Sheona Shackleton l Charlie Shackleton l

Patricia Shanley
Editors

Non-Timber Forest
Products in the
Global Context

With 45 Figures and 12 Tables

Editors
Dr. Sheona Shackleton Prof. Charlie Shackleton
Rhodes University Rhodes University
Dept. Environmental Science Dept. Environmental Science
6140 Grahamstown 6140 Grahamstown
South Africa South Africa
s.shackleton@ru.ac.za c.shackleton@ru.ac.za

Dr. Patricia Shanley

Center for International
Forestry Research (CIFOR)
Bogor
BOCBD
Indonesia
p.shanley@cgiar.org

ISSN 1614-9785
ISBN 978-3-642-17982-2 e-ISBN 978-3-642-17983-9
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-17983-9
Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011925367

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011

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Foreword

In the mid-1980s, I lived in the Peruvian Amazon and conducted research on the
native fruits of the region. My work was focused primarily on the ecology and
sustainable harvesting of three forest taxa, but I also interacted quite a bit with
local collectors, middlemen, and vendors in the sprawling Belen market of Iquitos.
The great majority of the fruits sold in the Iquitos market during those years
were wild harvested. In trying to figure out where all of this material was coming
from, I discovered several interesting things about the local fruit trade. Ribereño
communities upriver knew the location and fruiting times of wild populations of all
the commercial fruit species in the vicinity; they visited these populations every
year and harvested commercial quantities of fruit, they figured out ways to get the
fruit to market, they haggled with buyers about the price, and they usually made
some money doing this.
Forest fruits were still characterised as minor forest products at this point in
time, but to many of the villagers that I worked with along the Ucayali River, these
non-timber forest products (NTFPs) were very important to their livelihood, by no
means minor. I wrote a couple of papers about the ecology and management of
forest fruits in the Peruvian Amazon and even published a comment about the
relative economic value of non-timber resources in a prestigious scientific journal
(Peters et al. 1989). One might say that I was one of the early adopters in the NTFP
sector.
And then the momentum started to build, and NTFPs became a cause célébre,
and fruits, and nuts, and latex, and indigenous people, and rubber tappers started
appearing everywhere. Through it all, there seemed to be an unstated assumption
that somehow the NTFP acronym – as well as the people that collect them and the
markets through which they are sold – represented a distinct and relatively homog-
enous category of products and processes. Things got confusing. Is the fragrant
heartwood of the Aquilaria tree, obtained by tree felling in the Asian tropics, a
timber or a non-timber resource? Is palizada, the pole-sized stems logged commer-
cially from the Selva Maya for use in house construction, an NTFP?

v
vi Foreword

Subsequent research that I have conducted in other parts of the world have
consistently highlighted the differences, rather than the similarities, in the ways that
communities collect, manage, and market NTFPs. In some cases, the collection of
NTFPs provides a reliable source of income, plays an important cultural role in the
community, and offers a convincing reason to keep forests as forests, rather than
converting them to pastures, oil palm plantations or estate crops. At the other
extreme, some communities exploit NTFPs to the point of depletion, are enslaved
by compromises to local markets, or are impoverished by existing regulations
governing the collection and sale of these resources. In spite of how much one
might want NTFPs to be a predictable, well-defined commodity group, there is
actually a great amount of contextual chaos associated with these resources. This
does not negate the potential of NTFPs but certainly does argue against blanket
prescriptions and standardised governance.
There are as many different NTFP systems as there are non-timber forest
products. The Peruvian case was my first peek behind the curtain of this wonderful
people and plants show. Every interaction between a community and an NTFP, the
positive ones as well as the negative ones, can teach participants, researchers, and
onlookers something about sustainable resource use. The editors of the present
volume are to be congratulated for embracing this diversity and for weaving
together the many dimensions of NTFPs into such a comprehensive, informative
overview.

Kate E. Tode Curator of Botany Charles M. Peters

The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx NY, USA

Reference

Peters CM, Gentry A, Mendelsohn R (1989) Valuation of a tropical forest in

Peruvian Amazonia. Nature 339:655–657
Preface and Acknowledgments

The idea to write this book on non-timber forest products (NTFPs) first came from
Anette Lindqvist of Springer-Verlag. Springer was interested in adding such a
volume to their tropical forest series. After circulation amongst several NTFP
researchers, Patricia Shanley and I, with input from Bruce Campbell, discussed
the proposal at length in 2006 at the Center for International Forestry Research
(CIFOR). I was, at the time, spending 6 months at CIFOR as a visiting scientist, and
Patricia was working there. We agreed to take on the challenge of compiling this
book, providing that we could extend the discussion beyond just tropical forests to a
global review that drew on work from the humid and dry tropics, temperate regions,
and from both the developing and developed world. We also stipulated that it
needed to be an edited volume with contributions from leading researchers and
commentators in the field. Work began in earnest in 2007, when the editing team
was expanded to include Charlie Shackleton. Three years later, we were able to
submit this book to the publishers. It represents the collective output of 43 authors
of chapters and boxes, each with extensive and unique insights and experience in
researching and working with NTFPs. It is a truly interdisciplinary volume, with
authors coming from sociological, anthropological, economic, ecological, environ-
mental science, policy, botanical, and geographical backgrounds, but all comfort-
able working beyond conventional disciplinary boundaries.
Our aim for this book was to provide a comprehensive, global synthesis of
current knowledge on the potential and challenges associated with the multiple
roles, use, management, and marketing of non-timber forest-products (NTFPs)
across the world. The time is opportune for such a synthesis as the last two and
half decades have seen much research and policy effort around NTFPs and many
questions. This book explores the evolution of sentiments regarding the potential of
NTFPs in promoting options for sustainable multipurpose forest management,
income generation, and poverty alleviation. Based on critical analysis of the debates
and discourses, it employs a systems approach to present a balanced and realistic
perspective on the benefits and challenges associated with NTFP use and manage-
ment within local livelihoods and landscapes, supporting this with case examples

vii
viii Preface and Acknowledgments

from both the southern and northern hemispheres. Authors attempted to include and
give equal weight to the varied and complex social, economic, and ecological
dimensions of NTFPs. In summary, the purpose of this book is to:
l Provide a global review of the multiple roles of NTFPs.
l Provide an up-to-date critical analysis of the debates and discourses surrounding
NTFPs.
l Ensure a strong academic base, but also provide practical information so as to be
of use to a wider audience.
l Cover the sector in an open and questioning manner that is more provocative
than the standard text book.
l Provide solid case study material.
l Highlight the many complexities of the sector.
In addition to the authors, another important group of people contributed to this
book by providing invaluable commentary and feedback on draft chapters. This
input has been essential in ensuring quality. Each chapter has been read by at least
two, sometimes three, external reviewers as well as at least one of the editors. We
gratefully acknowledge these willing reviewers, namely Bruce Campbell, Campbell
Plowden, Darcy Mitchell, Frances (Jack) Putz, Freerk Weirsum, Carol Colfer,
Jenne de Beer, Johan Poulsen, Kamalit Bawa, Mary Menton, Robert Voeks, Roger
Leakey, Sarah Laird, Soul Shava, Steven Siebert, Uma Shaanker, and Wayne Twine.
All authors contributed to this book because of their belief in the necessity for
such a volume and received no payment. The editors are grateful to CIFOR and
Rhodes University for time to work on the book. Charlie Shackleton was able to
undertake much of the editing of chapters during his sabbatical in 2009/2010
funded by Rhodes University. I used a small portion of my National Research
Foundation (NRF) research grant in the finalisation of this book. Chapter 8 is based
on an article by Manuel Guariguata and colleagues published by Elsevier in Forest
Ecology and Management Volume 259. All views are authors’ own.

Grahamstown, South Africa Sheona Shackleton

February 2011
Contents

Part I Introduction: Non-timber Forest Products

in the Global Context

1 Non-timber Forest Products: Concept and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Charlie Shackleton, Claudio O. Delang, Sheona Shackleton,
and Patricia Shanley

2 Evolving Perspectives on Non-timber Forest Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Erin Sills, Patricia Shanley, Fiona Paumgarten, Jenne de Beer,
and Alan Pierce

Part II Multiple Roles and Values of Non-timber Forest Products

3 From Subsistence to Safety Nets and Cash Income:

Exploring the Diverse Values of Non-timber Forest Products
for Livelihoods and Poverty Alleviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Sheona Shackleton, Claudio O. Delang, and Arild Angelsen

4 Non-timber Products and Markets: Lessons for Export-Oriented

Enterprise Development from Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Anthony B. Cunningham

5 Cultural Importance of Non-timber Forest Products:

Opportunities they Pose for Bio-Cultural Diversity
in Dynamic Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Michelle Cocks, Citlalli López, and Tony Dold

ix
x Contents

6 From the Forest to the Stomach: Bushmeat Consumption

from Rural to Urban Settings in Central Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Nathalie van Vliet, Robert Nasi, and Andrew Taber

Part III Systems for Sustainable Management of Non-timber

Forest Products

7 Harvesting Non-timber Forest Products Sustainably:

Opportunities and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Tamara Ticktin and Charlie Shackleton

8 Timber and Non-timber Forest Product Extraction and

Management in the Tropics: Towards Compatibility? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Manuel R. Guariguata, Carmen Garcı́a-Fernández, Robert Nasi,
Douglas Sheil, Cristina Herrero-Jáuregui, Peter Cronkleton,
Ousseynou Ndoye, and Verina Ingram

9 Pro-poor Governance of Non-timber Forest Products:

The Need for Secure Tenure, the Rule of Law, Market Access
and Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Mirjam A.F. Ros-Tonen and Koen Kusters

10 Non-timber Forest Products and Conservation:

What Prospects? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Terry C.H. Sunderland, Ousseynou Ndoye,
and Susan Harrison-Sanchez

Part IV Building on the Opportunities Offered by Non-timber

Forest Products

11 Regulating Complexity: Policies for the Governance

of Non-timber Forest Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Sarah A. Laird, Rachel Wynberg, and Rebecca J. McLain

12 Building a Holistic Picture: An Integrative Analysis

of Current and Future Prospects for Non-timber Forest
Products in a Changing World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Charlie Shackleton, Sheona Shackleton, and Patricia Shanley

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Contributors

Arild Angelsen Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor,

Indonesia; Department of Economics and Resource Management, Norwegian Uni-
versity of Life Sciences (UMB), 1430 Ås, Norway, arild.angelsen@umb.no

Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas Centre d’Ecologie Foncionnelle et Evolutive,

Université de Montpellier II, UMR 5175 Montpellier, France, cdelang@cuhk.edu.hk

Alejandro Casas Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas, Universidad Nacio-

nal Autónoma de México, Morelia, Mexico, acasas@oikos.unam.mx

Michelle Cocks Institute for Social and Economic Research (ISER), Rhodes
University, P.O. Box 94, Grahamstown 6140, Eastern Cape, South Africa,
m.cocks@ru.ac.za

Wendy Cocksedge Centre for Non-Timber Resources, Royal Roads

University, 2005 Sooke Road, Victoria, BC, Canada V9B 5Y2, Wendy.cocksedge@
royalroads.ca

Priscilla Cooke St Clair Department of Economics, Pacific Lutheran University,

Tacoma, WA 98447-0003, USA, stclairp@plu.edu

Peter Cronkleton Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), P.O.

Box 0113, BOCBD Bogor 16000, Indonesia, p.cronkleton@cgiar.org

Anthony B. Cunningham Centre for International Forestry Research, Bogor,

Indonesia; School of Plant Biology, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling
Highway, Crawley 6009, Australia, tonyc05@bigpond.net.au

Annika Dahlberg Department of Geography and Quaternary Geology, Stockholm

University, Stockholm 10691, Sweden, annika.dahlberg@natgeo.su.se

xi
xii Contributors

Jenne de Beer Darrell Posey Field Fellow, International Society for Ethnobiology,
Manila, Philippines, ntfp7@yahoo.co.uk

Claudio O. Delang Department of Geography and Resource Management, The

Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong, cdelang@cuhk.edu.hk

Tony Dold Botany Department, Selmar Schonland Herbarium (GRA), Rhodes

University, P.O. Box 94, Grahamstown 6140, Eastern Cape, South Africa,
t.dold@ru.ac.za

Carmen Garcı́a-Fernández Biodiversity International, Via dei Tre Denari 472/a,

00057 Maccarese, Rome, Italy, Carmen.GARCIA-FERNANDEZ@ec.europa.eu

Suresh Kumar Ghimire Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University,

Kirtipur, Katmandu, Nepal, Sureshkghimire@yahoo.com

Manuel R. Guariguata Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), P.O.

Box 0113, BOCBD Bogor 16000, Indonesia, m.guariguata@cgiar.org

Susan Harrison-Sanchez Life Cycle Associates LLC, 985 Portola Valley Road,
Portola Valley, CA 94028, USA, sanchez@lifecycleassociates.com

Cristina Herrero-Jauregui Departamento de Ecologı́a, Facultad de Biologı́a, Uni-

versidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid 28040, España, crherrero@bio.ucm.es

Verina Ingram Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), P.O.

Box 0113, BOCBD Bogor 16000, Indonesia, v.ingram@cgiar.org

Ramesh Kannan ATREE, Royal Enclave, Sri Rampura, Jakkur Post, Bangalore,
560064 Karnataka, India, Rameshkannan.h@gmail.com

Koen Kusters Amsterdam Institute of Social Science Research, University of

Amsterdam, Nieuwe Prinsengracht 130, 1018 VZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
k.kusters@uva.nl

Sarah A. Laird People and Plants International, P.O. Box 251, Bristol, VT 05443,
USA, sarahlaird@aol.com

Citlalli López Centro de Investigaciones Tropicales, Universidad Veracruzana,

Calle Araucarias s/n, Interior de la Ex-hacienda Lucas Martin, Colonia Periodistas,
C.P. 91019, Apartado Postal 252, Xalapa, Veracruz, México, citlalli_lb@yahoo.com

Dylan McGarry Department of Environmental Science, Rhodes University,

Grahamstown 6140, South Africa, armadylan@gmail.com
Contributors xiii

Doyle McKey Centre d’Ecologie Foncionnelle et Evolutive, Université de

Montpellier II, 5175 Montpellier, France, doyle.mckey@cefe.cnrs.fr

Rebecca J. McLain Institute for Culture and Ecology, P.O. Box 6681, Portland,
OR 97214, USA, mclain@ifcae.org

Sharif Ahmed Mukul Department of Forestry and Environmental Science,

Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet 3114, Bangladesh,
sharif_a_mukul@yahoo.com

Robert Nasi Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), P.O. Box 0113,
BOCBD, Bogor 16000, Indonesia, r.nasi@cgiar.org

Ousseynou Ndoye Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations

(FAO), P.O. Box 281, Yaoundé, Cameroon, ousseynou.ndoye@fao.org

Fiona Paumgarten School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, Uni-

versity of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; Center for Interna-
tional Forestry Research, Lusaka, Zambia, fi.paumgarten@gmail.com

Alan Pierce Independent researcher, 1061 Mountainview Road, Duxbury, VT,

USA, arp@sover.net

Mirjam A.F. Ros-Tonen Amsterdam Institute of Social Science Research,

University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Prinsengracht 130, 1018 VZ, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands, m.a.f.ros-tonen@uva.nl

Yvonne M. Scherrer Program Sustainability Research, University of Basel, Klin-

gelbergstrasse 50, CH 4056, Basel, Switzerland, y.scherrer@pantek.org

Charlie Shackleton Department of Environmental Science, Rhodes University,

Grahamstown 6140, South Africa, c.shackleton@ru.ac.za

Sheona Shackleton Department of Environmental Science, Rhodes University,

Grahamstown 6140, South Africa, s.shackleton@ru.ac.za

Patricia Shanley Center for International Forestry Research and Woods and
Wayside International, 211 Ridgeview Road, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA,
p.shanley@cgiar.org

Douglas Sheil Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC), Bwindi Impe-

netrable National Park (at Ruhija), P.O. Box 44, Kabale, Uganda; Center for
International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia, dsheil@cgiar.org
xiv Contributors

Erin Sills Department of Forestry & Environmental Resources, North Carolina

State University, Raleigh, NC 27695–8008, USA, sills@ncsu.edu

Terry C. H. Sunderland Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR),

P.O. Box 0113, BOCBD, Bogor 16000, Indonesia, t.sunderland@cgiar.org

Andrew Taber Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), P.O.

Box 0113, BOCBD, Bogor 16000, Indonesia, a.taber@cgiar.org

Tamara Ticktin Department of Botany, University of Hawai’i, Honolulu, HI

USA, ticktin@hawaii.edu

Lucrezia Tincani Centre for Development, Environment and Policy, SOAS,

University of London, 36 Gordon Square, London, WC1H 0PD, UK, lucrezia.
tincani@soas.ac.uk

Nathalie van Vliet Post Doctoral researcher, Department of Geography and

Geology, University of Copenhagen, Oster Voldgade, 101350 Copenhagen K,
Denmark, vanvlietnathalie@yahoo.com

Nathan Vogt ACT, Indiana University, 179 Rua de Obidos, Edificio Montreal,
Apto. 802, Cidade Velha, Belém 66020-440, Brasil, ndvogt@gmail.com

Rachel Wynberg Environmental Evaluation Unit, University of Cape Town,

Rondebosch 7700, South Africa, Rachel@iafrica.com