Podsakoff et al., 2012). An unrotated principal axis factoring
analysis was conducted (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The results reveal that five factors emerged
from the data set with the first factor accounting for 42.42 per cent of the variance, indicating
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that common method bias is tolerable in the data set.

4. Data analysis and results

Upon completion of data collection, a two-step analytical approach recommended by
Sarstedt et al. (2017) was used to first assess the measurement model and then to validate
the SEM techniques. The PLS path modelling approach was chosen among different SEM
methods because it is not only able to estimate path models with latent variables, but also
supports conducting multi-group analyses (MGA) (Sarstedt et al., 2016; Rasoolimanesh et al.,
2017). In addition, it does not require the data set to be normally distributed. The sample
size of this study for MGA is relatively small, in which case PLS would be a better option
than CB-SEM for testing the research model (Sarstedt et al., 2016; Hair, Hult, Ringle, Sarstedt
and Thiele, 2017). As the PLS calculation does not generate formal significance test results
for each parameter, a bootstrap technique was adopted to obtain the t-statistics and
standard errors (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2017). In this study, data analyses were conducted
using the SmartPLS three software package, with bootstrapping conducted with 5000
re-samples (Ringle et al., 2015).

4.1 Validating the measurement model

The research model is a reflective one, including eight reflective constructs. The assessment
of the reflective measurement model requires an evaluation of the reliability and validity of
each variable. Convergent validity is assessed through items loading, composite reliability
(CR) of each item, and average variance extracted (AVE) for each construct. Loadings of all
items on their corresponding variables are above 0.70 at the significance level of 0.001, as
shown in Table IV. In addition, all the AVEs, as presented in Table IV, range from 0.715 to
0.811, which exceed the recommended 0.50 threshold (Hair, Hult, Ringle and Sarstedt, 2017).
Table IV shows that values of CR for all constructs ranged from 0.887 to 0.941, highly
exceeding the recommended level of 0.70 (Gefen et al., 2011), indicating high construct
reliability. Hence, the measurement model yields satisfactory convergent validity.
Discriminant validity is established using heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) ratio (Henseler
et al., 2015; Franke and Sarstedt, 2018). As shown in Table V, the HTMT value of each pair
of reflective constructs is below 0.90, confirming that satisfactory discriminant validity has
been established. In order to detect potential multicollinearity, the variance inflation factor
coefficient is calculated.

4.2 Validating the structural model

As depicted in Figure 1, all paths are significant at 0.01 levels, except for the paths from
perceived socialisation and perceived product risk to attitude. Path analysis of attitude
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Initial 40 respondents Last 40 respondents Levene’s test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means
Construct Item Mean SD Mean SD F P t P

Perceived usefulness (PU) PU1 3.90 0.871 3.78 0.768 0.899 0.346 0.681 0.498
PU2 3.78 0.891 3.60 0.744 1.045 0.310 0.953 0.343
PU3 3.68 0.859 3.73 0.784 1.002 0.320 −0.272 0.786
PU4 3.75 0.870 3.75 0.809 0.918 0.341 0.000 1.000
Perceived ease of use (PEOU) PEOU1 3.68 0.888 3.53 0.751 1.322 0.254 0.816 0.417
PEOU2 3.83 0.781 3.53 0.679 0.093 0.761 1.834 0.070
PEOU3 3.73 0.960 3.40 0.841 0.752 0.388 1.610 0.111
Perceived enjoyment (PE) PE1 3.68 0.944 3.68 0.829 0.488 0.487 0.000 1.000
PE2 3.80 0.823 3.80 0.758 0.125 0.725 0.000 1.000
PE3 3.65 0.893 3.55 0.904 0.008 0.928 0.498 0.620
PE4 3.73 0.905 3.78 0.733 1.677 0.199 −0.271 0.787
Perceived socialisation (PS) PS1 3.55 1.011 3.60 0.841 1.444 0.233 −0.240 0.811
PS2 3.35 1.122 3.30 0.939 1.347 0.249 0.216 0.829
PS3 3.75 0.927 3.58 0.903 0.009 0.923 0.856 0.395
Perceived product risk (PROR) PROR1 3.88 0.822 3.75 0.670 3.239 0.076 0.745 0.458
PROR2 3.78 0.862 3.40 0.928 0.073 0.788 1.872 0.065
PROR3 3.75 0.776 3.53 0.640 0.990 0.323 1.414 0.161
PROR4 3.88 0.791 3.75 0.809 0.548 0.462 0.699 0.487
Perceived privacy risk (PRIR) PRIR1 3.63 0.897 3.55 0.783 0.742 0.392 0.398 0.691
PRIR2 3.35 1.027 3.28 0.877 0.468 0.496 0.351 0.726
PRIR3 3.35 0.975 3.30 0.823 0.691 0.408 0.248 0.805
PRIR4 3.25 1.056 3.18 0.984 0.007 0.935 0.329 0.743
Attitude towards VTO technology (ATT) ATT1 3.90 0.709 3.73 0.816 0.557 0.458 1.024 0.309
ATT2 3.78 0.832 3.65 0.802 0.002 0.964 0.684 0.496
ATT3 3.60 0.871 3.58 0.712 2.356 0.129 0.141 0.889
Intention to purchase (INT) INT1 3.75 0.927 3.63 0.925 0.344 0.559 0.604 0.548
INT2 3.73 0.847 3.75 0.742 1.204 0.276 −0.140 0.889
INT3 3.85 0.736 3.70 0.723 0.003 0.957 0.920 0.361
decision
purchase
Online

Results of testing non-

response bias
Table III.
 INTR Construct Item Mean SD Factor loading

Perceived usefulness (PU) PU1 3.771 0.858 0.896

(AVE ¼ 0.800, CR ¼ 0.941) PU2 3.661 0.851 0.881
PU3 3.682 0.862 0.903
PU4 3.691 0.840 0.898
Perceived ease of use (PEOU) PEOU1 3.53 0.820 0.898
(AVE ¼ 0.811, CR ¼ 0.928) PEOU2 3.627 0.800 0.906
PEOU3 3.581 0.862 0.897
Perceived enjoyment (PE) PE1 3.657 0.876 0.861
(AVE ¼ 0.769, CR ¼ 0.930) PE2 3.699 0.822 0.909
PE3 3.441 0.907 0.836
PE4 3.669 0.839 0.899
Perceived socialisation (PS) PS1 3.462 0.894 0.861
(AVE ¼ 0.723, CR ¼ 0.887) PS2 3.292 0.954 0.845
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PS3 3.597 0.870 0.844

Perceived product risk (PROR) PROR1 3.636 0.825 0.843
(AVE ¼ 0.715, CR ¼ 0.909) PROR2 3.559 0.824 0.873
PROR3 3.631 0.751 0.829
PROR4 3.678 0.769 0.836
Perceived privacy risk (PRIR) PRIR1 3.530 0.778 0.789
(AVE ¼ 0.722, CR ¼ 0.912) PRIR2 3.305 0.893 0.885
PRIR3 3.309 0.835 0.882
PRIR4 3.191 0.940 0.840
Attitude towards VTO technology ATT1 3.737 0.769 0.878
(ATT) ATT2 3.695 0.765 0.888
(AVE ¼ 0.765, CR ¼ 0.907) ATT3 3.602 0.809 0.858
Table IV. Intention to purchase (INT) INT1 3.661 0.841 0.906
Descriptive analysis, (AVE ¼ 0.799, CR ¼ 0.923) INT2 3.648 0.802 0.894
PLS factor loadings, INT3 3.691 0.771 0.882
AVE and CR Notes: CR, composite reliability; AVE, average variance explained

PU PEOU PE PS PROR PRIR ATT

PEOU 0.816
PE 0.764 0.753
PS 0.753 0.705 0.873
PROR 0.551 0.622 0.679 0.495
PRIR 0.471 0.490 0.592 0.677 0.559
ATT 0.777 0.714 0.809 0.736 0.621 0.688
INT 0.748 0.641 0.735 0.698 0.594 0.614 0.856
Table V. Notes: PU, perceived usefulness; PEOU, perceived ease of use; PE, perceived enjoyment; PS, perceived
Heterotrait-monotrait socialisation; PROR, perceived product risk; PRIR, perceived privacy risk; ATT, attitude towards VTO
ratios technology; INT, intention to purchase

shows a value of 0.824 towards intention. The path coefficients of perceived ease of use
towards perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment are 0.735 and 0.675, respectively.
Path analysis values towards attitude are 0.33 for perceived usefulness, 0.304 for perceived
enjoyment and 0.267 for perceived privacy risk. The effect sizes ( f2) were also calculated.
f2 values are defined as 0.02 (small), 0.15 (medium) and 0.35 (large). As shown in Table VI,
all f2 values show at least a small size, more than 0.02, except for the paths from perceived
socialisation and perceived product risk to attitude. Generally, all the hypotheses are
supported by the results of the model except for H6 and H7.
 Perceived
Online
usefulness purchase
0.735***
decision
0.539
Perceived 0.333***
ease of use
0.453

0.675*** Perceived 0.304***

enjoyment
Attitude 0.824***
Intention to
towards VTO
–0.005 ns purchase
Perceived technology
socialisation R2 = 0.62 R2 = 0.678
0.058 ns
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Perceived Significant path

product risk 0.267*** Non-significant path

Perceived Figure 1.
privacy risk Results of testing the
structural model with
full sample
Note: ***p < 0.01

Hypothesis Path Path coefficient t-value f2

H1 ATT → INT 0.824 4.970 2.121

H2 PU → ATT 0.333 27.056 0.140
H3 PEOU → PU 0.735 10.373 1.177
H4 PE → ATT 0.304 13.399 0.078
H5 PEOU → PE 0.675 3.501 0.837
H6 PS → ATT −0.005 0.752 0.000
H7 PROR → ATT 0.058 0.051 0.005
H8 PRIR → ATT 0.267 2.940 0.115
Notes: PU, perceived usefulness; PEOU, perceived ease of use; PE, perceived enjoyment; PS, perceived sociali- Table VI.
sation; PROR, perceived product risk; PRIR, perceived privacy risk; ATT, attitude towards VTO technology; INT, Results of hypotheses
intention to purchase testing (H1–H8)

The research model explains 67.8 per cent of variance in intention and 62.5 per cent of the
variance in attitude, suggesting a high level of in-sample prediction. However, the R2 does
not capture the out-of-sample predictive performance of the research model. Shmueli et al.
(2016, p. 4556) point out that “fundamental to a proper predictive procedure is the ability to
predict measurable information on new cases”. This study adopts Shmueli et al.‘s (2016)
approach to assess the model’s out-of-sample predictive power using the PLS predict
algorithm in the SmartPLS software package. As shown in Tables VII and VIII, the Q2
values for all the constructs and indicators are positive, which suggests that the prediction
error of using the PLS-SEM model is smaller than that of using the mean values. This means
that the PLS-SEM model demonstrates better predictive performance (Shmueli et al., 2016).
In addition, the PLS-SEM results have greater Q2 values and lower root mean squared
errors (RMSE) and mean absolute errors (MAE) than the linear regression model (LM)
results, suggesting that the PLS-SEM path model improves the predictive performance
compared with LM (Evermann and Tate, 2016).
 INTR 4.3 Multi-group analysis
Prior to performing multi-group analysis to compare the path coefficients between different
groups, the acceptability of the measurement models and measurement invariance should
be established (Podsakoff et al., 2003). To determine measurement invariance, Henseler et al.
(2016) suggest a three-step procedure to analyse the measurement invariance of composite
models (MICOM) for PLS-SEM, which involves determining configural invariance,
compositional invariance and the equality of composite mean values and variances. If both
configural and compositional invariance are established, partial measurement invariance is
established; otherwise, no measurement invariance is established. If configural invariance,
compositional invariance, and the equality of composite mean values and variances are all
established, full measurement invariance is established (Henseler et al., 2016). In the
proposed research model, different age groups and gender groups have identical indicators,
data treatment and algorithm settings or optimisation criteria, indicating configural
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invariance. The compositional invariance analysis and the equality of mean values and
variances test were performed in SmartPLS 3. The testing results show that the research
model indicates partial measurement invariance for gender groups and full measurement
invariance for age groups, which allows for comparing the standardized path coefficients
between the groups (see Tables IX and X).
Table XI shows that the MGA results of the two age groups reveal no significant
differences at the 0.05 significance level, with the exception of the path from perceived

RMSE MAE Q2

PU 0.571 0.373 0.496

PE 0.581 0.370 0.360
Table VII. ATT 0.524 0.361 0.444
Out-of-sample
INT 0.467 0.324 0.341
predictive
performance Notes: PU, perceived usefulness; PE, perceived enjoyment; ATT, attitude towards VTO technology; INT,
of constructs intention to purchase

PLS LM PLS-LM
RMSE MAE Q2 RMSE MAE Q2 RMSE MAE Q2

PU1 0.658 0.447 0.457 0.662 0.478 0.410 −0.004 −0.031 0.047
PU2 0.624 0.429 0.492 0.625 0.440 0.466 −0.001 −0.011 0.026
PU3 0.637 0.455 0.462 0.644 0.457 0.446 −0.007 −0.002 0.016
PU4 0.593 0.458 0.397 0.666 0.463 0.378 −0.073 −0.005 0.019
PE1 0.659 0.414 0.439 0.701 0.492 0.365 −0.042 −0.078 0.074
PE2 0.580 0.405 0.506 0.634 0.471 0.412 −0.054 −0.066 0.094
PE3 0.672 0.424 0.458 0.774 0.555 0.280 −0.102 −0.131 0.178
PE4 0.647 0.458 0.411 0.710 0.506 0.291 −0.063 −0.048 0.120
ATT1 0.581 0.406 0.435 0.616 0.466 0.365 −0.035 −0.060 0.070
ATT2 0.588 0.400 0.414 0.608 0.459 0.373 −0.020 −0.059 0.041
ATT3 0.640 0.452 0.370 0.645 0.481 0.370 −0.005 −0.029 0.000
INT1 0.709 0.480 0.296 0.719 0.531 0.276 −0.010 −0.051 0.020
INT2 0.633 0.447 0.384 0.652 0.507 0.347 −0.019 −0.060 0.037
Table VIII.
Out-of-sample INT3 0.629 0.459 0.342 0.635 0.492 0.329 −0.006 −0.033 0.013
predictive Notes: PU, perceived usefulness; PE, perceived enjoyment; ATT, attitude towards VTO technology; INT,
performance intention to purchase; RMSE, root mean squared error; MAE, mean absolute error; PLS, partial least squares
of indicators path model; LM, linear regression model
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Equal mean value Equal variance

Partial Full
Configural Confidence measurement measurement
invariance c value interval Permutation invariance Confidence Permutation Confidence Permutation invariance
Constructs established ( ¼ 1) (CIs) p-values established Differences interval (CIs) p-values Differences interval (CIs) p-values established

PU Yes 1.000 (1.000,1.000) 0.973 Yes −0.013 (−0.282,0.274) 0.930 −0.176 (−0.464,0.448) 0.478 Yes
PEOU Yes 1.000 (0.999,1.000) 0.624 Yes −0.096 (−0.280,0.271) 0.500 −0.091 (−0.490,0.463) 0.721 Yes
PE Yes 0.999 (0.999,1.000] 0.318 Yes −0.059 (−0.287,0.264) 0.675 −0.063 (−0.530,0.472) 0.810 Yes
PS Yes 0.998 (0.992,1.000] 0.467 Yes 0.197 (−0.278,0.271) 0.155 −0.416 (−0.530,0.455) 0.100 Yes
PROR Yes 0.997 (0.993,1.000) 0.329 Yes −0.269 (−0.279,0.275) 0.057 −0.286 (−0.460,0.429) 0.230 Yes
PRIR Yes 0.998 (0.994,1.000) 0.265 Yes 0.255 (−0.272,0.272) 0.067 −0.130 (−0.467,0.429) 0.586 Yes
ATT Yes 1.000 (0.999,1.000) 0.66 Yes −0.134 (−0.282,0.270) 0.344 −0.113 (−0.425,0.406) 0.607 Yes
INT Yes 1.000 (0.999,1.000) 0.922 Yes −0.081 (−0.278,0.269) 0.566 0.016 (−0.398,0.384) 0.937 Yes
Notes: PU, perceived usefulness; PEOU, perceived ease of use; PE, perceived enjoyment; PS, perceived socialisation; PROR, perceived product risk; PRIR, perceived privacy risk;
ATT, attitude towards VTO technology; INT, intention to purchase
decision
purchase
Online

Table IX.

age groups
MICOM test
results for different
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INTR

Table X.
MICOM test

gender groups
results for different
Equal mean value Equal variance
Partial Full
Configural Confidence measurement measurement
invariance c value interval Permutation invariance Confidence Permutation Confidence Permutation invariance
Constructs established (1) (CIs) p-values established Differences interval (CIs) p-values Differences interval (CIs) p-values established

PU Yes 1.000 (1.000,1.000) 0.562 Yes −0.073 (−0.264,0.260) 0.588 0.246 (−0.429,0.424) 0.278 Yes
PEOU Yes 1.000 (0.999,1.000) 0.207 Yes −0.005 (−0.253,0.259) 0.966 0.426 (−0.435,0.438) 0.056 Yes
PE Yes 1.000 (0.999,1.000) 0.365 Yes 0.002 (−0.263,0.263) 0.992 0.696 (−0.470,0.476) 0.003 No
PS Yes 0.998 (0.994,1.000) 0.032 Yes 0.107 (−0.269,0.254) 0.417 0.325 (−0.478,0.442) 0.166 Yes
PROR Yes 0.998 (0.995,1.000) 0.350 Yes −0.073 (−0.261,0.261) 0.583 0.139 (−0.425,0.415) 0.531 Yes
PRIR Yes 0.998 (0.995,1.000) 0.351 Yes −0.014 (−0.265,0.264) 0.908 0.525 (−0.444,0.423) 0.017 No
ATT Yes 1.000 (0.999,1.000) 0.525 Yes −0.038 (−0.262,0.266) 0.765 0.341 (−0.403,0.394) 0.094 Yes
INT Yes 1.000 (0.999,1.000) 0.581 Yes −0.040 (−0.263,0.255) 0.756 0.406 (−0.366,0.358) 0.026 No
Notes: PU, perceived usefulness; PEOU, perceived ease of use; PE, perceived enjoyment; PS, perceived socialisation; PROR, perceived product risk; PRIR, perceived
privacy risk; ATT, attitude towards VTO technology; INT, intention to purchase
 Path Path
Online
coefficient coefficient Permutation purchase
Relationships (minor) (adult) CIs (minor) CIs (adult) MGA p-value p-value decision
ATT → INT 0.782 0.845 (0.630, 0.881) (0.765, 0.896) 0.811 0.196
PU → ATT 0.432 0.286 (0.247, 0.618) (0.096, 0.453) 0.144 0.292
PEOU → PU 0.833 0.697 (0.716, 0.911) (0.512, 0.815) 0.058 0.445
PE → ATT 0.102 0.413 (−0.062, 0.351) (0.152, 0.646) 0.969 0.288
PEOU → PE 0.555 0.730 (0.187, 0.804) (0.601, 0.818) 0.839 0.470
PS → ATT 0.266 −0.106 (0.044, 0.523) (−0.327, 0.103) 0.010 0.482
PROR → ATT 0.185 −0.015 (−0.154, 0.44) (−0.226, 0.147) 0.126 0.732
PRIR → ATT 0.103 0.323 (−0.127, 0.289) (0.135, 0.542) 0.928 0.254
Notes: PU, perceived usefulness; PEOU, perceived ease of use; PE, perceived enjoyment; PS, perceived Table XI.
socialisation; PROR, perceived product risk; PRIR, perceived privacy risk; ATT, attitude towards VTO Results of testing
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technology; INT, intention to purchase age difference

socialisation to attitude, with a MGA p-value of 0.01. No significant differences between

males and females are found (see Table XII). The permutation test results confirm no
significant difference between female and male groups or between the two age groups for
the structural model, as all permutation p-values are above the 0.05 threshold. Hence, H9
and H10 are not supported.

5. Discussion and conclusions

This study proposes that online consumers’ usage experiences with and attitude towards
VTO technology play an important role in their online purchase decision intention. The
results of examining the proposed PLS model reveal that customers’ attitude towards this
technology predicts their intention to purchase a garment online. In turn, attitude is found to
be affected by perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment and perceived privacy risk, where
perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment are affected by perceived ease of use. To a
certain extent, the model can be used to explain differences in terms of the determinants of
attitude towards VTO applications between different age groups.

5.1 Discussion
The results of examining the proposed model reveal that customers’ attitude towards VTO
technology can affect their intention to purchase a garment online. This confirms results of
prior studies that positive attitudes towards this kind of technology would stimulate

Path coefficient Path coefficient MGA Permutation

Relationships ( female) (male) CIs ( female) CIs (male) p-value p-value

ATT → INT 0.868 0.787 (0.802, 0.913) (0.666, 0.871) 0.925 0.205
PU → ATT 0.391 0.355 (0.230, 0.611) (0.115, 0.522) 0.582 0.308
PEOU → PU 0.691 0.780 (0.486, 0.823) (0.596, 0.885) 0.210 0.447
PE → ATT 0.117 0.346 (−0.303, 0.423) (0.107, 0.576) 0.147 0.285
PEOU → PE 0.743 0.630 (0.616, 0.836) (0.373, 0.799) 0.826 0.457
PS → ATT −0.065 0.109 (−0.343, 0.147) (−0.116, 0.338) 0.149 0.482
PROR → ATT 0.083 0.060 (−0.140, 0.241) (−0.114, 0.253) 0.580 0.728
PRIR → ATT 0.392 0.150 (0.131, 0.660) (−0.018, 0.323) 0.924 0.254
Notes: PU, perceived usefulness; PEOU, perceived ease of use; PE, perceived enjoyment; PS, perceived Table XII.
socialisation; PROR, perceived product risk; PRIR, perceived privacy risk; ATT, attitude towards VTO Results of testing
technology; INT, intention to purchase gender difference
 INTR consumers’ purchase intention as it affects the intended use of the technology and
consequently the post-use evaluation of the product (Kim and Forsythe, 2008). Online
consumers’ attitude towards VTO technology is found to be affected by perceived
usefulness and perceived enjoyment, both of which are in turn influenced by perceived ease
of use. These findings are consistent with prior research in the sense that enhanced
shopping experiences enabled by interactive technologies lead to stronger purchase
intention than passive product presentation (Kim and Forsythe, 2008).
However, consumers’ attitude towards VTO technology is not affected by perceived
product risk. One of the reasons might be that, with more information about the product
being delivered by this technology, consumers feel they would be less likely to return the
product (Yaoyuneyong et al., 2014), suggesting little perceived product risk. Another reason
could be that the cost of returning a product is low. For example, a number of countries,
such as the UK (Parliament of the United Kingdom, 2013, pp. 13-18) and China (State
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Administration for Industry and Commerce, 2017, pp. 1-4), have set up laws or regulations
that e-online retailers allow termless return within a certain period.
Interestingly, perceived privacy risk is found to be positively related to attitude towards
VTO technology. One possible explanation is the privacy paradox, in which a person might
state that they would not use an online service when having privacy concerns, but would
not care when actually faced with the possibility of convenience (Bélanger and Crossler,
2011). Particularly, consumers tend to have a positive feeling towards websites with privacy
information made more salient and accessible and are even willing to pay a premium for
using the privacy protective website while shopping online (Tsai et al., 2011).
Overall, findings of this study suggest that the utilitarian, hedonic and risk perspectives of
VTO technology are roughly equally important for predicting consumers’ attitudes towards it
within an integrated framework. This finding is consistent with prior studies in the sense that
the three perspectives are predictors of consumers’ attitude towards this technology, even
though the relative importance of each perspective varies among these studies. For example,
when considering utilitarian and hedonic value together, hedonic value has a stronger impact
on attitude towards VTO technology than utilitarian value (Kim and Forsythe, 2007). When
considering utilitarian value and risk together, utilitarian seems a strong predictor (Cho and
Wang, 2010). When comparing hedonic value and risk, Lee et al. (2010) find that hedonic value
is a stronger predictor, whereas Huang and Qin (2011) find the opposite.
The results of multi-group analysis suggest no statistically significant differences in either
different age groups or different gender groups, which aligns with prior studies that find no
significant gender or age difference in the overall VTO technology adoption process (e.g. Kim
and Forsythe, 2008). However, this study has identified some differences in the determinants
of attitude towards this technology between online customers of different ages. For example,
the impacts of perceived socialisation and perceived product risk on attitude towards using
this technology are positive for minor customers and negative for adult customers. Such a
finding is consistent with the literature, in that the age of a person affects technology adoption
on the internet and the individual’s behavioural pattern related to those technologies (Law and
Ng, 2016). In particular, this finding aligns with Yen’s et al. (2017) argument that people born
before the millennium are more attracted to new technology such as VTO application and
social networking functions than people born after that time and are less concerned with
provision of personal information while shopping online (Lian and Yen, 2014).

5.2 Implications
The present study contributes to the body of literature on the influence of VTO technology on
consumers’ online apparel purchase intention. Guided by the U&G theory and the technology
adoption literature, this study justifies the need to adopt an integration of utilitarian, hedonic
and risk perspectives for estimating how VTO applications affect online consumers’ purchase
 decision process. A holistic view combining the utilitarian, hedonic and risk perspectives Online
could further our understanding of how this technology affects online consumers’ purchase purchase
intention. In addition, by using the PLS approach to validate the research model, this study decision
applies another analytical approach for investigating this research topic. This study shows
the feasibility of applying advanced PLS techniques in the topic of online behaviour,
especially in the field of adoption and impact of VTO technology in online apparel retailing.
Particularly, the use of HTMT, PLS predict and PLS-MGA provide insights into the validity of
the measurement model, the reliability of the predictive accuracy of the structural model and
the differences in proposed relationships between various groups.
The present study enhances the role of VTO technology in consumers’ online purchase
decision-making process because of the utilitarian and hedonic value and reduces the risk
associated with this technology. It is important that online apparel retailers make full use of
advanced technologies such as the one investigated in this study to assist customers with
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their purchase decisions. Moreover, online apparel retailers should endeavour to increase
consumers’ positive attitude towards VTO technology, as improved attitude is meaningful
for promoting purchase intention. Online retailers who focus on a particular age group may
consider customised implementation strategies of VTO technology. For example, for minor
customers, online apparel retailers could emphasise the advanced socialisation features of
the technology that allows sharing try-on presentation with friends via various social media.
For older customers, online retailers could proactively and explicitly acknowledge the
privacy policy of using such a technology to assure customers of its security.
Designers of VTO technology may also benefit from the findings. Some design
guidelines can be generated to promote a positive attitude towards this technology.
Designers could integrate advanced virtual reality and augment reality technologies with
vivid trying-on scenes in order to bridge the gap between the online and offline shopping
experience. For instance, it could be designed to allow customers to try-on clothes on
different predefined or customised body types on a mobile device and move their avatars to
see how they look in the chosen garment in different scenes or occasions.

5.3 Limitations and future research

While the results of this study provide insightful implications for research and practice, these
results should be viewed with respect to certain limitations. As our study analyses cross-
sectional data, it can only provide a static perspective on online consumers’ behavioural patterns
(Rindfleisch et al., 2008). Further study may extend the findings from this study to understand
possible changes in online consumers’ attitude towards using VTO technology and their
intention to purchase apparel online over time. Future studies could also extend the research
model by evaluating a relationship between behavioural intention and actual behaviour to
examine how the self-reported intention to make purchases predicts actual purchase behaviour.
In addition, future research could test the validated model in online retailing of other products
such as eyewear and cosmetics and deepen use of the PLS approach during the examination.

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Corresponding author
William Yu Chung Wang can be contacted at: william.wang@waikato.ac.nz

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