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METALLURGY
In order to prepare pure metal from its ore following steps can be done
1. Crushing and Grinding 2. Concentration or Dressing of the ore
3. Oxidation (conc ore into reducible form) 4. Reduction of the ore to metal
5. purification and refining of metal

1. Crushing and Grinding : instruments: Jaw Crushers, Ball mills, Stamp mills

2. Concentration or Dressing of the ore : The following process are employed

A. Electromagnetic separation: Principle : basing on magnetic nature of ore or

impurities
Ex: Tinstone (SnO2 – Non Magnetic) its Impurity Wolframite (FeWO4 or
(Fe,Mn)WO4 –magnetic
Chromite ore (FeO.Cr2O3 – Magnetic, impurity (SiO2 – silicious impurity – non-
magnetic
Fe2O3 ( Haematite), Fe3O4(magnetite), and MnO2 (Pyrolusite) are purified .

B. Levigation or Gravity Separation or Hydraulic separators:

Principle: density difference
SnO2 ( Tinstone), Fe2O3 ( Haematite), FeO .Cr2O3( Chromite ore), are purified
Two methods are used 1. Wilfley table method : for Sn,As,Sb
2. Hydraulic Classifier ; Fe, Cu, Au

C. Leaching or hydrometallurgy or wet process: Principle : Solubility difference

X. Baeyers process: Al2O3 soluble in NaOH(leaching agent) à NaAlO2, impurities

are not soluble

Y. Halls process : Al2O3 soluble in Na2CO3 (leaching agent) à NaAlO2, impurities

are not soluble

Z. Mac-Arthur forest process or Cyanide process:for Ag, Au

Ag/Au + NaCN (leaching agent) +H2O + O2 (air) à
Na  Ag / Au ( CN ) 2  + NaOH
↓ − − − − Zn − − − > Ag / Au + Na2  Zn ( CN )4 

D. Froth Flotation: Priciple: Wett-ability, for low grade sulphide ore’s( Cu,Fe,Zn, and
Pb sulphide ores( ZnS( Zinc blende), PbS( Galena), Cu2S.Fe2S3 or CuFeS2(copper iron
pyrites)
Frothers: pine oil or camphor oil
Collectors: Na or K – ethyl xanthante ( makes water repellent)
Activators:CuSO4 , Deactivators: NaCN or KCN or Na2CO3.
PbS contains ZnS and FeS2 as a impurity, NaCN and Na2CO3 act as depressing agents for
ZnS and FeS2 ( these are not attached to the foam).
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CuSO4 activate ZnS only ( out of ZnS and FeS2). FeS2 separate out (remained in the
container).

E. Hand picking: principle: Principle: different particle size

F. Liquation: Principle: if ore melting point is less than pure metal(M.PMetal <M.PImpurities)
For Sn,Sb, and Zn, To remove Pb from Zn-Ag alloy
Impure Sn(Tin) contains Cu,Fe,W as impurities, on heating Sn melts and collected in
Cast iron vessel, the metal obtained from this method is called Pig – Tin

3. Oxidation: Two methods are conducted in reverbiratory furnace.

A.Calcination: Heating of the ore in absence of air or limited supply of air

For Carbonates and Oxide ore’s only ( Mg, Ca,Pb,Fe,Cu,Zn carbonate ores are calcined)
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 CuCO3 .Cu (OH )2 (Malachite) → CuO + CO2
2 Fe2 O3 .3H 2O (limonite) → Fe2 O3 + H 2 O Al2O3 .2 H 2O ( Bauxite) → Al2 O3 + H 2 O

B. Roasting: Heating of the ore in excess of air

For low grade sulphide ore’s only
At moderate temperature: Oxides and Sulphate’s are formed
PbS + O2 → PbO + SO2 PbS + O2 → PbSO4
At High Temepature: only Oxide’s are formed
ZnS + O2 → ZnO + SO2

C. Self reduction or auto reduction or air reduction:: Free supply of air

Pb, Sb,Cu, and Hg Suphide ore’s are directed converted into Metals.
PbS + O2 → Pb + SO2 HgS(cinnabar)+O2 → Hg+SO 2

4. Reduction:
A. Smelting: Heating of the ore to high temperature using Flux is called smelting
In order to remove acidic or basic impurities present in the ore, 3rd substance is added,
the 3rd substance is called flux,
Flux’s are two types , Acidic Flux (Non-Metal Oxides SiO2 , P2O5 , B2O3 ) and Basic
Flux(Metallic-Oxides) CaO, MgO, Fe2O3 )
Slag : Flux + Impurity (infusible acidic or basic impurity)
Extraction of Cu : from Cu-Fe pyrites on roasting gives
CuFeS2 + O2 → Cu2 S + 2 FeS
↓ Cu(Bassimer convertor) ↓→ FeO
FeO(Basic impurity) + SiO 2 → FeSiO3 (Slag)
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B. Reduction by metallic halides:

Kroll process: TiCl4 (Vapors) + 2 Mg → Ti ( Sponge) + MgCl2
Davill's process: Cr2 O3 + C ( Sugar charcoal ) → Cr
Beard and grooks method: V2O5 + Ca → V
ThO2 + Ca 
CaCl2
→ Th

C. Self reduction or auto reduction or air reduction:: Free supply of air

Pb, Sb,Cu, and Hg Suphide ore’s are directed converted into Metals.
PbS + O2 → Pb + SO2 HgS(cinnabar)+O2 → Hg+SO 2

D. CARBON or Carbon Monoxide REDUCTION: THE Metals which are less

electropositive and donot form carbides with carbon are reduced by this method. Ex:
Oxides of Pb,Sn,Fe,Zn.
ZnO + C → Zn + CO Fe 2O3 + C → Fe + CO
Not sutable for Ca, and Mg, first one forms carbides, second one reaction is reversible.
If temperature >7100 C Carbon is best reducing agent, below that CO is good..

E. Electrolytic reduction: Recall down’s , castener , mg Preparation and aluminothermic

process.

F. Hydrometallurgy: According to Electrochemical process : Malachite

G. Amalgamation Process: Fro noble metals( Au,Ag,Pt,Pd)

Ore + Hg → Amalgam 
Distilation
→ Hg (Vapors )
↓→ Metal

5. Purification:
a. Mond’s process or carbonyl Process: For Nickele (Ni)
Ni(impure) + CO → Ni (CO) 4 
1800
→ Ni ( Pure) + CO

b. Van-Arkel Process: For ultra pure metals (Boron, Silicon, Ti, Zn, Hf, Th)
Impure metal ( M.P. less) is converted into volatile compound, impurities donot
Ti(impure) + I 2 
5230
→ TiI 4 
17000
→ Ti ( Pure) + I 2

C. Poling: For Cu, Zn

If Oxide impurities are present, then molten mixture is stirred with green poles of wood,
green poles release hydrocarbons which reduce the Oxide
CuO + CH 4  → Cu + Co2 + H 2 O

D. Zone Refining: or Fractional Distillation:Principle: For Semi conductors

The impure molten metal on gradual cooling will deposit crystals of pure metal
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E.Softening Process: Pb –metal contains the impurities of Sn,As,Sb,Bi,Cu,Zn,Ag, hence

it is harder, removing of these metals is called softening process.

F. Parke’s Process: Principle : Ag is more soluble in Zn (Solubility Based)

After softening process, Pb contains Ag-impurity, hence it is called Argentiferrous lead
or commercial Pb.
Removing of Ag from Pb is called desilverisation of lead and is done by Park’s Process
Pb − Ag + 1% Zn → Ag − Zn + Pb → Cooling
Pb(P ure)
G. Fractional distillation: For volatile metals(Zn,Cd,Hg) (solid à Vapors) as non-
volatile impurities and vice-versa.
Impure Zn or Spelter or Commercial Zinc contains Pb,As,Fe and Cd
Melting points : Fe> Pb>Zn>Cd.
Zn − Cd (Mixture) →
Fractional distillation
Zn(P ure)
Ag − Zn( Mixture) →
Fractional distillation
Ag (P ure)

H.Electrolytic Reduction: Al,Cr,Sn,Pb,Cu,Ag,Au

Anode Cathode Electrolyte
1. Cu Impure Metal Cu – Sheet CuSO4 + Small Qty H2SO4
2. Ag do Ag-Sheet AgNO3 + ‘’’’’’’’’’ HNO3
3. Au do Au- sheet PbSiF6 + H2SiF6 (8-10%)
Anode mud contains : Al, Pd,Ag,Au
Impurities : Fe,Ni,Zn
Cu : 99.9% Pure

J.Cupellation: Impure metal is heated in oval shaped vessel, impurities are Oxidised
I. Zn-Ag Alloy distillation == Ag obtained but contains Pb impurity
II. Au from Auriferrous quarty and alluvial deposits contains “Pb” impurity

K. Bassemer’s Process or Bessimerisation:

The instrument is lined with acidic and basic lining
Impurities are converted into Oxide’s , These Oxide impurities reacts with Flux and
forms Metal Vapors or Slag
Steel from Cast Iron: C,Si,P,S, and Mn-impurites are converted into their Oxide’s,
SO2 (Vapors), Co burns with Blue flame, SiO2, MnO,and P2O5 reacts with Flux
P2 O5 + CaO ( Basic Flux) → Ca3 ( PO4 ) 2 (Slag )
MnO + SiO 2 ( Acidic Flux) → MnSiO3 (Slag )

L. Liquation: Principle: if ore melting point is less than pure metal

(M.PMetal <M.PImpurities)
For Sn,Sb, and Zn, To remove Pb from Zn-Ag alloy
Impure Sn(Tin) contains Cu,Fe,W as impurities, on heating Sn melts and collected in
Cast iron vessel, the metal obtained from this method is called Pig – Tin

M.Puddling Process: Wrought iron from Cast Iron using Fe2O3,

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Impurities reacts with Fe2O3, and Fe is obtained

Extraction of Cu:
1. Smelting or Pyrometallurgy 2. Hydrometallurgy 3. Roasting (impurities : S,As,Sb-
Oxides) 4. Bassemarisation 5. refining: (poling or electrolytic refining or wet process)
Blister Copper: Cu2 S + 2Cu2O → 6Cu + SO2 , (Cu = 96-98%, Sn,Pb,Ni,Zn,Ag,Au)

Extraction of Ag:
1. Mac-Arthur forest process or Cyanide Process 2. Froth Flotation 3.refining(
Cupellation or electrolytic reduction or desilverisation or Pattinson’s process (M.PAg
=3030, M.PPb=3270, Molten Argentiferrous lead on cooling gives Silver) or Parke’s
Process

EXTRACTION OF Zn:
1, Froth Flotation 2.Calcination and Roasting 3. Carbon or Co reduction
(Belgian Process, Vertical retort or New jerssy process) 4. Purification (liquation and
Fractional Distillation)
2. Electrolytic reduction (The impure Zn = Speltor)

Extration of Iron:
1.Magnetic Separation 2. Calcination and Roasting 3. Smelting(Blast Furnace)
Pig iron or Cast Iron: most impure(2.5% Carbon, and Si,P,S,Mn)
Wrought Iron: Purest Form (0.5% impurities), Steel: Carbon: 0.5 to 1.5% ,and Cr,Ni,Mn