Imagery as a general term covers the use of
language to represent objects, actions, feelings,
thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory
experience. It is a figurative language used to
appeal to the senses through vivid descriptive
language. Imagery creates mental pictures in
the reader as they read the text.
Example:
An excerpt from Peter Redgrove’s Lazarus and
the Sea contains imagery: The tide of my death
came whispering like this
Soiling my body with its tireless voice.
I scented the antique moistures when they
sharpened
The air of my room, made the rough wood of my
bed, (most dear), Standing out like roots in my
tall grave.
Diction refers to the selection of words in a
literary work. A work’s diction forms one of its
centrally important literary elements as writers
use words to convey action, reveal character,
imply attitudes, identify themes, and suggest
values. It includes the formality of the language,
the emotional content, the imagery, the
specificity, and the sounds of the words.
Example:
“I prize thy love more than whole mines of gold,
Or all the riches that East doth hold.”
Anne Bradstreet, “To My Dear and Loving
Husband”
FIGURES OF SPEECH
Figures of speech are words or phrases used in
a non-literal sense for rhetorical or vivid effect.
The most common figures of speech are simile,
metaphor, onomatopoeia, personification,
apostrophe, hyperbole, synecdoche,
metonymy, oxymoron, and paradox.
1.Simile – a stated comparison (formed with
“like” or “as” between two fundamentally
dissimilar things that have certain qualities in
common. Example: “Does it dry up like a raisin
in the sun?” – Langston Hughes, “Harlem”
2.Metaphor – an implied comparison between
two unlike things that have something in
common.
Example: “Hope is the thing with feathers –
That perches in the soul –”
- Emily Dickinson, “Hope is the Thing with
Feathers”
3.Onomatopoeia – uses words that imitate
sounds associated with objects or actions.
Example: “The crooked skirt swinging, whack by
whack by whack.”- James Joyce, “Ulysses”
4.Personification – endows human qualities or
abilities to inanimate objects or abstraction.
Example: “Ah, William, we’re wary of the
weather,” said the sunflowers shining with dew. –
William Blake, “Two Sunflowers Move in the
Yellow Room”
5.Apostrophe – is addressing an absent person
or thing that is an abstract, inanimate, or
inexistent character.
Example: “Death be not proud, though some
have called thee.”
- John Donne, “Death Be Not Proud”
6.Hyperbole – a figure of speech which
contains an exaggeration for emphasis.
Example: “To make enough noise to wake the
dead.”
– R. Davies, “What’s Bred in the Bone”
7.Synecdoche – a figure of speech in which the
part stands for the whole, and thus something
else is understood within the thing mentioned.
Example: “Give us this day out daily bread”
*Bread stands for the meals taken each day.
8.Metonymy – a figure of speech in which the
name of an attribute or a thing is substituted for
the thing itself.
Example: “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend
me your ears.”
– William Shakespeare, “Julius Caesar”
*Lend me your ears = to pay attention; to listen
9.Oxymoron – a figure of speech which
combines incongruous and apparently
contradictory words and meanings for a special
effect.Example: “Here’s much to do with hate,
but more with love.
Why then, O brawling love! O loving hate! O
anything! of nothing first create!
O heavy lightness! serious vanity!
Mis-shapen chaos of well-seeming forms!”
- William Shakespeare, “Romeo and Juliet”
10. Paradox – a statement which seems on
its face to be logically contradictory or absurd
yet turns out to be interpretable in a way that
makes sense. Example: “One short sleep past,
we wake eternally And death shall be no more;
STRUCTURE OF POETRY
One significant way to analyse poems is by
looking into the stanza structure and the
form of the poem. Generally speaking,
structure refers to the overall organization of
lines and/or the conventional patterns of
sound. However, various modern poems
may not have particular structure.
A. Stanza
Stanzas refer to series of lines grouped
together and separated by a space from
other stanzas. They correspond to a
paragraph in an essay. Identifying the
stanza is done by counting the number of
lines. The following are some of the terms
used to refer to the number of stanzas:
monostich (1 line) couplet (2 lines), tercet (3
lines), quatrain (4 lines), cinquain (5 lines),
sestet (6 lines) (sometimes it's called a
sexain), septet (7 lines), octave (8 lines).
B. Form
In many cases, a poem may not have
specific lines or stanza, and metrical
pattern, however, it can still be labelled
according to its form or style. Here, we will
discuss the three most common types of
poetry according to form are: lyric,
descriptive and narrative. We will also
include other popular types of poetry.
1. Lyric Poetry. It is any poem with one
speaker (not necessarily the poet) who
expresses strong thoughts and feelings.
Most poems, especially modern ones, are
lyric poems. Below are some types of lyric
poetry.
a. Ode. An ode is a lyric poem that praises
an individual, an idea or an event. The
length is usually moderate, the subject is
serious, the style is elevated and the
stanza pattern is elaborate. In Ancient
Greece, odes were originally accompanied
by music. In fact, the word “ode” comes
from the Greek word aeidein, which means
to sing or to dance.
b. Elegy. An elegy is written with a
purpose to “mourn the dead”. It usually
begins by reminiscing about the dead
person, then weeps for the reason of
death, and then resolves the grief by
concluding that death leads to immortality.
It has no set stanza or metrical pattern. It
often uses "apostrophe" as a literary
technique.
c.Sonnet. It is a lyric poem consisting of 14
lines and, in the English version, is usually
written in iambic pentameter. The three
basic kinds of sonnets are:
 Italian/Petrarchan sonnet is named after
Petrarch, an Italian Renaissance poet. The
Petrarchan sonnet consists of an octave
(eight lines) and a sestet (six lines). It tends
to divide the thought into two parts
(argument and conclusion). The rhyming
pattern is ABBA ABBA CDECDE, or some
accepted sestet such as CDCCDC,
CDDCDE or CDCDCD
 Shakespearean sonnet consists of
three quatrains (four lines each) and a
concluding couplet (two lines). The final
couplet is the summary. The rhyming
pattern is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.
 Spenserian Sonnet is divided into three
quatrains, or segments of four lines,
followed by a rhyming couplet. The
rhyming pattern is usually ABAB BCBC
CDCD EE.
2.Narrative Poetry. It is a poem that tells a
story; its structure resembles the plot line
of a story [i.e. the introduction of conflict
and characters, rising action, climax and
the denouement. The most common types
of narrative poetry are ballad and epic.
a.Ballad. It is a narrative poem that has a
musical rhythm and can be sung. A ballad
is usually organized into quatrains or
cinquains, has a simple rhythm structure,
and tells the tales of ordinary people.
b.Epic. It is a long narrative poem in
elevated style recounting the deeds of a
legendary or historical hero.
1.Descriptive Poetry. It is a poem that
describes the world that surrounds the
speaker. It uses elaborate imagery and
adjectives. While emotional, it is more
"outward-focused" than lyric poetry,
which is more personal and introspective.
OTHER FORMS OF POETRY
1. Haiku. It has an unrhymed verse form
having three lines (a tercet) and usually
5,7,5 syllables, respectively. It is usually
considered a lyric poem.
2. Limerick. It has a very structured poem,
usually humorous & composed of five lines
(a cinquain), in an AABBA rhyming pattern;
beat must be anapestic (weak, weak,
strong) with 3 feet in lines 1, 2, & 5 and 2
feet in lines 3 & 4. It is usually a narrative
poem based upon a short and often ribald
anecdote.
Mga Gawaing Pampag-iisip sa Akademiya
Ang salitang akademiya ay mula sa mga
salitang Prances na académié, sa Latin na
academia, at sa Griyego na academeia. Ang huli
ay mula naman sa Academos, ang bayaning
Griyego, kung saan ipinangalan ni Plato ang
hardin.
Malikhain at Mapanuring Pag-iisip
Ang mapanuring pag-iisip ay ang paggamit ng
kaalaman, kakayahan, pagpapahalaga, at talion
upang epektibong harapin ang mga sitwasyon at
hamon sa buhay-akadmiko at maging sa mga
gawaing di-akademiko.
Akademiko vs. Di-Akademiko
Ang salitang akademiko o academic ay mula sa
wikang Europeo (Prances:academique;
Medieval Latin: academicus) noong gitnang
bahagi ng ika-16 na siglo. Tumutukoy ito o may
kaugnayan sa edukasyon, iskolarsyip,
institusyon, o larangan ng pag-aaral na
nagbibigay-tuon sa pagbasa, pagsulat, at pag-
aaral, kaiba sa praktikal o teknikal na gawain
Mga Batayang Kaalaman sa Pagsulat
Ano ang pagsulat? Ang mga sumusunod ay iba’t
ibang pananaw tungkol sa pagsulat:
 Ang pagsulat ay ang masistemang paggamit ng
mga grapikong marka na kumakatawan sa
espesipikong lingguwistikong pahayag (Rogers,
2005). Ibig sabihin, may natatanging simbolo
(mga titik, bantas, at iba pang marka) para sa
bawat ponema o tunog, at ang mga simbolong
ito ang ginagamit sa pagsusulat ng mga
pahayag.
 Ang pagsulat ay Sistema ng permanente o
malapermanenteng pananda na kumakatawan
sa mga pahayag (Daniel & Bright, 1996).
Permanente dahil nakasulat o nakaukit ang mga
pananda sa papel, kahoy, bato at iba pang
material. Ihambing ang tulang isinulat upang
basahin sa tulang binigkas upang basahin sa
tulang binigkas upang mapakinggan. Maaari
mong balikan (o muling basahin) ang una nang
walang interbensiyon ng makata dahil nakasulat
ito, samantalang kailangang bigkasing muli ng
makata ang tula kung nais mo itong marinig
muli.
 Masistema ang pagsulat dahil bawat pananda
ay may katumbas na makabuluhang tunog at
isinaayos ang mga panandang ito upang
makabuo ng makabuluhang salita o
pangungusap, Masistema ang pagsulat dahil
ginagabayan ito ng mga batas sa gramatika.
 Ang pagsulat ay nakadepende sa wika. Kung
walang wika, walang pagsulat.
 Arbitraryo ang mga Sistema ng pagsulat.
Napagkasunduan ang tumbasan ng mga titik,
ang kahulugan ng salita, ang kabuluhan ng
pagpapahayag. Sa ibang salita, nag-iiba-iba ang
Sistema ng pagsulat depende sa wika at kultura.
Halimbawa, ang alagang hayop na tinaguriang
bestfriend ng tao ay isinusulat na “aso” sa
Filipino, “dog” sa Ingles, at “perro” sa Espanyol.
 Ang pagsulat ay isang paraan ng pagrerekord at
pagpepreserba ng wika.
 Kominikasyon ang isa sa mga pangunahing
layunin ng pagsulat (Fischer, 2001).
 Ang pagsusulat ay simbolong kumakatawan sa
kultura at tao.
 Ang pagsulat ay pundasyon ng sibilisasyon
(Goody, 1987).
Mga Layunin sa Akademikong Pagsulat
Karamihan sa mga batayang aklat at iba pang
babasahin tungkol sa pagbasa, pagsulat, at
pagtatalumpati ay nagpapaliwanag na ang
bawat anyo ng komunikasyon ay may isa sa
mga sumusunod na layunin: magpabatid, mang-
aliw at manghikayat.
Ang impormatibong akademikong sulatin ay
nagbibigay ng kaalaman at paliwanag. Nito ang
balita, lahok sa encyclopedia, ulat na
nagpapaliwanag sa estadistika, papel na
nagpapaliwanag ng konsepto, sulatin tungkol sa
kasaysayan, tesis at iba pa.
Tanggap na sa kasalukuyan ang mga personal
o malikhaing akda bilang mga halimbawa ng
akademikong sulatin. Halimbawa sa mga
disiplinang nag-aaral ng panitikan, sining,
kultura, at kasarian, itinuturing na akademikong
teksto ang autobiography, diary, liham at iba pa.
mayroong mga kritikal o akademikong akda na
naisusulat sa paraang malikhain gaya ng rebuy,
pagsusuri o talang pangkasaysayan. Bukod sa
pagbibigay ng impormasyon, nagbibigay din ng
aliw ang mga tekstong ito sa mambabasa.
Ang sulating nanghihikayat naman ay may
layuning kumbinsihin o impluwensyahan ang
mamababasa na pumanig sa isang paniniwala,
opinion o katuwiran. Halimbawa ng ganitong
akademikong sulatin ang konseptong papel,
Mga Gamit ng Akademikong Pagsulat
Sa pagbabasa ng sanaysay, encyclopedia,
batayang aklat, balita at iba pang akademikong
sulatin, maoobserbahang may iba’t ibang gamit
o hulwarang ginagamit upang maging malinaw
ang daloy ng mga ideya. Kabilang ditto ang mga
sumusunod.
a.Depinisyon – pagbibigay ng katuturan sa
konsepto o termino. Halimbawa, ang pormal na
depinisyon ng “Kalayaan,” mga salitang
kasingkahulugan nito, at etimolohiya o
pinanggalingan ng salitang ito.
b.Enumerasyon – pag-uuri o pagpapangkat ng
mga halimbawang nabibilang sa isang uri o
klasipikasyon.
c. Order – pagsusunud-sunod ng mga
pangyayari o proseso. Halimbawa, kronolohiya
ng mga pangyayari sa Pilipinas mula 1896
hanggang 1898, proseso sa pagluluto ng adobo,
at pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga pangyayari na
nagdulot sa paglubog ng barkong MV Doῆa Paz.
d.Paghahambing – pagtatanghal ng
pagkakatulad o pagkakaiba ng mga tao
(Benigno Aquino III at Gloria Macapagal-
Arroyo), lugar (Coron at El Nido), pangyayari
(EDSA I, EDSA II, at EDSA III), konsepto
(katarungan at hustisya, at iba pa.
e.Sanhi at Bunga – paglalahad ng mga dahilan
ng pangyayari o bagay at ang kaugnay na
epekto nito. Halimbawa, dahil sa kawalan ng
disiplina sa pagtatapon ng basura (sanhi),
lagging bumabaha sa kalakahang Maynila
(bunga).
f. Problema at Solusyon – paglalahad ng mga
suliranin at pagbibigay ng mga posibleng lunas
sa mga ito. Halimbawa, edukasyon ang sagot sa
kahirapan.
g.Kalakasan at Kahinaan – paglalahad ng
positibo at negatibong katangian ng isa o higit
pang bagay, sitwasyon o pangyayari.
Halimbawa, mga kalakasan at kahinaan ng
programang K to 12 sa Sistema ng edukasyon
sa Pilipinas.
BIG BANG THEORY
The existence of all matter is believed to have
started with the birth of the universe. There are
many theories effortly trying to explain what
happened to the beginning of the universe.
These theories were classified into scientific and
theological theories (theories of the different
religions). However, the most widely accepted
scientific explanation to the origin of the universe
is the Big Bang Theory.
Figure 1.1. The
Big Bang Theory
(Imagewww.express.co.uk/news/science/1195939/Big-Bang-
theory-science-physicists-simulate-universe-cosmic-
source:
According to the Big Bang Theory, our universe
started approximately 14 billion years ago as a
“singularity”, a hot dense mass, one centimeter
in diameter. The singularity experienced a huge
inflation, spreading its products as a fast moving
cloud of gas. This event was accompanied by an
emission of a huge amount of light. On the first
second after the inflation, sub-atomic particles,
such as protons (+), neutrons (n) and electrons
(-) were formed. Because of too much heat,
these particles can’t bond together to form
atoms. As the expanding universe cooled,
protons and neutrons starterd to combine,
forming heavier nuclei of deuterium (hyrogen
isotope with one proton and one neutron).
Isotopes are atoms of element that have the
same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons. Tritium, another form of hydrogen From a small, young, yellow star, it had
isotope, is formed when a neutron fuses with a undergone successive nuclear reactions until it
deuterium. became a giant red star. These reactions occur
inside and it forms different layers or regions of
elements called fusion shells (refer to Fig. 1.5).
These layers add up to the size of the star, in
different regions described like the structure of
an onion.
Inside the yellow stars, energy from the
fusion of hydrogen nuclei forms helium via
nuclear fusion. Once the amount of helium
produced were enough, they will be
concentrated at the core of the star, making it
hotter. Hydrogen fusion continues, but it occurs
outside the helium core.

As the process progresses, atomic nuclei join to

form a new type of isotope, resulting in the
formation of light elements (hydrogen, helium,
and lithium). In this processes, there are also
two isotopes of helium can be formed (refer to
Fig 1.3 and Fig 1.4). These processes in which
light elements are formed is called Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis. Astronomers believed in the
early processes of Big Bang, the universe was
composed of approximately 75% hydrogen and
25% helium, and trace amounts of lithium.

STELLAR FORMATION AND

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS (FORMATION OF
HEAVY ELEMENTS)
With the continuous expansion of the
universe for several years, clouds of hydrogen
and helium gases condensed to form stars.
Stars have undergone different phases, which
made them bigger ang bigger. After over millions  Polarity: refers to the overall charge of a
of years, these stars became hotter and denser, molecule
creating nuclear reactions inside. These  Molecule: a group of elements bonded
reactions resulted in the formation of elements together
heavier than lithium. Light elements combined to  Positive charge: refers to an atom or a
form atoms of Carbon (C), Neon (Ne), Oxygen
molecule with an excess proton
(O), Silicon (Si) and Iron (Fe).
 Negative charge: refers to an atom or a
molecule with an excess, unpaired
electron
 Electronegativity (EN): the tendency of
an atom/element to attract an electron,
 resulting in a negative charge, hence the
name.
A polar bond is generally an unfair
bond: one is more tight while the other is rather
loose. In chemistry, this bond refers to an ionic
bond—a result of an unequal and big difference
in electronegativities of elements involved in the
bond. On the other hand, a nonpolar bond is a
fair bond: the electronegativities of the elements
concerned are equal, as well as the sharing of
electrons (this usually occurs in covalent
bonds). In analogy to the rope, visualize this
bond as something with both ends of the rope
equally tied tight.
DETERMINING THE POLARITY OF A
MOLECULE
The easier and more basic way in
determining the polarity of a given structure is
through the Lewis structure and some solving,
given the following steps and examples:
1. First, recall how to draw the Lewis
structure and apply it to an example. In
this case, let’s have the molecule C O 2
(more commonly known as carbon
dioxide.
2. Find the electronegativity (EN) difference
of each bond. Use a periodic table of
elements for this.
If the EN difference of the bond is greater
than 0.4, it is polar but if it is lesser than
0.4, it is nonpolar. If ALL of the bonds in
the molecule is nonpolar, the molecule is
automatically nonpolar. However, if one
bond is polar, continue with the steps.
In the case of CO 2, the EN difference is
0.89 which is greater than 0.4. In this
stage we can assume that CO 2 is polar.
3. If the central atom has no lone pairs
(unpaired electrons) with all of the other
atoms around it the same, the molecule is
considered to be nonpolar. If the central
atom has lone pairs (unpaired electrons)
with all of the other atoms around it different,
the molecule is possibly polar.
In the case of CO 2, the central atom C
has no lone pairs around it and the atoms
around it are identical. In this stage, C O 2 is
now nonpolar.
4. Your teacher will teach you how to draw a
sketch for the molecule which will essentially
help you identify if the molecule is
asymmetrical (polar) or symmetrical
(nonpolar).
In the case of CO 2, the sketch will show that this
molecule is symmetrical (evenly distributed).
The final judgement for the CO 2 molecule is that
it’s nonpolar.
 Properties: this refers to the behaviour of
an entity or an object.
 Solubility: this is a physical property that
refers to the ability of a molecule to
dissolve
in a solvent.
 Melting point: this is a property that
refers to the temperature when a molecule
starts
to melt.
 Boiling point: this is a property that refers
to the temperature when a molecule starts
to boil.
What Is It
Molecules do not have the same
properties, which contributes to the wonderful
diversity of things around us and the different
ways such things react with the world. One of
the major factor that determines what properties
molecules have is their polarity.
The first property we will discuss is the
solubility. This is the ability of a molecule to be
dissolved in a solvent. Another property is the
melting point—temperature when a molecule
starts to melt or transition into a liquid state. The
next property is the boiling point—temperature
when a molecule starts to boil or transition into a
gaseous state.
The following examples will cover
examples of the correlation of polarity and the
mentioned properties:
SOLUBILITY
 The general law for solubility among
molecules is that polar molecules can be
dissolved in polar solvents (polar to polar)
and nonpolar molecules can be dissolved
in nonpolar solvents (nonpolar to
nonpolar). An example to this is salt
(NaCl) which is polar. Have you noticed
that it can easily be dissolved in water (
H 2 O )? This is because water is polar,
too.
 As opposed to salt, oil (containing Carbon
and Hydrogen only) is nonpolar. Have you
seen what happens when oil and water
are mixed? They separate. This is
because water is polar. Oil, being
nonpolar, can only be dissolved in a
nonpolar solvent.
MELTING AND BOILING POINT
Polar molecules usually have Hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bond is a big thing in bonding
because this means a stronger attraction.
Therefore, polar molecules have a stronger
attraction as opposed to nonpolar molecules.
What does this mean for both the melting point
and boiling point? The stronger the attraction,
the higher both the melting and boiling point
given that they are of the same sizes.
Anthropology
The science of humanity which studies human
beings in aspects ranging from the biology and
evolutionary history of “Homo Sapiens” to the
features of society, distinguish humans and
other species.
Sociology
Refer to the study of human society between
interactions and the processes that preserve
changes. It deals with dynamic of constituent
part of society such as institutions, communities,
gender, population, racial age or group.
Social Psychology
The scientific study of the behaviour of
individuals in their social and cultural setting.
The term may be taken to include the social
activity of laboratory animals or those in the wild,
the emphasis here is on human social
behaviour.
Political Science
The systematic study of governance by the
empirical and generally scientific method of
analysis. Political science examines the state
and its organs and institutions.
Economics
It is a branch of social science that seeks to
analyse and describe the production and
consumption of wealth.
Geography
The study of diverse environment, space of
Earth's surface, interactions, and places. It
seeks to answer the questions of why things are
as they are, where they are. The modern
academic discipline of Geography is rooted in
ancient practice, concerned with the
characteristics of places, in particular their
natural environment, people as well with
relations between the two.
Education
In the context of social science, Education can
be thought as the transmission of values and
accumulated knowledge of a society.
Historians consider history as one of the
humanities. It is generally best, in any case, to
consider history as marginal to the humanities
and social sciences. Since insights and
techniques pervade both. The study of
Comparative Law may also be regarded as part
of social science although it is ordinarily pursued
in schools of law rather than in departments of
schools containing most of the other social
sciences.
Although, strictly speaking, the social sciences
do not precede the 19th century—that is, as
distinct and recognized disciplines of thought—
one must go back farther in time for the origins
of some of their fundamental ideas and
objectives. In the largest sense, the origins go all
the way back to the Ancient Greeks and their
rationalist inquiries into human nature, the state,
and morality. The heritage of both Greece and
Rome is a powerful one in the history of social
thought, as it is in other areas of Western
society. Very probably, apart from the initial
Greek determination to study all things in the
spirit of dispassionate and rational inquiry, there
would be no social sciences today. True, there
have been long periods of time, as during the
Western Middle Ages, when the Greek
rationalist temper was lacking. But the recovery
of this temper, through texts of the great
classical philosophers, is the very essence of
the Renaissance and the Enlightenment in
modern European history. With the
Enlightenment, in the 17th and 18th centuries,
one may begin.
Counseling is a principled relationship
characterised by the application of one or more
psychological theories and a recognised set of
communication skills, modified by experience,
intuition and other interpersonal factors, to
clients’ intimate concerns, problems or
aspirations. Its predominant ethos is one of
facilitation rather than of advice-giving or
coercion. It may be of very brief or long duration,
take place in an organisational or private
practice setting and may or may not overlap with
practical, medical and other matters of personal
welfare. It is both a distinctive activity
undertaken by people agreeing to occupy the
roles of counsellor and client and it is an
emergent profession.... It is a service sought by
people in distress or in some degree of
confusion who wish to discuss and resolve these
in a relationship which is more disciplined and
confidential than friendship, and perhaps less
stigmatising than helping relationships offered in
traditional medical or psychiatric settings.
Behavioural Change
Enable people to live more, productive and
satisfying life.
Improving Relationship
Becoming more effective in interpersonal
relationships. Negative self-image or lack of
social skills are often the problem of lacking
relationships.
Enhancing Coping Skill
Help individuals to cope with new situations and
challenges.
Promote Decision Making
Helping people to realize the consequences of
their decisions. Making sure that we give better
options to people.
Facilitate Potential
Learning to use abilities and interests such as
emotions, physical, mental and spiritual.
Scope and Core Values of Counseling
Individual Counseling
 Adolescent identity, concerns, teen-
parent relationships, peer relationships
 Anxiety
 Anger management
 Children’s concerns within the family
unit, sibling relationships, school
experiences, peer relationships
 Depression
 Family of origin dynamics and issues
 Gender: identity, sexuality,
homosexuality
 Grief and bereavement
 Relationships: personal and
interpersonal dynamics
 Sexual abuse recovery
 Seniors: challenges, limitations,
transitions
 Singles: single, newly single, single
through divorce or being widowed
 Spirituality
 Stress management
 Workplace stress and relationships
 Young adult: identity, relationships,
vocation
Marital and Pre-marital Counseling
 Marital and relational dynamics
 Extended family relationships
 Fertility issues

Family Counseling
 Adolescent and child behaviours within
family dynamics
 Adult children
 Divorce and separation issues and
adjustment
 Family dynamics: estrangement,
conflict, communication
 Family of origin / extended family issues
 Life stages and transitions
 Parenting patterns: blended, single, co-
parenting families
 Remarriage relationship counselling
1.1.5 Principles of Counseling
1. Principle of acceptance—accept the patient
with his physical, psychological, social,
economical and cultural conditions.
2. Principle of communication—communication
should be verbal as well as non-verbal and
should be skilful.
3. Principle of empathy—instead of showing
sympathy put yourself in patients shoes and
then give reflections accordingly (Empathy is
ability to identify with a person.)
4. Principle of non-judge—mental attitude-do not
criticize or comment negatively regarding
patient’s complaints.
5. Principle of confidentiality—always keep the
patient’s name, and the problem strictly secrete
and assure the patient about the same.
6. Principle of individuality—treat each and
every patient as unique and respect his problem
as well.
7. Principles of non-emotional involvement—not
getting emotionally involved with the patient and
avoid getting carried away with his feelings.
Characteristics of Quantitative
Research
Different researchers and educators
give different definitions to “quantitative
research.” Here is one of them:
Creswell (1994) states that quantitative
research is a type of research that
endeavors to explain phenomena by
collecting numerical data that are
analyzed using mathematically based
methods (in particular statistics).
Let’s study this definition step by step.
In quantitative research, we collect
numerical data. Numerical data may
include age, salary, performance rating
satisfaction score, IQ scores, test
results etc. These data are collected by
means of survey, questionnaire or some
secondary documentations. The
analysis uses mathematically based
methods, statistics. In order to be able
to use mathematically based methods,
our data have to be in numerical form.
The statistical tools may include, but not
limited to frequency count, percentages,
 mean, variance, correlation, t-test,
ANOVA etc.
Therefore, because quantitative
research is essentially about collecting
numerical data to explain a particular
phenomenon, particular questions seem
immediately suited to being answered
using quantitative methods. For
example,
7 Characteristics of Quantitative Research
Seven characteristics discriminate
qualitative from quantitative research.
1. Data gathering instruments contain
items that solicit measurable
characteristics of the population
(e.g. age, number of children,
educational status, economic
status).
2. Standardized, pre-tested
instruments guide data collection
thus ensuring the accuracy,
reliability and validity of data.
3. For more reliable data analysis, a
normal population distribution curve
is preferred over a non-normal
distribution. This requires a large
population of numbers of which
depend on how the characteristics
of the population vary. This requires
adherence to the principle of
random sampling to avoid
researcher’s bias in interpreting the
results that defeat the purpose of
the research.
4. The data obtained using quantitative
methods are organized using tables,
graphs, or figures that consolidate
large numbers of data to show
trends, relationships, or differences
among variables. This fosters
understanding to the readers or
clients of the research investigation.
5. Researchers can repeat the
quantitative method to verify or
confirm the findings in another
setting. This reinforces the validity of
groundbreaking discoveries or
findings thus eliminating the
possibility of spurious or erroneous
conclusions.
6. Quantitative models or formula
derived from data analysis can
predict outcomes. If then scenarios
can be constructed using complex
mathematical computations with the
aid of computers.
7. Advanced digital or electronic
instruments are used to measure or
gather data from the field.
Strengths
1. Provides estimates of population at
large.
2. Indicates the extensiveness of attitudes
held by people.
3. Provides results which can be
condensed to statistics.
4. Allows for statistical comparison
between various groups.
5. Has precision, is definitive and
standardized.
6. Measures level of occurrence, action,
trends, etc.
7. Can answer such questions as “How
many?” and “How often?”
Weaknesses
1. It may be time consuming considering a
large sample.
2. Exact answers may not be properly
represented because they are
quantitatively expressed.
3. Statistical calculations are complex for
some people.
4. Too much methodology may dismay
researchers, especially on
randomization in the selection of
sample.
5. Not all quantitative data are extremely
discussed and interpreted.
When Do We Use Quantitative Methods?
There are six main types of research
questions that quantitative research is
particularly suited to find an answer to:
1. The first is when we want a
quantitative answer. For example, ‘If
the students have their choice, how
many of them choose to study
 Experiential English I? The reason
why we need to use quantitative
research to answer this kind of
question is very obvious: qualitative,
nonnumerical methods will obviously
not provide us with the numerical
answer we want.
2. Numerical change can likewise only
be accurately studied using
quantitative methods. For example,
‘Are the number of students in our
school rising or falling?’ or ‘Is the
achievement in English of our student
going up or down?’ We would need to
do a quantitative study to find out the
answer.
3. Quantitative research is useful in
conducting audience segmentation.
It is done by dividing the population
into groups whose members are
similar to each other and distinct from
other groups.
4. Quantitative research is also useful to
quantify opinions, attitudes and
behaviors and find out how the whole
population feels about a certain issue.
For example, ‘when we want to find
out the exact number of people who
think a certain way, to set baselines
(e.g., to measure consumer attitudes
regarding an issue prior to a
campaign), and to ensure that the
students can share some comments
or ideas to a new course.
5. Quantitative research is suitable to
explain some phenomena. For
instance, ‘What factors predict the
general English proficiency of the
Grade 10 students?’ or ‘What factors
are related to changes in student
English achievement overtime?’ This
kind o question can be studied
successfully using quantitative
methods, and many statistical
techniques have been developed to
make us predict scores on one factor
or variable (e.g., student English
proficiency) from scores on one
another or more other factors or
variables (e.g., learning habits,
motivation, attitude).
6. The final activity for which quantitative
research is especially suited is the
testing of hypotheses. We might want
to explain something, for example
whether there is a relationship between
students’ achievement and their self-
esteem and social background.
Kinds of Quantitative Research
There are several types of quantitative
research. For instance, it can be classified as
1) survey research, 2) correlational research,
3) experimental research and 4) causal-
comparative research.
Each type has its own typical characteristics.
Let’s take survey research as an example.
Survey research uses scientific
sampling and questionnaire design to
measure characteristics of population with
statistical precision. It seeks to provide
answers to such questions as “How many
people feel a certain way?” and “How often do
they do a certain behavior?” Survey research
enables management to make comparisons
between groups. It provides estimates from a
sample that can be related to the entire
population with a degree of certainty (e.g.,
57% of the population +/- 3% will answer the
question this way 95% of the time). Survey
research requires that respondents are
“randomly” sampled – that means that each
person in the population has a known
probability being sampled.
There are defined techniques such as
random digit dialing and sampling procedures
to ensure a scientific sample. In developing a
survey, you would normally work with a
statistician to build a statistically valid
sampling plan, a researcher to develop a
survey instrument and research objectives,
and a reputable field service that has the
capacity to conduct large scale interview
projects. It is important to work with experts
because the quality of the survey can be
affected by the research.
TITLE
1. Comprehensive. It gives the thrusts of
the research.
2. Brief/Concise. It is not longer than 7
substantive words and no more than
three lines (written in an inverted
pyramid type).
3. It is written in ALLL-CAPS case (all
letters capitalized), bold face.
4. The researchers must abide with rules
in formulating the research title.
ABSTRACT
1. A summative statement that answers
the following questions:
a. Include objectives and problems.
b. Include the respondents, the research
tool and the statistical tools used.
c. Write the most important findings.
 d. Give the primary recommendation.
e. 100-150 words, preferably one
paragraph.
f. 1.15 space, italicized.
2. The heading ABSTRACT should be
bold, centered and in uppercase. Text is
written in past tense.
3. The first line of the body is called
Synopsis and is not indented; the text
is left and right-justified.
4. By Chapter Heading and Subheadings.
5. Include separate lists of tables and/or
figures.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
a. All characters in the title headings are in
bold, upper case letters and centered.
b. Chapter Numbers is in Roman numeral.
c. Chapter Title is written 1.5 spaces below
the Chapter Number
Background of the Study
a. Direct quotations must not be written as
the first paragraph, instead this can be
rephrased to add substance to the
details of the problem.
b. The succeeding paragraph must come
from the researcher/s. This must not be
copied from any article.
c. Describe the problem situation by
considering global, national, and local
forces. Discussions should be from
macro to micro (general to specific).
Emphasize situations using facts and
statistics. These discussions must have
sources. Follow referencing format
using APA style.
d. In the local scenario, cite the
observations, local studies and the like.
There must be emphasis on the local
scenario to warrant the existence of the
research. More discussions and
descriptions must be seen on this part.
Statistics should even be cited for more
emphasis.
e. Make a clinching statement/paragraph
that relates/emphasizes the situational
analysis to the proposed study. Always
link one paragraph to the other. Ensure
coherence of ideas within and among
paragraphs and across sentences.
f. End with the main objective of the study.
Framework
a. Present an integrated set of propositions
(theory).
b. Discuss the theories and their relevance
to the study.
c. Present the main dimensions or
variables (concepts) of the study based
on the theories and the presumed
relationships among them (conceptual
framework).
d. It must explain the research flow.
e. It must explain how the specific
questions of the study flow from the
main objective.
Statement of the Problem
a. The main problem is stated in
declarative form and should reflect the
title; integral with it is the objective of the
study. The specific problems are written
in question form.
b. The questions must match the thrusts of
query of the interview or observation
guide.
c. Limit the questions on what research
wants to find out.
d. This section should be written in the
present tense.
Hypotheses
a. This must be based on the inferential
question.
Importance of the Study
a. Describe the contributions of the study
to the discipline as new knowledge.
b. Cite the usefulness of the study to
specific groups.
Definitions of Terms
a. Identify only one key terms from the title
and research problems.
b. The terms should be arranged
alphabetically and should be defined
operationally using complete sentences.
It can also be that the arrangement will
be based on the statement of the
problem for clearer analysis.
c. Conceptual or “dictionary definitions”
should be documented as to reference.
 d. A term may start with its conceptual and
followed by its operational definition.
e. Adopt clustered-scheme in defining the
terms.
The word philosophy comes from two Greek
words: philos (love) and sophia (wisdom). The
ancient Greeks used this term to refer to “love of
wisdom” and they soon applied it to the study or
discipline that uses human reason to investigate
the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles
which govern all things.
Philosophy is the study of general and
fundamental questions about existence,
knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
Philosophy in simple words is a way of thinking
about the world, the universe, and society. It
works by asking very basic questions about the
nature of human thought, the nature of the
universe, and the connections between them.
The ideas in philosophy are often general and
abstract.
Philosophy is the study of humans and the world
by thinking and asking questions. It is a science
and an art. Philosophy tries to answer important
questions by coming up with answers about real
things and asking "why?"
The most notable ancient Greek philosophers
are:
Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE)- A
mathematician and scientist, he was credited
with formulating the Pythagorean theorem.
Heraclitus (535 BCe to 475 BCE)- He proposed
that everything that exists is based on a higher
order or plan which he called logos.
Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE)- He devoted
himself to the study of the causes of natural
phenomena.
Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE)- He
was a known advocate of living a simple and
virtuous life.
Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE)- He believed
that philosophy could enable man to live a life of
happiness.
Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE)- He was
considered the foremost philosophers of ancient
times. He was credited with formulating the
Socratic method- means of examining a topic by
devising a series of questions that let the learner
examine and analyze his knowledge and views
regarding the topic.
Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE)- A student of
Socrates, he wrote down his mentor’s teaching
and incorporated some of his own ideas into
them. Plato’s most significant ideas included his
Theory of Forms, which proposes that
everything that exist is based on an idea or
template than can only be perceived in the mind.
Plato is also known for his dialectic- a method of
inquiry where two opposing ideas are discussed
in an attempt to arrive at new knowledge. Plato’s
lasting contribution to learning was his founding
of the Academy, an institution of higher learning.
Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE)- He attended
the Academy, and was the prominent student of
Plato. For him, all ideas and views are based on
perception and our reality is based on what we
can sense and perceive. His studies in logic led
to the formulation of a formal process of
analyzing reasoning which give rise to deductive
reasoning-the process by which specific
statements are analysed to reach a conclusion
or generalization.
The following are the branches of philosophy
that deals with a particular aspect of life or
phenomena.
Aesthetics is the branch of Philosophy which
deals with beauty and what makes things
“beautiful”.
Logic is branch of philosophy which deals with
correct reasoning.
Epistemology discusses the nature of
knowledge and knowing.
Ethics is the branch which deals with moral
questions and dilemmas.
Political Philosophy studies governments and
deals with questions of justice, power and the
rights and obligations of citizens.
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy which
deals with questions regarding reality and
existence.
Philosophy of the Human Person-is an area in
philosophy that understand the human person
from a philosophical perspective.
WHAT IS EPISTEMOLOGY?
There is no one correct definition of
epistemology. The one that I’m going to use
came from the philosopher Ayn Rand:
“Epistemology is a science devoted to the
discovery of the proper method of acquiring and
validating knowledge” (Rand 1990).
The purpose of epistemology therefore is two-
fold:
1. To show how we can acquire
knowledge.
2. To give us a method of demonstrating
whether the knowledge we acquired is
really knowledge (i.e., true).
Since knowledge plays a central role in
epistemology let us briefly described its nature.
THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE
According to Ayn Rand knowledge is a
“mental grasp of reality reached either by
perceptual observation or by a process of
reason based on perceptual observation” (Rand
1990). When you know something (be it the
behavior of your friend, the movement of the
planets, or the origin of civilizations) you
understand its nature. You identify what it is.
And it stays with you. Knowledge is a retained
form of awareness (Binswanger 2014).
So how do you acquire knowledge?
Miss Rand’s definition gives us two
ways:
First, we can acquire knowledge using our
senses: seeing, hearing, tasting, feeling,
smelling. How do you know that the table is
brown? Because you see it. How do you know
that fire is hot? Because you feel it. This method
of acquiring knowledge is called empiricism and
it has many adherents in the history of
philosophy such as John Locke, George
Berkley, David Hume.
The
(from left to ) John Locke, George Berkley,
right H the group (“man” or “human being”) and define
Empiricists and David
Second, we can acquire knowledge by
thinking with the use of our minds (what
philosophers call the rational faculty). This is
what rationalism advocates. (Some well-known
rationalists in history are Rene Descartes,
Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz).
However, thinking is just half of the story
of knowing (in fact the second half). The reason
is that thinking involves content. To think is to
think of something. You cannot think about
nothing. This is where sense perception enters
the picture by feeding our minds with data
coming from the outside world so that we can
have something to think about.
ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE
Let us now explore the first part of epistemology:
the process of acquiring knowledge.
1. Reality
To know is to know something. This
“something” is what philosophers call reality,
existence, being. Let us employ the term
existence. Existence is everything there is
(another name for it is the Universe [Peikoff
1990]). It includes everything we perceive
(animals, plants, human beings, inanimate
objects) and everything inside our heads (e.g.,
our thoughts and emotions) which represents
our inner world. Existence is really all there is to
know. If nothing exists knowledge is impossible.
2. Perception
Our first and only contact with reality is
through our senses. Knowledge begins with
perceptual knowledge. At first the senses give
us knowledge of things or entities (what Aristotle
calls primary substance): dog, cat, chair, table,
man. Later we became aware not only of things
but certain aspects of things like qualities (blue,
hard, smooth), quantities (seven inches or six
pounds), relationships (in front of, son of) even
actions (jumping, running, flying). These so
called Aristotelian categories cannot be
separated from the entities that have it. Red for
example cannot be separated from red objects;
walking cannot be separated from the person
that walks, etc.
3. Concept
After we perceive things we began to
notice that some of the things we perceive are
similar to other things. For example we see three
individuals let’s call them Juan, Pablo and Pedro
who may have nothing in common at first
glance. But when we compare them with another
entity, a dog for example, suddenly their
differences become insignificant. Their big
difference to a dog highlights their similarity to
one another (Binswanger 2014). We therefore
grouped them into one class or group, named
what that group is to give it identity (Peikoff
1990). We now have a concept which according
to one dictionary means “an abstract or generic
idea generalized from particular instances”
(Merriam-Webster Dictionary)
The first concepts we formed are
concepts of things like dog, cat, man, house,
car. These elementary concepts are called first
level concepts (Rand 1990). From these first
level concepts we can form higher level
concepts through a process which Rand calls
“abstraction from abstractions” (Rand1990).
Let us describe the two types of
abstraction from abstractions: wider
generalizations (or simply widenings) and
subdivisions (or narrowings) (Binswanger 2014):
Wider generalization is the process of
forming wider and wider concepts. For example
from Juan, Pedro and Pablo we can form the
concept “man”. Then from man, dog, cat,
monkey we can form a higher and wider concept
“animal”. And from plant and animal we can form
a still higher and wider concept “living
organism”. As we go up to these progressive
widenings our knowledge increases.
Subdivisions consist of identifying finer
and finer distinctions. For example “man” is a
first level concept that we can subdivide
according to profession (doctor, entertainer,
fireman, teacher), or race (Asian, Caucasian
[white], black), or gender (man, woman, lesbian,
gay), or nationality (Filipino, Chinese, American)
among other things. As we go down these
progressive narrowings our knowledge of things
subsumed under a concept increases.
The result of this progressive widenings
and narrowings is a hierarchy (or levels) of
concepts whose based is sense perception. As
we move further from the perceptual base
knowledge becomes more abstract and as we
move closer to the perceptual level knowledge
becomes more concrete.
4. Proposition
When we use concepts in order to
classify or describe an “existent” (a particular
that exist be it an object, a person, an action or
event, etc) (Rand 1990) we use what
philosophers call a proposition (Binswanger
2014). A proposition is a statement that
expresses either an assertion or a denial (Copi,
2002) that an existent belongs to a class or
possess certain attribute.
Proposition is usually expressed in a declarative
sentence. When I say, for example, that “Men
are mortals” I am making an assertion of men
which are affirmative in nature (thus the
statement is an affirmative proposition). When I
make an opposite claim however, “Men are not
mortals” I am denying something about men and
thus my statement is negative in nature (thus the
proposition is called a negative proposition)
An affirmative proposition therefore has the
following structure: “S is P” (where S is the
subject, P is the predicate and “is” is the copula
stating the logical relationship of S and P) while
the negative proposition has the structure “S is
not P” (“is not” is the copula expressing denial).
Notice that statements like “Men are mortals”,
“Angels are not demons”, and “Saints are not
sinners” can either be true or false. “Truth and
falsity are called the two possible truth values of
the statement” (Hurley 2011). (Later were going
to explore the nature of truth).
5. Inference
How do we demonstrate that the
statement is true? By providing an argument.
According to Hurley an argument “is a group of
statements, one or more of which (the premises)
are claimed to provide support for, or reason to
believe one of the others (the conclusion)
(Hurley 2011). To clarify this definition let’s give
an example using the famous Socratic
argument:
All men are mortals
Socrates is a man.
Therefore Socrates is mortal.
Here we have three related statements
(or propositions). The last statement beginning
with the word “therefore” is what we call a
conclusion. A conclusion is a statement that we
want to prove. The first two statements are what
we call premises (singular form: premise). A
premise provides justification, evidence, and
proof to the conclusion.
An argument expresses a reasoning
process which logicians call inference (Hurley
2011). Arguments however is not the only form
of inference but logicians usually used
“argument” and “inference” interchangeably.
There are still many things to be discuss on the
topic of knowledge acquisition. We only provided
a brief overview of the topic.
THE NATURE OF TRUTH
Now that we know how we know, it’s
time to see whether the knowledge we acquired
is “really” knowledge i.e., is true. This is the
second part of epistemology: validating one’s
knowledge.
The first step in validating one’s
knowledge is to ask oneself the following
question: “How did I arrive at this belief, by what
steps?” (Binswanger 2014). Thus you have to
retrace the steps you took to acquire the
knowledge, “reverse engineer” the process
(Binswanger 2014). This is what Dr. Peikoff calls
reduction (Peikoff 1990). One will therefore
realize that the steps you took to acquire
knowledge (perception-concept-proposition-
inference) are the same steps needed to
validate knowledge (but in reverse order). Thus
what the ancient pre-Socratic philosopher
Heraclitus said is true when applied to
epistemology: “the way up [knowledge
acquisition] is the way down [knowledge
validation]” (quoted by Dr. Binswanger 2014).
If we perform the process of reduction
we will realized that all true knowledge rest
ultimately on sense perception. “A belief is true if
it can be justified or proven through the use of
one’s senses” (Abella 2016). Consider the
following statements (Abella 2016):
You can only validate the above
statements if you observed yourself using your
senses. Feel your body. Are you breathing? Feel
your pulse. Observe your body. Is it moving?
These and countless examples provided by your
senses proved that you’re alive (Abella 2016).
Not all statements however can be
validated directly by the senses. Some beliefs or
ideas need a “multi-step process of validation
called proof’ (Binswanger 2014). Nevertheless
proof rests ultimately on sense perception.
Statements based on sense perception
are factual and if we based our beliefs on such
facts our beliefs are true (Abella 2016).
For example the belief that human beings have
the right to life rests on the following claim:
1. Human beings are rational animals.
2. Animals (including human beings) are
living organisms.
And of course the fact that we are alive can
be demonstrated perceptually as shown above.
A third way to determine if the statement is true
is through a consensus (Abella 2016). If the
majority agrees that a statement is true then it is
true. However there are certain limitations to this
approach. Far too many times in history false
ideas became popular which ultimately leads to
disaster. For example the vast majority of
Germans during the time of Adolph Hitler
believed that Jews are racially inferior. This is
obviously false supported by a pseudo biological
science of the Nazi. The result of this false
consensus is the extermination of millions of
Jews in many parts of Europe.
A fourth way to determine whether a statement
is true is to test it by means of action (Abella
2016). For example you want to know if a person
is friendly. Well the best way to find out is to
approach the person. Thus, the famous Nike
injunction of “Just do it” is applicable in this
situation.
TRUTH VS OPINION
Identifying truth however can sometimes
be tricky. The reason is that there are times
when we strongly held an idea that we feel
“deep down” to be true. For example religious
people strongly believed that there is life after
death. Some people who embraced democracy
may passionately embraced the idea that the
majority is always right. Or on a more personal
level you may feel strongly that your sister is
“selfish”.
However we must not confused strongly
held beliefs with truth. Truth is knowledge
validated and when we say validated we mean
they are based on the facts of reality.
You must understand dear student that
the facts of reality are independent of your
thoughts, feelings or preferences (Ayn Rand
calls this the primacy of existence [Rand 1982]).
That is the characteristic of truth. For example
the statement “Jose Rizal died in 1896” is true.
You may not like that statement or deny it
strongly. That does not change the fact that the
statement is true because it is based on what
really happened in the past. There are many
sources that can validate the truth of that
statement if one cared to look.
However when you say that “Jose Rizal
is the greatest man who ever lived” you are
stating your preference and not facts. This is an
opinion. Now it is true that there are many facts
about Rizal but that statement is asserting
something that is beyond what the facts state.
That statement represents not facts but your
interpretation of facts which may reveal your
biases.
To summarize an opinion has the
following characteristics:
1. Based on emotions
2. Open to interpretation
3. Cannot be confirmed
4. Inherently biased
While truth is:
1. Based on the facts of reality
2. Can be confirmed with other sources
3. Independent of one’s interpretation,
preferences and biases
In knowing the truth or falsity of a statement, we
generally use the following Theories of Truth:
1. The Correspondence theory of Truth:
The basic idea of the correspondence
theory is that what we believe or say is true if it
corresponds to the way things actually are
based on the facts. It argues that an idea that
correspond with reality is true while an idea,
which does not correspond to reality is false.
For example, if I say, “The sky is blue” then I
looked outside and saw that it is indeed blue,
then my statement is true. On the other hand, if I
say, “Pigs have wings” and then I checked a pig
and it does not have wings, then my statement
is false. In general, statements of beliefs,
propositions, and ideas are capable being true
or false.
However, according the Eubulides, a
student of the Megara school of philosophy, “the
correspondence theory of truth leaves us in the
lurch when we are confronted with statements
such as “I am lying” or “What I am saying here is
false.” These are statements and therefore, are
capable of being true or false. But if they are
true because they correspond with reality, then
any preceding statement or proposition must be
false. Conversely, if these statements are false
because they do not agree with reality, then any
preceding statement or proposition must be true.
Thus, no matter what we say about the truth or
falsehood of these statements, we immediately
contradict ourselves.”
This does not mean that the
Correspondence Theory of Truth is wrong or
useless and, to be perfectly honest, it is difficult
to give up such an intuitively obvious idea that
truth must match reality. Nevertheless, the
above criticisms should indicate that it probably
is not a comprehensive explanation of the nature
of truth.
2. The Coherence Theory of Truth:
It has already been established that the
Correspondence Theory assumes that a belief is
true when we are able to confirm it with reality.
In other words, by simply checking if the
statement or belief agrees with the way things
really are, we can know the truth. However, as
Austin Cline argues, this manner of determining
the truth is rather odd and simplistic.
Cline said that a belief can be an
inaccurate description of reality that may also fit
in with a larger, complex system of further
inaccurate descriptions of reality. Thus, by
relying on the Correspondence Theory, that
inaccurate belief will still be called “truth” even
though it does not actually describe actual state
of things. So how do we resolve this problem?
In order to know the truth of a statement,
it must be tested as part of a larger set of ideas.
Statements cannot be sufficiently evaluated in
isolation. For example, if you pick up a ball and
drop it accidentally, the action cannot be simply
explained by our belief in the law of gravity
which can be verified but also by a host of other
factors that may have something to do with the
incident, such as the accuracy of our visual
perception.
For Cline, only when statements are
tested as part of a larger system of complex
ideas, then one might conclude that the
statement is “true”. By testing this set of
complex ideas against reality, then one can
ascertain whether the statement is “true” or
“false”. Consequently, by using this method, we
establish that the statement “coheres” with the
larger system. In a sense, the Coherence
Theory is similar to the Correspondence Theory
since both evaluates statements based on their
agreement with reality. The difference lies in the
method where the former involves a larger
system while the latter relies on a single
evidence of fact.
3. The Pragmatist Theory of Truth:
The Pragramatic Theory of Truth states
that a belief/statement is true if it has a useful
(pragmatic) application in the world. If it does
not, then it is not true. In addition, we can know
whether a belief/statement is true by examining
the consequence of holding or accepting the
statement/belief to be true. For example, there
are some people who think that there are
“ghosts” or “vampires” because they find it
useful in explaining unusual phenomena and in
dealing with fears (Mabaquiao, 2016). So, if we
are going to use the word “truth”, we define it as
that which is most useful to us.
However, there are objections against
this theory of truth. For Austin Cline, truth that is
based on what works is very ambiguous. What
happens when a belief works in one sense but
fails in another? Suppose a belief that one will
succeed may give a person the psychological
strength needed to accomplish a great deal but
in the end he fails in his ultimate goal. Was his
belief “true”?
In this sense, Cline argues that when a
belief works, it is more appropriate to call it
useful rather than “true”. A belief that is useful is
not necessarily true and in normal
conversations, people do not typically use the
word “true” to mean “useful”.
To illustrate, the statement “It is useful to
believe that my spouse is faithful” does not at all
mean the same as “It is true that my spouse is
faithful.” Granted that true beliefs are also
usually the ones that are useful, but it is not
usually the case. As Nietzsche argued,
sometimes untruth may be more useful than
truth.
In sum, we can know if
statements/beliefs are true if we look at each
statement/belief and determine if they
correspond to facts, cohere with the rules of the
system and result into useful application.
It must be noted, however, that
Philosophers “continue to argue with each other
on which among these three general methods is
the correct one or one that works for all kinds of
statement or beliefs” (Mabaquiao, 59).
Nevertheless, it is not necessary to subscribe to
only one method and consider it to work for
everyone. Perhaps it is better to use any of the
three methods that is appropriate for any given
statement or belief that is being examined.
Defining the following:
Communication- is from the Latin term
communicare-“to share” of “to divide out”
- Another Latin word
communis- “working
together”
Bulan and de leon (2002)
“without speech or oral communication, societies
could not attain levels of civilization,
communities could not organize into living and
working groups, mark and ritualize practices and
traditions, debates and decide difficult issues,
and transform society for its good.
Media- are tools used by the source to
disseminate information to the receivers. It can
be broadcast media such as television and
radio, print media such as newspapers and
magazines, new media or internet, and non-
traditional media like film, literature, and outdoor
media.
Information- knowledge obtained from
investigation, study or instruction.
Technology- the practical application of
knowledge especially in a particular area.
Literacy- the quality or state of being literate.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS:
Source
Feedbac
Message
k
Receiver Channel
Source- the source or sender is the origin of the
message.
Message- pertains to any information that is
passed on through communication.
Channel- refers to the medium and how the
information flows from the sender to the
receiver.(Berlo, 1960)
Receiver- refers to the listener, reader and
viewer of the message.
 Berlow further explained that in order to
have a smooth conversation betwwen
the source and receiver, they should
share the same platform, have good
communication skills, exhibit the right
attitude, and have the same level
knowledge.
In studying the media information literacy,
the following should be clearly defined:
 Media Literacy- the ability to access,
analyse, evaluate, and communicate
information in a variety of forms,
including print and non-print messages.
 Information Literacy- the Association
of College and Research Libraries
(ACRL USA) defined information literacy
as a set of abilities requiring individuals
to “Recognize when information is
needed and have the ability to locate,
evaluate, and use the needed
information effectively.
 Technology Literacy- the New York
State Education Department (NYSED)
 defines technology literacy as the
understanding of the concepts behind
computing equipment, network
connectivity, and application software,
the skills to responsibly use appropriate
technology to access, synthesize,
evaluate, communicate, and create
information to solve problems and
improving learning in all subject areas,
and the ability to acquire new
knowledge for on-going and lifelong
learning in the 21st century global
workplace.
Individuals can be benefited in being media
and information literate.
1. Significant improvement in the
quality of life.
2. Greater political participation.
3. Better economic opportunities.
4. Improved learning environment.
5. Developed and unified social units.
-page2-
The Role of Media and Information in
Effective Communication
 It makes the world a smaller place.
 It makes communication convenient.
 It shapes public opinion.
The Media and Information Producers and
Users
 Media Producers- someone who
oversees projects (e.g. films, tv shows)
from conception to completion and may
also be involved in the marketing and
distribution process.
 Media Users- refer to the audience or
consumers of media.
Producers and users of media and information
may have the following purpose:
1. To inform
2. To educate
3. To entertain
4. To advocate
5. To promote business
6. To increase network
Media Habits, Lifestyles, and Preferences:
 Media Habits- person’s normal use of
media
 Media Lifestyle- refers to a person’s
use of media based on his or her
lifestyle.
 Media Preferences- the media
preference of an individual may be
affected by the accessibility, availability,
affordability and convenience of the
media platform.
Media as oftentimes the only source of
information, it must ensure the following:
1. Implementation of utmost
professionalism.
2. Must be objective at all times.
3. Provide the public with balance
reporting.
4. Fair and honest covering of stories or
events.
5. Examine and comprehend the interest
of the public.
6. Make avenue to represent different
voices and opinions.
The Importance of Media:
 Pervasiveness- the Cambridge
dictionary defines pervasiveness as
present or noticeable in every part of a
thing or a place.
 Information Source- the internet has
become everyone’s go-to place
whenever they need to know something.
 Entertainment Source- TV shows,
music, films, books, clips and videos,
and social media, are just some of the
things that the media offers as
entertainment.
 Persuasion Forum- the media has the
power to persuade people.
 Binding Influence- people rely on
media in their daily lives.
The Concepts of Mass Media and Media
Demassification:
Mass Media- refer to channels of
communication that involve transmitting
information in some
way, shape of form to large
numbers of people.
 Distance- there is considerable amount
of distance between the sender and
receiver of the information in mass
media.
 Technology- satellites, that provides
electronic connections
 Scale- mass media communication
deals with broadcasting information to
the masses simultaneously.
 Commodity- due to its massive scale
and the technological equipment it
requires, mass media is an expensive
type of communication.
Mass Demassification:
Divides the masses into segments
before choosing which segments to target. In
specifically determining the target market, media
demassification can tailor fit their message and
delivery according to their target market and
achieve the intended response.
Information is defined as facts or details
about a subject. Acquiring information has never
been as easy as it is today. Before, people ideas) passed or transmitted
spend a lot of time, effort, and money on using a channel. Turow
research. Today, information is just at the tip of (2007) described
the user’s fingertips. them(messages) as a
Advancements in technology have led to an collection of symbols that
insurmountable availability of information and a appear purposefully
more convenient means of accessing them. organized (meaningful) to
However, it raises issues of credibility of the those sending or receiving
available information, requiring rigorous filtering them.
of information and verification. Information
literacy aims to solve this issue.
7. Media: are the methods or
tools in which information can
be exchanged and
communication can be
facilitated.

An information literate individual is able to:

 Determine the extent of information

needed.
 Access the needed information 8. Interpersonal
effectively and efficiently. Communication: refers to
 Evaluate information and its sources the communication between
critically. two persons, whether they
 Incorporate selected information into are verbal or non-verbal.
one’s knowledge base.
 Use information effectively to 9. Mediated Interpersonal
accomplish a specific purpose. Communication: refers to
 Understand the economic, legal, and the p[rocess where
social issues surrounding the use of technology stands in
information and access and use between the parties
information ethically and legally. communicating and becomes
the channel by which the
Technology literate students should be able message is sent or received.
to:
10. Mass Communication:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of refers to communication
concepts underlying hardware, software, systems used to create,
networking connectivity and in the use produce, and disseminate
of computers and applications.
media texts to mass
2. Demonstrate an understanding of ethics
audiences. Traditional forms
and safety issues in using electronic
media and responsible use of of mass communication
technology. consist of newspaper, radio,
3. Use technology for communication, television, and film, it is also
research and collaboration and problem- understood that in mass
solving with proficient technology skills, communication, there is no
students should be able to locate, immediate feedback between
collect, synthesize and evaluate the source and the receiver.
information from a variety of digital
sources, and to use telecommunications 11. Organizational
and other media to interact or Communication:
collaborate with peers, experts, and refers to
audiences. communication
4. Definition of Terms useds in the
business
5. Communication: pertaine to environments
a purposeful exchange of
information and messages 12. Media and Information
between people or groups of Literacy: refers to the
people by speaking, writing, essential competencies
gestures, and signs. (knowledge, skills, attitudes)
that allow citizens to engage
6. Messages: refer to any form with media and other
of communication information providers
(information, feelings, and effectively, and develop
 critical thinking and life-long
learning skills for socializing
and becoming active citizens.
Dance comes from the German word damson,
which means “to stretch or “to drag”. It
developed as a natural expression of united
feeling and action. Dance is considered the
mirror of the society because it responds to
historical and religious events as well as social
and political statements.
Although there have been immense
comparative differences in period and culture,
people still dance mainly for four reasons: (a) to
please gods; (b) to please others; (c) to please
themselves; and (d) to build community within
an ethnic group or social interaction.
History and Development of Dance from the
Different Periods
 Dance During the Prehistoric Period
 It had been a major form of
religious ritual and social
expression within primitive culture.
 It was used as a way of expression
and reinforcing tribal unity and
strength.
 It is based on superstition and
infused with magic. Shamans as
lead dancers acted as physicians
and religious leaders and kept
tribes healthy, prosperous and
safe.
 Dance During the Ancient
Civilization  Ancient Egypt.
 3,300 BCE (First Dancing). It is
believed that the first people to
dance were the Egyptians.
Archaeologists discovered
paintings of dancing figures in
rock shelters and caves.
 As a way of expressing
religious service and teaching
ancient myth, three (3) major
dancers were evolved:
(1) the king;
(2) the priests who
performed magical
dances;
(3) virgin dancers who
were trained to perform
during ceremonies led
by the priests.
 Ancient Crete.
 The Cretan civilization (3000-
1400 BC) was a cultural link in
the ancient world between
Egyptians and Greeks.
 Cretans used dance to
perfect their military training
which made excellent.
 Ancient Greece.
 Dance was not just for religious
and military training but also a
form of entertainment and
display.
 Plato immensely gave
importance to dance in
education as stated in the
education on the Laws. He
highlighted the two kinds of
dance and music: the noble (fin
and honorable) and the ignoble
(imitating what is mean or
ugly).
 Ancient Rome.
 Gave less importance to
dancing which eventually
became an integral part of the
corruption in the latter days of
the Roman Empire resulting in
the condemnation of dance by
early Christians.
 Dance was primarily
performed for religious, social
and entertainment. However,
theatrical entertainment was
prohibited but still existed and
was performed within church
during religious ceremonies.
 Dance During the Middle Ages and
The Renaissance
 1400 (Ballet Comes into Play).
Ballet started in this year in Italy,
but didn’t really become popular
until around the year 1500. Ballet
gained its popularity when a lady of
the arts, Catherine de Medici,
married King Henry 11 and threw
festivals where they would perform
ballet dances. Ballet is believed to
be the main core of every single
dance style.
 A vast dance movement occurred
throughout the courts of Europe in
the 15th and 16th centuries. During
these times, new court dances
performed by the nobility came
about as well as the rise of the art
of ballet in Italy and France.
 Several other dance forms
continued to sprout and spread
across several countries.
Modern History
 Dance During the Late 16th and 17th
Centuries (1501-1700)
  1600 (Masque Dancing). Masque
dancing started from elaborate
pageants and shows in the 16th
century. Masque dancing involved
intricate costuming and stage
designing that also incorporated
singing and acting as well as
dancing. It was often used as a
court entertainment.
 A period in the history of dance in
Italy, France, and England which
was considered to be pleasantly
deep and rich. France became the
forerunner in dance during this
period.
 Dance increased as a court
amusement and later transformed
into professional entertainment.
 Dance During the 18th Century (1701-
1800)
 1795 (Classical Persian Dancing).
This style of dance evolved from
courtroom dancing. An era
influencing Persian dance was the
Qajar Dynasty which lasted from
1795 to 1925. Dancers would
perform artistic and lively dances
for the Shah. The music is usually
played by a small band.
 1800 (Tippity Tappity, Time for
Tap). Tap dancing originated from
African tribe dancing. Tap dancing
makes percussion sounds because
of dancers most commonly wearing
leather shoes with two pieces of
metal and clip and clap against
hard floors. Tap is still very popular
to this day.
 Dance During the 19th Century (1801-
1900)
 1890 (Merengue Dancing). It is a
Caribbean dance style that
involves partners holding each
other in a tango-like position and
moving their hips side to side.
 1900 (Jazz and Acro). It involves
doing smooth and flexible
movements, and lots of back
bending and tricks. Both styles are
widely popular to this day.
 Ballroom dances also emerged
during this period like Cotillion,
Polonaise, Quadrille, Waltz and
Polka.
th
 20 Century Dances (1901-2000)
 Described as a period of “dance
fever” wherein the young and old
alike were not limited to express
emotions through dance.
 1950 (Contemporary Dance).
Contemporary dance is a style that
combines jazz, ballet, and modern
dance. It can be many different
styles, but most of the time it is
melancholy and or intense.
 1970 (Hip Hop Dance). There are
many styles of hip hop that include
breaking, popping, locking, and
more. Street dance was performed
both in night clubs and on the
streets. It is associated with funk,
breakdancing, and hip-hop.
 Several social dance movements
also evolved such as castle walk,
tango, foxtrot, Charleston, Lindy
Hop, Rumba, Mambo, Cha-
ChaCha, Samba, Bossa Nova,
Boogaloo and Twist.
 Popular fad dances also
emerged like YMCA and
Macarena.
 21st Century Dance (2001- Present)
 2018 (Dance Nowadays). Today's
dance style has taken a turn
towards more hip hop dances.
Small and popular dances that
involve hip hop and that most
everyone can achieve include the
whip and nae nae, Gangnam Style
(it’s a little old), shooting, and
more.
The Health-Related Fitness Components
Before engaging any physical activities, you
need to self- assess your health-related fitness
status and determine barriers to physical activity
participation. Health-related fitness involves
exercise activities that you do in order to try to
improve your physical health and stay healthy.
Cardiovascular endurance is the ability of the
heart and lungs to work together to provide the
needed oxygen and fuel to the body during
sustained workloads. The 3-minute Step Test is
used to test cardiovascular endurance.
 Muscular strength is the amount of force
a muscle can produce. The Push-Up
Test is most often used to test muscular
strength.
 Muscular endurance is the ability of the
muscles to perform continuous without
fatiguing. The Basic Plank is most often
used to test muscular endurance.
 Flexibility is the ability of each joint to
move through the available range of
motion for a specific joint. The Zipper
Test and Sit and Reach Test is
frequently used to test body flexibility.
 Body composition is the amount of fat
mass compared to lean muscle mass,
bones and organs. The BMI is defined
as the body mass divided by the square
of the body height, and is universally
expressed in units of kg/m², resulting
 from mass in kilograms and height in
meters.
Folk dance are the indigenous dances of any
specific "folk" or the common people. They are
traditional customary or recreational dance
forms of a given country which have evolved
naturally and were handed
down across generations,
Folk dance are related to everything of
importance in our daily lives such as customs,
rituals and occupations of a specific group of
people.
According to Duggan, Schlottmann, and
Rutledge (1948), "folk dance became the overt
expression of emotions and ideas which were
peculiarly significant or the re-enactment of
customs and events constituting an important
Lopez (2006) defined Philippine folks dance
as a " traditional mode of expression that
employs bodily movement of redundant
patterns linked to definitive features of
rhythmic beats or music."
She further stated that Philippine Folk dance,
to be called such, should have the following
characteristics.
1. It is traditional.
2. It has an expressive behavior.
3. Simple, basic rhythm dominates the folk
dance and establishes the pattern of movement.
4. It is created by unknown choreographer or by
communal efforts.
5. It performs a function in the life of the (folk)
people.
Oftentimes, the term folk dance is being
confused or used interchangeably with ethnic
and national dance.
What are the differences between folk,
national, and ethnic dance?
Folk dances are traditional dances
found in a certain country. While national dances
are also traditional folk dances but have a
national scope.
The Philippine dances Cariñosa, Curacha,
and Pandango are example of national folk
dances as they are popular dance throughout
the country.
Examples of Pandango Dances are:
• Pandango Ilocano
• Pandango Visayan
• Pandango Dumagueteño
• Pandango Ivatan
• Pandango Rinconada
• Pandango sa Ilaw
Ethnic dances or ethnological dances are
those performed in primitive tribes and have
retained their close kinship with religious
ritual and community custom.
Different types of Ethnic dances:
a. Ritual dances
- dances that depicts ritual ceremonies.
Ex.: Dugso (Bukidnon), Pagdidiwata
(Palawan)
b. Life-cycle dances
- dances relating to the cycle of human
life such as birthing, courtship, wedding, and
funeral.
Ex: Binasuan (Pangasinan), Daling-daling
(Muslim courtship dance from Sulu)
c. Occupational dances
- dances that exhibit work and
occupation of the dances.
Ex: Mag-asik (Cotabato), Mananagat (Cebu)
All national and ethnic dances are folk
dances, but not all folk dances are
considered national or ethnic dances.
The Philippine has very rich and varied
folk dances. There are hundreds of
traditional dance collections found in the
country that are mostly for all occasions.
These dances exhibit the customs, ideas,
beliefs, superstitions, and events of daily
living in a certain Filipino community.
FRANCISCA REYES-AQUINO is
acknowledged as the pioneer of folk dancing
in the Philippines. She is the first National
Artist for dance and the Mother of Philippine
Folk Dance.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PHILIPPINE FOLK
DANCE
There are several ways to classify
Philippine folk dance. According to
Francisca Reyes-Aquino, folk dances may
be classified by geographical extent of
origin, nature, speed of movement,
formation, and distinguishing feature.
The three major regional classifications
of Philippine folk dances are the following:
1. Tribal dances from the Cordilleras
- include non-christian dances from the
Cordilleras.
2. Lowland Christian dances
- dances coming from places with
Western influences such as that of the
Tagalogs, Ilokanos, Pampangueños,
Pangasinense, Bisayans, and Bicolanas.
3. Muslim dances
- dances from the people of the
Southern Islands of the Philippines such as
Mindanao and Sulu.
5 MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS OF PHILIPPINE
FOLK DANCES
o Cordillera Dances
o Spanish Influenced
Dances
o Muslim Dances
o Tribal Dances
o Rural Dances 
Philippine folk dances, regardless of their
classifications, may also be categorized as:
1. Life-cycle dances- dances that serve as ritual
as one passes to a different stage in life.
Different dances that portray life-cycle:
a. Courtship dances b. Wedding
dances c. Funeral dances
2. Festival dances- dances that are either
religious or secular and are connected with the
celebration of recurring events of special
significance.
3. Occupational dances - dances that depicts
the means of livelihood of the Filipino people.
Ex: Palay Festival.
4. Ritual and Ceremonial dances- dances
performed as part of the rituals and ceremonies
of a certain tribe or group of people.
5. Game dances- derivations from local folk
games.
Ex: Pukol dance (Aklan and Capiz)
6. Joke and trickster dances- include jokes or
tricks played by a dancer on another or a group
of dances who is one of them. Ex: Pandanggo
sa Sambalilo dance
7. Mimetic or drama dances- dances that mimic
animals, inanimate objects, or other people.
Ex: itik-itik dance
8. War dances - dances that express feud and
emnity wherein two male dancers engage in
physical combat with Spartan. Ex: Maglalatik
9. Social amenities dances- dances that express
social graces, hospitality, and offerings of gifts to
friends.
Ex: Minuete Yano, Habanera.
DANCE STEPS IN 2/4 TIME SIGNATURE
 Touch step- Point R foot in front( ct.
1), step R close to L (ct. 2). This is
commonly done in front. 1M
 Close step-Step R foot (ct. 1), close
L to R foot (ct. 2) = 1M This may be
executed in any directions
 Change Step-Step R foot in front
(ct. 1), step L close to R foot in rear
(ct. and), step R foot quickly in front
(ct. 2). This may be executed in any
directions.
 Step-Point-Step R foot in front( ct.
1), point L foot in front (ct. 2) This
step is executed in all directions.
 Plain Polka-Step L foot in front
(ct.1), step R close to left foot in rear
(ct. and), step L in front (ct.2), pause
(ct. and).
 Hop polka-Hop on L foot and step
R forward (ct.1), step L close to R in
rear (ct. and), step R foot forward
(ct. 2) and pause (ct. and). This may
be executed in any directions.
 Heel and toe polka-Place L heel in
fourth in front (ct.1), touch left toe in
rear ( ct. 2), Take one plain polka
step forward, starting with the L foot
(ct. 1, and 2, and).
 Slide polka-Take two slide step
forward and a plain polka: Slide L
foot in front (ct. 1), close R to L foot
in rear (ct. and), slide R foot in front
( ct. 2), close L foot in rear ( ct. and).
Take one plain polka forward
starting with the L foot (cts. 1, and 2,
and)
DANCE STEPS IN ¾ TIME SIGNATURE
Some dance steps done in 2/4 time
rhythm can also be done in 3⁄4 time. Review the
step patterns of the following basic dance steps
which are done in 3⁄4 time and identify which
dance step can be done in 2/4and 3⁄4 time
signature.
 Touch step
o Point R foot in front( ct. 1 ), step
R close to L ( ct. 2, 3 ). This is
commonly done in front. =1M
 Step point
o Step R foot in front ( ct. 1), point
L foot in front (cts. 2, 3 ) This
step is executed in all directions.
 Step swing
o Step R (cts. 1,2); swing L (ct. 3)
or step R (ct. 1); swing L (cts.
2,3)Step hop step R (cts. 1,2);
hop R (ct. 3) =1M
 Close step
o Step R foot ( cts. 1 ), close L to
R foot (cts. 2, 3 ) = 1M, ` or 2)
Step R foot ( cts. 1, 2 ), close L
to R foot (ct. 3) = 1M This may
be executed in any directions
 Native waltz
o Step L foot in front (ct.1), step R
close to L in rear (ct.2), step L in
front (ct.3).This may be
executed in all directions.
 Cross waltz
o Step R foot across the L foot in
front and raise slightly the L foot
across in rear (ct.1), step
the L foot close to R in rear( ct.2),
step R foot in front (ct. 3). Step
on the ball of the rear foot on
the
second count.
 Waltz balance
o Step R in front (ct.1), close L
foot to R in rear and raise heels
(ct.2), lower heels with the
weight of the body on the R foot
(ct.3). The knees are slightly
bent before raising the heels.
This
may be executed forward,
backward, obliquely forward
and backward, sideward right
and left.
 Three-step turn
o step R (ct. 1) turn and step L(ct.
2); turn and step R (ct. 3); close
L to R (ct. 1); pause = 1M
SWAY BALANCE
The first step is usually done obliquely
forward, cts. 1, 2, the cross-step is done
sideward (ct. 3). The succeeding step is done
obliquely backward (ct. 2) and the last two
counts are done in front, in place. Arms open
from the first position to the fourth position R or L
arms high. Kumintang R (L) hand when pointing
with L (R) foot on cts. 2, 3 of the second
measure.
Sway balance with a point- step R, cross step
L /step R, point L (1, 2 3 1 2, 3) = 2M
Sway balance with a brush - step R, cross
step L /step R, brush L (1, 2 3 1 2, 3) = 2M
Sway balance with a close- step R, cross step
L/step R, close L (1, 2 3 1 2, 3) = 2M
Sway balance with a hop - step R, cross step L
/step R, raise L, hop (1, 2 3 1, 2, 3) = 2M
Sway balance with a raise - step R, cross step
L /step R, raise L (1, 2 3 1 2, 3) = 2M
Sway balance with a waltz - stepR,
crossstepL /stepR,closeL,stepR (1,23123) = 2M